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Minhast: Difference between revisions
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{{Infobox language | {{Infobox language | ||
|name = Minhast | |name = Minhast | ||
|nativename = | |nativename = Minhastim Kirim | ||
|pronunciation = | |creator = User:Anyar | ||
| | |pronunciation = 'min.hast | ||
|setting = Earth, [[wikipedia:North Pacific |North Asian Pacific ]] | |||
|states = Minhay | |states = Minhay | ||
|speakers = 26,232,430 | |speakers = 26,232,430 | ||
|date = 2005 | |date = 2005 | ||
|familycolor = panlaffic | |familycolor = panlaffic | ||
|fam1 = | |fam1 = Nahenic | ||
| | |fam2 = Shakhtabaric | ||
| | |fam3 = Neino-Minhaic | ||
| | |nation = Minhastim Karak | ||
|scripts = * [[wikipedia:Abugida|Native Abugida (Širkattarnaft)]] | |||
* [[wikipedia:Hangeul|Hangul]] | |||
* [[wikipedia:Hanzi|Mandarin (Hanzi)]] | |||
* [[w:Latin script|Latin (Ammerkast System]] | |||
}} | }} | ||
{{Featured | |||
|featured banner=Sapim kirim išpidustittuytammēru. Wahēk, kirim wahepraħmahan, kantašmahan, markakramaku, wahēk ezzakennemaru wammīn. }} | |||
<br/><br/> | |||
== Introduction == | == Introduction == | ||
[[File:Map of the Twelve Speakers of Minhay.jpg|thumb|Map of the Twelve Speakers of Minhay]] | |||
Minhast '' (Minhastim kirim'', lit. ''"Minhast-speak")'' is the spoken language of what was formerly the Republic of Minhay, now officially known as the ''Minhastim Karak'', "The Tribal Abode of the Minhast Nation". Minhast boasts a robust speech community of nearly 28 million people, approximately three million of them living in expatriate communities, with the largest concentrations residing in the Ming Empire, the Kingdom of Koguryeo, the Rajahnate of Kirmai, the Sultunate of Daligan, Italy, Australia, and Canada. Significant numbers also exist in other members of the European Union, principally in the Scandinavian nations Sweden and Norway, followed closely by France and the United Kingdom. Originally there was a sizable community in the United States, concentrated in New York, but internal political developments, including the rise of xenophobia and nativism, have caused many to either return to the Minhastim Karak, or disperse to other lands. | |||
The language is divided into two major branches, Upper Minhast and Lower Minhast, each of which is divided into several smaller dialects, such as the Salmon Speaker variant of the Upper Minhast dialect, and the Osprey Speaker variant of the Lower Minhast dialect. The subject of Minhast dialectology has sparked much research and controversy; more details on the research of dialectology may be found in [[Minhast/Dialectology|Minhast Dialectology]] | |||
Located just 1,232 km from northeast Japan, this Northeast Asian language bears few if any similarities with its nearest neighbors, the former Yamato Empire (Japan), the Kingdom of Koguryeo (Korea) and Ainu Moshir(the Ainu Democratic Federation). Two other languages in the island nation, [[Peshpeg]] and [[Ín Duári]] (Golahát), both of which are moribund, are also unrelated; any similarities existing between the two languages and Minhast are due to areal features, with Minhast as the dominant influence. Linguists investigated possible relationships with the Altaic and Native North American languages, but failed to find any conclusive evidence. Words from Paleosiberian languages, principally Ainu, Nivkh and Chutchki, appear in the lexicon, however these have been identified as loanwords, albeit some of the loans appear to be very old, e.g. Minhast ''siħ'' ("trace") vs Nivkh ''zif'' ("tracks"). | |||
Minhast | For these reasons, Minhast had long been classified as a language isolate. However, in a breakthrough study by Ming Wei and Jaeng Tae-Moon at the Department of Linguistics in Beijing Imperial University discovered shared features between Minhast, the Northwest Pacific language [[Nankôre]], and the Native American language [[Nahónda]], the latter two languages also having been classified as language isolates. These languages have thus been grouped together into a language family called Nahenic, from the reconstructed form ''*nāhen'', meaning "people". Fossilized verbalizer morphemes affixed to body parts, the relatively intact preservation of the form of the Causative affix and its relative position in each language's verbal template, and cognate sets and sound change correspondences demonstrated these far-flung languages as having a common ancestry. A major impediment to discovering Minhast's relationship to other languages was hampered by the paucity of literature on Nankôre; it was through the extensive documentation of this language by Brian Mills, from the Department of Indian Anthropology and Linguistics at the University of North Carolina that provided the material needed to link Minhast with Nankôre and Nahónda. Dialectal analysis conducted by Napayshni Tashunka of the University of the Lakota Nation has further contributed to the reconstruction of the Nahenic language family, particularly with data gathered from the Stone Speaker dialect, a divergent dialect which he argues should be classified as a separate language under a larger grouping, the Minhastic branch. | ||
Minhast is | Typologically, Minhast is an ergative, polysynthetic language. Verbal morphology is highly aggluginative and performs noun incorporation and other complex valence operations. Unmarked word order is SOV. Ergativity surfaces both at the morphologic and syntactic levels. Both its ergative<ref>The overwhelming majority of ergative languages display some nominative-accusative characteristics. This feature is called split ergativity. Minhast is unusual from a morphological standpoint in that the split seems to be absent throughout its grammar, save for a split appearing in the third person inaniminate pronominal affixes in transitive verbs, and in possessive constructions. However, looking more closely at the rest of the pronominal agreement affixes, the segment corresponding to agents/possessors shows no difference with that of the absolutive pronominal affixes for intransitive verbs. This provides evidence that Minhast does possess split ergativity, the split manifesting in the pronominal agreement affixes. Splits in ergative languages are language-specific: some languages display nominative-accusative alignment based on tense-aspect features, others in the semantics of the NP (particularly along animacy lines), and others in pronominal agreement markers, as in the case of Minhast.<br/><br/> | ||
Classical Minhast provides the most conclusive evidence that split ergativity was prevalent in the pronominal agreement markers; a submorpheme -i- is consistently found in the agent segment of the portmanteau affixes throughout the majority of first and second persons, with a couple exhibiting tripartite alignment. This submorpheme originally occurred in the patient segment in Old Minhast inscriptions, but this submorpheme migrated to the agent segment due to various sound changes, transforming the formerly unmarked agent segment into a marked nominative. The marked nominative form also occurred in intransitive verbs, thus split ergativity in Minhast can be ultimately traced to the agreement affixes, even though the submorpheme was lost due to further phonological reductions by the end of Early Modern Period.</ref> and polysynthetic characteristics have generated much academic research in comparative and theoretical linguistics. | |||
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Word order is SOV. In simple sentence, this word order is free, although the verb rarely deviates from its clause-final position. Deviation from the unmarked SOV word order is used for discourse purposes; an argument that is to be focused is fronted to the head of the clause. For compound and complex sentences, the verb is obligatorily fixed in clause-final position, but the other arguments of the clause, core, oblique, and sentential complements, still display free word order. | Word order is SOV. In simple sentence, this word order is free, although the verb rarely deviates from its clause-final position. Deviation from the unmarked SOV word order is used for discourse purposes; an argument that is to be focused is fronted to the head of the clause. For compound and complex sentences, the verb is obligatorily fixed in clause-final position, but the other arguments of the clause, core, oblique, and sentential complements, still display free word order. | ||
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== Phonology and Orthography == | |||
== Phonology == | |||
=== Phonemic Inventory === | === Phonemic Inventory === | ||
The following chart contains the consonants in the Minhast phonology. | The following chart contains the consonants in the Minhast phonology. Dialectal variants are marked with an asterisk (*): | ||
<div style="text-align: center;"> | <div style="text-align: center;"> | ||
| Line 48: | Line 64: | ||
| n | | n | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| Line 59: | Line 75: | ||
| | | | ||
| k g | | k g | ||
| | | q* | ||
| | | ʔ | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| Line 67: | Line 83: | ||
| f | | f | ||
| s z | | s z | ||
| ʃ | | ʃ | ||
| | | x ɣ* | ||
| χ | | χ* | ||
| | | | ||
|h | |h | ||
|ħ | |ħ* | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Approximants | ! Approximants | ||
| Line 104: | Line 110: | ||
| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Lateral | ! Lateral | ||
| | | | ||
| l | | l | ||
| Line 116: | Line 122: | ||
</div> | </div> | ||
The phonemes /q/ and /χ/ are found only in the Seal and Wolf Speaker dialects. These phonemes occur in only a handful of words; their origin is unknown, although an Eskimoan-Aleutian language, most likely from Central Siberian Yup'ik source, has been proposed. The Wolf Speakers acquired these phonemes from contact with the Seal Speakers, and they are found almost exclusively in words of Seal Speaker origin, although some of these phonemes have seeped into words originally of Salmonic origin, e.g. /qaraq/ instead of expected Salmonic /karak/, particularly in the Wolf Speaker northwestern and western regions adjoining Seal Speaker Country. | |||
{{Minhast_Vowels_IPA}} | The Seal Speaker, Wolf Speaker, Horse Speaker and Gull Speaker dialects have either acquired or developed /ɣ/ or [ɣ]. The origin of this phone in the Seal Speaker dialect is unknown, and occurs in only a handful of words, nevertheless it is phonetically distinct. Again, a possible Central Siberian Yup'ik source has been hypothesized. In the Horse Speaker dialect,the phone [ɣ] occurs as a result of assimilation of /rx/ clusters; however the phone has not acquired phonemic status. In the Gull Speaker dialect, /ɣ/ evolved as a merger of /rg/ and /gy/ and has become a distinct phoneme. A notable example is ''Anyāğ'' for the Stone Speaker city Āhan Yarg, but it is also noticeable in words originally beginning with V-rg- sequences, e.g. ''irgum'' → ''ğum'' "nail" (c.f. Salmon Speaker ''argunni'' "nail"). | ||
The phoneme /f/ is a minor phoneme in non-Stone Speaker dialects and never occurs word-initially. Its occurrence is most noticeable in the nominalizer ''=naft'', although in some dialects, particularly the Lower Minhast dialects, [ħ] has started replacing /f/. In the Gull Speaker dialect, it is /x/ that has replaced /f/ in its entire lexicon, including in the nominalizer ''=naft'', now realized as ''=naxt''. The Stone Speaker dialect, however, has preserved /f/, allowing it even in word-inital position; moreover, it occurs in high frequency, perhaps as a result of influence from a substratum language. | |||
The phone /ħ/ is a minor phoneme in the Upper Minhast dialects, occurring most often in the Horse Speaker dialect, although it too occurs in the Salmonic dialects, albeit in smaller frequencies. In the Horse Speaker dialect, /ħ/ preceded by a vowel causes the vowel to lengthen, whereas no such lengthening occurs in the few Salmonic words the phoneme exists. The Salmonic dialects allow /ħ/ in initial position, as in the noun /'ħan:u/, a hawk endemic to northeastern Minhay. Between the Salmonic and Stone Speaker dialects, initial /ħ/ consistently occurs in Salmonic words with Stone Speaker cognates starting with an initial /f/. | |||
Otherwise, the phone is treated by the other dialects as an allophone of /h/, and occurs frequently under predictable phonotactic rules, such as when /h/ geminates, e.g. ''saħħat'' "sharp-edged object", or certain sequences resulting from morphological alternations, as in ''-hyi-'' where the /ħ/ surfaces and geminates, and also triggers the glide /j/ to change to /i:/, or /ɪ/ in CVCC syllables, e.g. ''wandiraħħ'''i'''ššabu'' ("She began to cry, and still is"), not ''*wandira'''ħy'''iššabu'. | |||
{{Minhast_Vowels_IPA}} | |||
<br/> | <br/> | ||
Vowel length in Minhast is distinctive. Devoiced vowels occur as allophones frequently, based on regular phonotactic rules: | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Line 128: | Line 145: | ||
! Devoiced | ! Devoiced | ||
|- | |- | ||
! a | ! /a/ | ||
| ā | | /a:/ <ā> | ||
| | | [ạ] | ||
|- | |||
! /ɛ/ | |||
| /e:/ <ē> | |||
| [ẹ] | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! /ɪ/ | ||
| | | -- | ||
| | | [ị] | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! /i/ | ||
| ī | | /i:/ <ī> | ||
| | | -- | ||
|- | |- | ||
! u | ! /u/ | ||
| ū | | /u:/ <ū> | ||
| | | [ụ] | ||
|} | |} | ||
=== Stress/Accent === | |||
Stress in Minhast is syllable-timed; it is not a pitch-accent language. | |||
Assuming a word contains at least three syllables, accent can be reliably predicted to fall on one of the last three syllables. With only a few exceptions, stress always falls on the last heavy syllable, defined as a (C)VVC or (C)VCC syllable. Otherwise, the accent falls on the antepenult. The same is true for two-syllable words: the last heavy syllable receives primary stress. | |||
One noticeable exception to this rule: the endoynm "Minhast", pronounced /'min.hast/, not the expected /min.'hast/. However, when clitics attach to the noun, stress becomes regular. | |||
=== Syllabic Structure and Phonemic Interactions === | === Syllabic Structure and Phonemic Interactions === | ||
| Line 155: | Line 184: | ||
<li>Epenthesis</li> | <li>Epenthesis</li> | ||
<li>Voicing/Devoicing</li> | <li>Voicing/Devoicing</li> | ||
<li>Aspiration</li> | |||
</ul> | </ul> | ||
| Line 164: | Line 194: | ||
<li>No Minhast word can have an initial consonant cluster. After any initial consonant cluster results from one or more of the possible morphophonemic alternations described below, an epenthetic is automatically appended to the head of the word to form the permissible iCC- pattern.</li> | <li>No Minhast word can have an initial consonant cluster. After any initial consonant cluster results from one or more of the possible morphophonemic alternations described below, an epenthetic is automatically appended to the head of the word to form the permissible iCC- pattern.</li> | ||
<li>An epenthetic vowel is always inserted between two syllables if combining the syllables results in a triconsonantal cluster. The default epenthetic vowel is , but the other 3 vowels may also be used, depending on multiple factors (e.g. vowel harmony, an underlying quiescent initial vowel as part of the attached morpheme, etc.) </li> | <li>An epenthetic vowel is always inserted between two syllables if combining the syllables results in a triconsonantal cluster. The default epenthetic vowel is ''-i-'', but the other 3 vowels may also be used, depending on multiple factors (e.g. vowel harmony, an underlying quiescent initial vowel as part of the attached morpheme, etc.) </li> | ||
<li>Minhast has a strong tendency to form intermedial clusters | <li>Minhast has a strong tendency to form intermedial clusters, providing that Rules #1-#3 are observed. If necessary, an epenthetic vowel may be added before or after the syllable to create these syllabic patterns, e.g. ''uš<span style="text-decoration:underline;color:blue;font-weight:bold">u</span>ntahu'' "You hit it." vs. ''ušnu'' "He hit it." (from the verb root ''ušn-'' "to hit").</li> | ||
<li>The tendency to form intermedial consonant clusters creates complex assimilation interactions that nevertheless are predictable and almost always regular. These interactions are illustrated in | <li>The tendency to form intermedial consonant clusters creates complex assimilation interactions that nevertheless are predictable and almost always regular. These interactions are illustrated in the following table: | ||
{{Minhast_Phonotactics_Template}} | {{Minhast_Phonotactics_Template}} | ||
</li> | |||
<li>Vowels are classified according to a "weak-strong" gradient, where the "strong" vowels are more resistant to syncope than neighboring "weak(er)" vowels. All long vowels are by definition "strong", so the weak-strong gradient really applies to short vowels (see table "Vowel Gradients"). | |||
</li> | </li> | ||
<li>The shape of a -CVCVC- syllable may contract either to a -CCVC- or -CVCC- pattern, depending on the strength gradients of the vowels with respect to one another. The -CaCaC- syllable pattern is the only one that does not contract. Syllables consisting of the same vowels may appear in either -CCVC- or -CVCC- patterns; the pattern they resolve to is influenced by interactions from surrounding syllables. These contractions are summarized in the following table:<br/><br/> | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible mw-collapsible" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible mw-collapsible" | ||
|+'''Vowel Gradients''' | |||
! Initial Pattern | ! Initial Pattern | ||
! Final Contraction | ! Final Contraction | ||
| Line 234: | Line 262: | ||
<li>Although inflectional morphemes do not experience syncope, they still may experience phonological changes in the form of metathesis and devoicing.</li> | <li>Although inflectional morphemes do not experience syncope, they still may experience phonological changes in the form of metathesis and devoicing.</li> | ||
<li>Vowel devoicing occurs in | <li>Vowel devoicing occurs in C'VħC, C'VxC', C'VsC', or C'VC' syllables, where C' is any of the unvoiced consonants listed in Table X. </li> | ||
<li>The initial consonant in syllables with devoiced vowels are strongly aspirated.</li> | |||
<li> Liquids and nasals devoice in the word-final syllabic patterns CVC'l, CVC'r, CVC'm, and CVC'n, where C' is any of the unvoiced consonants listed in Table X. </li> | |||
<li>Two consecutive syllables with the pattern CVħCVħ resolves to CVCCVħ, due to the difficulty of pronouncing the allophone in two consecutive closed syllables. Additionally, the vowel in the previous syllable may be devoiced if its adjacent consonants are voiceless, as in Example A, where the verb root vowel -a- which occurs the voiceless consonants -k- and -h- devoices to -ạ-. Note also the epenthetic vowel -i- appearing between the verb root and the 1st person incl. pl. affix ,-ħk- e.g.: | <li>Two consecutive syllables with the pattern CVħCVħ resolves to CVCCVħ, due to the difficulty of pronouncing the allophone in two consecutive closed syllables. Additionally, the vowel in the previous syllable may be devoiced if its adjacent consonants are voiceless, as in Example A, where the verb root vowel -a- which occurs the voiceless consonants -k- and -h- devoices to -ạ-. Note also the epenthetic vowel -i- appearing between the verb root and the 1st person incl. pl. affix ,-ħk- e.g.: | ||
| Line 247: | Line 279: | ||
</ol> | </ol> | ||
== | === Orthography === | ||
Minhast has three official writing systems, the indigenous ''Širkattarnaft'' script that predominates the country today; and the Hanzi and Hangeul scripts, which historically served for international trade and commerce, still continues that function today. A Latin-derived script, the ''Ammerkast'' system, is restricted primarily to Western audiences, particularly in academia. Recently, it has seen increasing use in popular media exported to countries using the Latin script. Other scripts, such as the Arabic and Cyrillic systems, are used only in niche areas. | |||
Historically, the first script to be used was the Chinese ''Hanzi'' writing system, imported into the country by traders from the Ming Empire and the Kingdom of Koguryeo. The writing system was not used to transcribe the Minhast language; correspondence by Minhast writers was in conducted in Mandarin instead, as the Minhast had trouble adapting Hanzi to represent their highly polysynthetic language. | |||
The first Austronesian traders, mainly from the Philippine kingdoms of the Rajahnate of Kirmai and the Sultunate of Daligan, brought with them their Brahmic derived script, the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baybayin ''Baybayin'']. This script, an abugida, was better suited in transcribing the Minhast language, and it was adapted and modified by the Minhast to what would later become today's ''Širkattarnaft''. | |||
Hangul arrived considerably late after its creation by the Korean monarch King Sejong of the Joseon dynasty. It was introduced into Minhay in the early 17th century to the Gull Speakers. The Gull Speakers had been using a modified, cursive form of the ''Širkattarnaft'' for a few centuries, but it started to be used in the Gull Speaker city and principal trade center, Kissamut. Just as in the case of the Baybayin, the Hangul characters were modified by the Gull Speakers to include sounds not found in the Korean language. As the Gull Speakers wrote the ''Sirkattarnaft'' in a cursive style, the Hangul characters were likewise modified to a cursive style unique to the Gull Speakers. This script, called the ''Gurrēsespir'' (lit. "the hand of Koguryeo"), exists alongside the ''Širkattarnaft'' and enjoys great popularity in the Gull Speaker prefectures, given the Korean influence on Gull Speaker society. | |||
Although Minhay had entered the modern era relatively late in the 1980's, the ''Širkattarnaft'' has been attributed to the high literacy rate of the people that has existed since the mid-1700's, today approaching 95% in most estimates. The retention of Hanzi and the Gull Speaker variant of Hangul is a byproduct of the era's geopolitics: the Minhast, led by both the Gull Speakers and the Salmon Speakers, wished to retain and strengthen their ties to the Sino-sphere as a counterweight to Western colonialists who had repeatedly attacked Minhay in attempt to conquer the region. Official correspondence to the Western nations, even after they ceased hostilities and expressed their desire to normalize relations with Minhay, the Minhast maintained a hostile attitude and would correspond with Western nations using only the Hanzi and Hangul scripts, sent via intermediaries from the Sino-sphere or their Austronesian trade partners. | |||
''' | ==== Native Script - the Širkattarnaft ==== | ||
The ''Širkattarnaft'' is the official script of Minhay, used in governmental and legal documents. It is also the principal script used in media and personal correspondence throughout all the Prefectures. The following graphic shows the present-day standardized ''Baybayin'' from which the modern ''Širkattarnaft'' was derived.: | |||
''' | '''The Baybayin''' | ||
<gallery> | |||
File:Baybayin_alpha.jpg| | |||
</gallery> | |||
''' | Shortly after the adoption of the ''Baybayin'', the Salmon Speakers introduced several modifications. Some of the modifications arose due to the constraints the materials for writing: wood is an abundant resource in Salmon Speaker Country, and knives and metal blades were the principal instruments available for incising the scripts onto this medium. Thus, the curved lines of the ''Baybayin'' characters were either unsuitable or inefficient in writing; the material the Salmon Speakers had favored straight and angular lines, and so they created a straight-incision style. Additionally, the Salmon Speakers added new characters to represent sounds not represented in the original orthography, such as /r/. The script was reorganized such that consonants with the same points of articulation, e.g. all labial consonants, voiced, unvoiced, stops, and fricatives, would be represented by a single character with extensions to represent the different phonemes. Another innovation the Salmon Speakers added was to retain some characters from the older ideographic-logographic script, partly due to their usefulness as a type of shorthand, or due to some conservative/traditionalist influences. These changes eventually led to what has become today's script, know as the ''Širkattarnaft'', which literally means "that which is scratched across a surface". This script is shown in the following graphic: | ||
'''The Širkattarnaft''' | |||
<gallery> | |||
|- | File:Minhast_Script.jpg| | ||
</gallery> | |||
The relationship between the glottal stop in the Baybayin and that of the Širkattarnaft is recognizable. The Širkattarnaft glyph for <d> is actually an inverted form of the Baybayin glyph for <t>. Similarly, the Širkattarnaft glyph for <z> is descended from the Baybayin glyph <s>. Other discernable similarities can be found with the glyphs <l> and <m>. Some phonemes not found in the Tagalog or Ilocano languages were innovated, but these innovations came from a method of deriving additional glyphs from a base glyph from which certain classes of phonemes could be derived. | |||
The Širkattarnaft was modified from the original Baybayin to map a base glyph and its variants to certain related phonemes (e.g. the base glyph <b> and its variants to the labial consonants). For example, the glyphs for the labials <p> and <f> are based on the glyph <b>. Additions of dashes to the base glyph distinguish voiced, unvoiced, and fricatives. This explains why there is less variability in the Širkattarnaft script. The glyphs for the dentals /d/ and /t/ in the Baybayin are represented by two separate glyphs that have no resemblance to each other; in contrast the glyphs in the Širkattarnaft for these same phonemes differ from each other only by the addition of a dash to the base glyph <d> to derive the glyph <t> . As can be seen from the chart, the voiced consonant is assigned the base glyph, and dashes are added to this base glyph for unvoiced and fricatives for a given phonemic class (labials, dentals, aleveolars, etc). | |||
Each glyph of the Širkattarnaft has a default underlying vowel /a/; all other vowels must be marked explicitly attached to the vowel signs (indicated in the lower right-hand corner; the box is simply a representation of where the base glyph would be located). Long vowels are represented by a vertical dash through the diamonds representing the short vowels <u> and <e>, and a horizontal one between the diamonds of the vowel <i>. | |||
The Širkattarnaft, unlike the Baybayin, is written vertically, from right to left. | |||
Some ideographic-logographic elements from an even older script were imported into the Širkattarnaft and include determinatives used to indicate case or even verbal tense. Glyphs for common words, such as conjunctions, connectives, existential particles, and negators were also preserved. Some of these glyphs are combinations of two glyphs, as in the glyph for ''hambin'' ("there is no X"), which is a combination of the negator ''hatāʔ'' and ''matti'' ("there is an X"). The characters for the case clitics ''=(a)ran'' (Dative), ''=ni'' (Benefactive), ''=yar'' (Ablative), ''=par'' (Instrumental), etc. can actually appear before a verb written in the Širkattarnaft, in which case these characters represent the Applicative affixes ''-dut-'', ''-rak-'', ''-raħk-'', ''-ngar-'', respectively. | |||
To see the evolution of the ''Baybayin'' to the Širkattarnaft, the following graphic illustrates how the Širkattarnaft characters map to the corresponding Baybayin characters from which they were derived: | |||
'''Mapping of Širkattarnaft to Baybayin Characters''' | |||
<gallery> | |||
Baybayin_vs_Tašširkantaft.jpg| | |||
</gallery> | |||
==== Hanzi and Hangul Scripts ==== | |||
The Hangul and Hanzi scripts predominate in official correspondence with Minhay's historic allies and trade partners, the Kingdom of Goguryeo and the Ming Empire. Both are also used with other East Asian countries that use them. | |||
The Gull Speakers are the principal group that use these East Asian scripts, as they achieved dominance in international commerce amongst all the other Minhast groups. Mandarin and Korean, and to a lesser extent, Japanese, are both widely taught in Gull Speaker schools as a second language, especially in the Gull Speaker prefectural capital Kissamut. The Salmon Speakers are the second group that use the Hanzi and Hangul systems most often; the scripts are used almost exclusively with their Ainu neighbours, who use the Japanese ''kana'' script, which is virtually unknown to the Minhast; the disastrous Tokugawa Wars, which led to the defeat, occupation, and annexation of over 90% of Honshu and significant swaths of Kyushu by the Goguryeo-Ainu alliance, cut off Minhay from Japan. The isolation of Japan by Goguryeo's effective blockade prevented the importation of the Japanese scripts into Minhay. | |||
==== Ammerkast Script ==== | |||
A variation of the Latin script, called "Ammerkast", is used in for consumption by Western countries and non-Western countries that use a Latin-based writing system. It is derived from the Americanist system, an alternative phonetic system to the IPA, which dominates much Afro-Asiatic and Native North American linguistics. It remains predominant in linguistic publications. It is also found in foreign trade documents and correspondence with Western and Westernized countries. A recent development is its growing use in popular media exported to Western/Westernized countries. | |||
While the Ammerkast system is an adaptation of the Americanist phonetic notation, one innovation is the grapheme <ħ>, which was adopted from IPA. Note the glottal stop <'> is usually not written unless there is a hiatus between two adjacent vowels. | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! | Ammerkast Characters | ||
|- | |- | ||
| a, ā, e, ē, i, ī, u, ū, ('), b,p,f, d, t, g, k,x n, m, l,r, z, s, š,h, ħ, w,y | |||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |||
|=de | |||
|= | == Nouns == | ||
| | |||
=== Gender, Number, and Case Marking === | |||
'''1) Gender:''' | |||
All nouns have an intrinsic gender; the majority are concordant with natural gender, but a significant percentage are discordant. Interestingly, some nouns may have multiple genders, each gender conveying different meanings; these should be considered separate lexical entities. However, nouns do not take affixes, clitics, or other morphemes to mark gender. Instead, cross-reference affixes in the verb identify the gender of the nouns that serve as core arguments of a clause; in contrast, oblique argument, however, do not receive any marking. Thus, gender of each noun must be memorized in order to choose the correct verbal affix, or to identify the gender of a noun serving as an oblique argument. | |||
'''2) Number:''' | |||
Nouns do not inflect for number. Verbal cross-reference affixes (see section below on verbal Pronominal Affixes) can mark number on Ergative and Absolutive noun phrases, but do not provide any information about number for non-core NPs. Speakers must rely on context or use numbers in a ''min'' construction using the formula [number + ''min'' + NP], e.g. ''šānī min redad'' (lit. “two man”) to mark plurality; otherwise the default number is singular. | |||
'''3) Case:''' | |||
Although nouns are not overtly marked for gender or number by inflection or clitics, they do take case marking clitics that attach to the end of the noun or noun phrase. There are two core nominal arguments: the Absolutive which receives zero marking, and the Ergative clitic =''de''. The Genitive derives from the same ''=de'' clitic as the Ergative, and in most declension tables are thus listed as the Ergative-Genitive case. | |||
The Oblique cases are clitics indicating position or direction, or under certain circumstances, a syntactic patient derived from a valence operation. Most of these clitics have corresponding verbal applicative affixes. As they are clitics, morphophonemic alternations occur less frequently with their head NP. | |||
The Vocative case can be divided into two subclasses, the Familiar or Intimate Vocative, and several formal vocative forms that double as honorifics. The Familiar/Intimate Vocative is an actual suffix, grammaticalized from the etymologically related vocative particle ''ayyak'', which still exists, ironically, as a formal vocative. The Oblique cases are clitics indicating position or direction, or under certain circumstances, the semantic or derived direct object. Most of these clitics have corresponding verbal applicative affixes. | |||
==== Ergative and Genitive ==== | |||
The Ergative case is marked with the clitic ''=de''. The Genitive derives from the same clitic as the Ergative, and in most declension tables are thus listed as the Ergative-Genitive case. However, there are several allomorphs where the Ergative and the Genitive diverge in form, as illustrated in the following table: | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|+ '''Allomorphs of the Ergative/Genitive Clitic''' '''''=de''''' | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| | |||
! colspan="4" | Resulting Form | |||
|- | |- | ||
! f, p,k, x, s, š,h | ! Preceding Phoneme(s) | ||
|=te | ! Ergative | ||
|=t | ! Genitive | ||
|=te | ! Genitive + Ergative | ||
|- | |||
!(V)V, g, z | |||
|=de | |||
|=de | |||
|=de | |||
|- | |||
! l,r, n | |||
|=de | |||
|=t | |||
|=te | |||
|- | |||
! f, p,k, x, s, š,h | |||
|=te | |||
|=t | |||
|=te | |||
|- | |- | ||
! m | ! m | ||
| Line 298: | Line 399: | ||
! d | ! d | ||
|=e | |=e | ||
|=te | |=te <br/>=tide | ||
| =te | | =te <br/>=tide | ||
|- | |- | ||
!t | !t | ||
|=te | |=te <br/> =tide | ||
|=te | |=te | ||
|=te | |=te <br/>=tide | ||
|- | |- | ||
!C1C2 | !C1C2 | ||
|=e | |=e <br/>=ide | ||
|=e | |=e | ||
|=e | |=e | ||
|- | |- | ||
! nk | ! nk <br/> ng | ||
|=ide | |=ide | ||
|=ide | |=ide | ||
| Line 317: | Line 418: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! CC | ! CC | ||
| =e | | =e <br/>=ide | ||
| =ide | | =ide | ||
| =e | | =e <br/>=ide | ||
|} | |} | ||
====Vocative==== | |||
The Vocative case, as earlier mentioned, is divided between an intimate form, and several honorific forms. The Intimate Vocative suffix is chiefly reserved to family and close friends in more traditional societies. In more urban societies, chiefly among the City Speakers, adults may use it among colleagues and coworkers. Children and teens typically employ it with same-aged or younger peers. | |||
The Intimate Vocative has several allomorphs: | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
| | ! | ||
! Intimate Vocative | |||
|- | |||
! -C | |||
| -Ce | |||
|- | |||
! -CC | |||
| -CCe, -CCē -CCiye | |||
|- | |||
! -a | |||
| -aye | |||
|- | |||
! -ā | |||
| -ayye | |||
|- | |||
! -e | |||
| -i, -∅ | |||
|- | |||
! -i, -ī | |||
| -iyye | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Case | ! -u, -ū | ||
! Postposition | | -uyye | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Dative | ! -ay | ||
| =(a)ran | | -ayye | ||
|- | |||
! -ey | |||
| -eyye | |||
|- | |||
! -uy | |||
| -uyye | |||
|} | |||
<br/> | |||
The Honorific vocatives forms originated from the age-based social hierarchy in traditional societies, but in Minhay's urban areas, particularly in the capital Aškuan and the military city Yikkam min Akk, they have been re-appropriated; for example, forms originally used for older individuals are now used to de-escalate conflict between an employee and their employer, an individual interacting with law enforcement, etc. The honorific used depends on social and situational context. | |||
The honorifics most often used are ''behet'', used to address elders, ''innāt(u)'' (for males) and ''šūri'' (for females), both of which are used by older people to address young adults outside their social groups. These may be joined to their head nouns in a ''min'' construction, e.g. ''<u>Innātu min</u> Kawwat/<u>Innātu'''m'''</u> Kawwat'' (no exact English equivalent, often translated as "Kawwat, my fine young man..."), or as clitics, ''=behet'' and ''=(i)nnāt(u)''. The clitic ''=behet'' often does not trigger morphophonemic alternations, e.g. ''Urya'''<u>tb</u>'''ehet'' "Madame Uryat" (as opposed to expected ''Urya<u>'''pt'''</u>ehet''). | |||
The honorific ''innātu'' is used exclusively by speakers of Upper Minhast, although this form is often used alongside the ''innāt'' form by speakers of the Lower Minhast dialects too. In Modern Standard Minhast, both forms are used, and the form used is based on personal preference. | |||
The use of ''kazlam'' "friend" as an honorific among same-aged peers has arisen in the urban centers, a usage not found in the Prefectures. It is used even among strangers as a form of social courtesy. | |||
Addressing someone by their tribal affiliation, e.g ''Gāl min Kirmast'' "Horse Speaker", ''Duyyi min Kirmast'' "Salmon Speaker", is common in the Prefectures. When used in the urban centers, especially among same-aged peers, it is used as a means of creating a polite form of social distance, or alternatively, a term of affection among friends from different tribal groups. | |||
====Oblique Cases==== | |||
Position and directional information are marked on the NP by various clitics. A few clitics are used to mark an argument that has been demoted by antipassivation, or by displacement by applicative formation. Some forms are dialectal or rare, such as the Inessive =''kīr/=kir''. The Oblique clitics have two forms, one form with a short medial vowel, and the other with a long medial vowel. Use of both forms are acceptable, but native speakers tend to use the clitics with short vowels when the clitic is preceded by a long vowel, while the converse is true for the clitics forms with long vowels. Highly uncommon postpositions, such as the aforementioned Inessive =''kīr/=kir'' are indicated in the following table with a double asterisk (**). | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|+ '''Postpositional Clitics''' | |||
|- | |||
! Case | |||
! Postposition | |||
|- | |||
! Dative-Allative | |||
| =āran <br/> =(a)ran | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Benefactive | ! Benefactive | ||
| =nī | | =nī <br/> =ni | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Ablative | ! Ablative | ||
| =yār | | =yār <br/> =yar | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Locative | ! Locative | ||
| =kī | | =kī <br/> =ki | ||
|- | |||
! Inessive ** | |||
| =kīr <br/> =kir | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Instrumental | ! Instrumental | ||
| =pār | | =pār <br/> =par | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Comitative | ||
| =kān | | =kān <br/>=kan | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Malefactive | ! Malefactive | ||
| =daħ | | =daħ <br/> =dāħš <br/> =dāš | ||
|- | |||
! Vocative (Intimate) | |||
| =iyye<br/>=ē | |||
|} | |} | ||
Nouns are divided into three | ====Tense-Aspect Marking==== | ||
Interestingly, nouns can receive the same TA marking of verbs. Minhast lacks a copula; instead, two separate NPs are simply juxtaposed, e.g. ''Ruggāyam kaslubekte'' ("Ruggāyam is my dog"). However, if the statement refers to a past or future event, simple juxtaposition cannot convey tense information. Therefore, the NP may be marked with any TA marker, in lieu of a copular verb, as in ''Ruggāyam kaslubekt-ar'' ("Ruggāyam was my dog"). The TA marker could just have easily been added to the first NP as opposed to the second, ''Ruggāyam-ar kaslubekt''; or even both NPs could be marked, ''Ruggāyam-ar kaslubekt-ar''. | |||
=== Noun Stem Types === | |||
Nouns are divided into three types based on the syllabic pattern of the final syllable of the noun. The Type I nouns (also known as “Strong Stem” nouns) are those whose Absolutive forms end in a single consonant, or a short vowel. Additions of a short-vowel clitic do not change the noun stem's final vowel. | |||
Type II nouns are divided into three subtypes, with Absolutive forms ending with the glides ''-ea, -ia'', or ''-ua''. Type II nouns undergo a morphophonemic process whereby the final ''-a'' of the noun stem is dropped and the preceding vowel is automatically lengthened when either a short or a long-vowel case clitic is attached to the noun stem. Additionally, during noun incorporation the entire glide is elided. Examples are as follows for ''marua, yarea'', and ''simmia'', meaning “the 'star' Venus”, “young girl”, and “moonless night”, respectively. | |||
Type III nouns all terminate with either a consonant cluster or gemminate consonnants. If the following clitic that attaches to it has a quiescent vowel, such as the Dative clitic =(a)ran, the quiescent vowel resurfaces to prevent an impermissible CCC pattern, or the epenthetic vowels -i- or -e- is inserted. An additional feature is that these nouns will select the long-vowel forms of case clitics if they do exist. | |||
These nouns are contrasted against the | These nouns are contrasted against the Type I noun ''gāl'' (“horse”). | ||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
|+ '''Noun | |+ '''Noun Stem Types''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! | ||
| Line 372: | Line 536: | ||
! Meaning | ! Meaning | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Type I | ||
| | |gāl | ||
|gal | |gal- | ||
| | | | ||
-gal- | -gal- | ||
|galde, | |galde, galyār | ||
|horse | |horse | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="3"| | ! rowspan="3"| Type II | ||
|marua | |marua | ||
|marū | |marū- | ||
| | | | ||
-mar- | -mar- | ||
| Line 389: | Line 553: | ||
|- | |- | ||
|yarea | |yarea | ||
||yarē | ||yarē- | ||
| | | | ||
-yar- | -yar- | ||
| Line 396: | Line 560: | ||
|- | |- | ||
|simmia | |simmia | ||
|simmī | |simmī- | ||
| | | | ||
-simm- | -simm- | ||
| Line 402: | Line 566: | ||
|moonless night | |moonless night | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="3"| | ! rowspan="3"| Type III | ||
| | |tipr | ||
| | |tipr-, tipri-, tipir- | ||
| | | | ||
-tipr-, -tipir- | |||
|tipirde, tipirkī | |||
|flesh | |||
|- | |- | ||
|niss | |niss | ||
| Line 415: | Line 579: | ||
-niss- | -niss- | ||
|nisside, nissekī | |nisside, nissekī | ||
| | |branch covered by snow | ||
|} | |} | ||
=== | ===Augmentive Nouns=== | ||
Minhast has a productive system of nominal augmentation, based on CVC-reduplication of the first syllable, with the insertion of the infix ''-ra-'', or ''-r-'' if folowed by /a/, into the second syllable resulting from the reduplication. The following example illustrates the basic process of forming the augmentive of ''kaslub'' (dog): | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = kaskaraslub | |||
| IPA = /'kas'karaslub/ | |||
| morphemes = kas~ka~ra~slub | |||
| gloss = dog.CVC~CV~AUG~dog.C~dog | |||
| translation = large dog; Asian mastiff | |||
}} | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | Augmentation is notoriously irregular; many patterns include applying the basic augmentation pattern with the addition of other augmentation-related suffixes. The most common suffixes are ''-an-'', ''-dan-'', and ''-am-''. Other patterns include replacing the ''-CVC-'' with gemination of the medial consonant followed by the ''-ra-/-r-''. The derivation of the augmentative from the word ''kunnay'' (sheath) illustrates this irregular pattern: | ||
! English | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = kunnaray | |||
| IPA = /'kunnaray/ | |||
| morphemes = kun~n~a-r-ay | |||
| gloss = sheath~C~a-AUG-sheath | |||
| translation = scabbard | |||
}} | |||
A very rare form of augmentation, found in words with at least three syllables, is C-reduplication of the last consonant of the second syllable, followed by the remaining syllables of the word. The ''-r(a)-'' affix is absent in this type of augmentation pattern. This augmentation pattern is often, though not always, associated with deriving collective nouns. The augmentation of the Salmon Speaker dialectal word ''minagamāt'' (orca), derives a collective noun: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = minagaggamāt | |||
| IPA = /mina'gag:gamāt/ | |||
| morphemes = minaga~g~gamāt | |||
| gloss = orca~C~orca | |||
| translation = orca school, pod | |||
}} | |||
This pattern is not restricted to the Salmon Speaker dialect. This pattern is occasionally also found in the Horse Speaker dialectal word ''nakkarumāt'' (blood-thornbush) to derive a new word: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = nakkarurrumāt | |||
| IPA = /nak.ka'rur:uma:t/ | |||
| morphemes = nakkaru~r~rumāt | |||
| gloss = blood.thornbush~C~blood.thornbush | |||
| translation = entanglement, dangerous intrigue | |||
}} | |||
===Diminutive Nouns=== | |||
===Interrogative Pronouns=== | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
! English | |||
! Minhast | ! Minhast | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Line 431: | Line 639: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Which | ! Which | ||
| ādan min | | ādan; ādan min, adānim | ||
|- | |- | ||
! When | ! When | ||
| Line 437: | Line 645: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Why | ! Why | ||
| širekka | | bakran, širekka | ||
|- | |- | ||
! How | |||
| bakpār | |||
|- | |||
! Where at | ! Where at | ||
| nakkī | | nakkī | ||
| Line 455: | Line 666: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! To which location | ! To which location | ||
| | | nakkīdarrān | ||
|- | |- | ||
! How many/how much | ! How many/how much | ||
| bitakku | | yuški, bitakku | ||
|} | |} | ||
===Quantifiers=== | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
| Line 473: | Line 683: | ||
| rem | | rem | ||
suppī min<br/> | suppī min<br/> | ||
suppim <br/> | |||
suppum (Upper Minhast) <br/> | |||
sumpim (Stone Speaker) <br/> | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Most | ! Most | ||
| Line 486: | Line 698: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Many | ! Many | ||
| san | | addua <br/> san (Lower Minhast) | ||
| sam | | addum <br/> sam (Lower Minhast) | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Both | ! Both | ||
| Line 509: | Line 721: | ||
=== Pronominal Forms === | === Pronominal Forms === | ||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Line 520: | Line 730: | ||
! Absolutive | ! Absolutive | ||
! Oblique | ! Oblique | ||
! | ! Attributive | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 1st Sg. | ! 1st Sg. | ||
| Line 531: | Line 741: | ||
| tahte | | tahte | ||
| taħ | | taħ | ||
| tah- | | tah- <br/> taħ- | ||
| -taħ | | -taħ | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Line 541: | Line 751: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3rd Feminine Sg. | ! 3rd Feminine Sg. | ||
| | | iššide <br/> išše | ||
| | | išši | ||
| | | iššē- <br/> iššey- | ||
| - | | -šši <br/> -išši | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3rd Neuter Animate Sg. | ! 3rd Neuter Animate Sg. | ||
| šemet | | šemet | ||
| šea | | šea | ||
| šē- | | šē- <br/> šey- | ||
| -šea | | -šea | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Line 555: | Line 765: | ||
| mēde | | mēde | ||
| mea | | mea | ||
| mē- | | mē- <br/> mey- | ||
| -mea | | -mea | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Line 564: | Line 774: | ||
| hak | | hak | ||
| hak- | | hak- | ||
| - | | -(h)akkem | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 1st Pl Exclusive | ! 1st Pl Exclusive | ||
| Line 573: | Line 783: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2nd Pl. | ! 2nd Pl. | ||
| taħtemt(e) | | taħtemt(e) <br/> tahemt(e) | ||
| taħtem | | taħtem <br/>tahem | ||
| - | | taħtem- <br/> tahem- <br/> taħm- | ||
| -taħtem- | | -taħtem <br/> -tahem <br/> -taħm | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3rd Masc./Common Pl | ! 3rd Masc./Common Pl | ||
| Line 584: | Line 794: | ||
| -kem | | -kem | ||
|- | |- | ||
<!-- | |||
! 3rd Fem. Pl. | ! 3rd Fem. Pl. | ||
| wext(e) | | wext(e) | ||
| wexī | | wexī <br/> weššī | ||
| wex- | | wex- | ||
| (n/a) | | (n/a) | ||
|- | |- | ||
--> | |||
! 3rd Neut. Anim. Pl. | ! 3rd Neut. Anim. Pl. | ||
| sešt(e) | | sešt(e) | ||
| Line 599: | Line 811: | ||
| maħt(e) | | maħt(e) | ||
| maħ | | maħ | ||
| mah- | | mah- <br/> maħ- | ||
| -maħ | | -maħ | ||
|} | |} | ||
<br/> | |||
The attributive forms are derived from the Absolutive and are suffixed to NPs, functioning similar to copulas in other languages, as in the example below: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Minhastek. | |||
| IPA = /'minhastɛk/ | |||
| morphemes = minhast-ek | |||
| gloss = minhast.person-1S.ABS | |||
| translation = I am Minhast. | |||
}} | |||
Tense, and sometime aspect markers may '''precede''' the attributive suffix: | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {{Gloss | ||
|- | |phrase = Annuakarabek. | ||
| IPA = /an:uwa'karabɛk/ | |||
| morphemes = annuak-ar-ab-ek | |||
| gloss = warrior-PST-IMPF-1S.ABS | |||
| translation = I used to be a warrior/I was once a warrior. | |||
}} | |||
=== Demonstrative Pronouns === | |||
Minhast demonstrative pronouns make a four-way distinction. As attributives, they precede their heads, joined by the connective ''min'' to the NP they modify. They may also be cliticized to their heads. The cliticized forms tend to be used in the Lower Minhast and City Speaker dialects, particularly in informal speech. | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2"| | ! rowspan="2"| | ||
! colspan="2" | Independent | ! colspan="2" | Independent | ||
! rowspan="2"| Attributive | ! rowspan="2"| Attributive | ||
! colspan="2" | Clitic | ! colspan="2" | Clitic <ref>In the Upper Minhast dialects, the Attributive forms are used more often than the clitic forms.</ref><ref>Although demonstrative clitics usually displace postpositional clitics from their noun head, postpositional clitics may remain attached to their noun heads, followed by the postpositional clitic, e.g. ''takkisap'', vs. ''taksapki'' "in this way; like that".</ref> | ||
! rowspan="2"| Comments | ! rowspan="2"| Comments | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Line 619: | Line 853: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Proximal | ! Proximal | ||
| sap | | sap | ||
| sapte | | sapte | ||
| sapim, sap min | | sapim, sap min | ||
| =sap | | =sap<br/> =sā, =sa | ||
| =sapte | | =sapte, =sapt | ||
| this one, near the speaker | | this one, near the speaker | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Medio-proximal | ! Medio-proximal | ||
| nax | | nax | ||
| | | naxte | ||
| naxtim | | naxtim | ||
| =nax | | =nax | ||
| =naxt | | =naxte, =naxt | ||
| this/that one near the listener | | this/that one near the listener | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Distal | ! Distal | ||
| waššī | | waššī <br/>suxta | ||
| wašt(e) | | wašt(e) <br/>suxt(e) | ||
| waššim | | waššim <br/>suxtam | ||
| =waš | | =waš <br/>=suxta | ||
| =wašt(e) | | =wašt(e) <br/>=suxt(e) | ||
| far from both speaker and listener | | far from both speaker and listener | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Invisible | ! Invisible | ||
| kiryit | | suxta <br/>kiryit | ||
| kirte | | suxt(e) <br/>kirte | ||
| kiryit min | | suxtam <br/> kiryit min | ||
| =kirit | | =suxta <br/> =kirit | ||
| =kiryit | | =suxt(e) <br/> =kiryit | ||
| | | n/a | ||
|} | |} | ||
== | The personal deictic pronouns are portmanteaus of the interjective demonstrative particles, e.g. ''eyha'' (here is), plus the verbal pronominal absolutive affixes, with the exception of the second singular and third masculine singular forms, which appear to be from the clitic stative forms. Other forms are portmanteaus of the deictic adverbs ''tāra'' (there next to you), and ''kāmu''/''aššak'' (over there, away from us) cliticized by a pronominal clitic. An Invisible form does not occur. | ||
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|- | |||
! Person | |||
! Proximal | |||
! Medio-Proximal | |||
! Distal | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left"| 1st Sg. | |||
| eyhak | |||
| -- | |||
| -- | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left"| 2nd Sg. | |||
| ettaħ | |||
| tartaħ | |||
| kamtaħ/aššaktaħ | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Masculine - Common Sg. | |||
| ennu | |||
| tārannu | |||
| kannu/aššaknu | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Feminine Sg. | |||
| eyhašši | |||
| tārašši | |||
| kāmul/assakkišši | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Neuter Animate Sg. | |||
| eyhaš | |||
| tāraš | |||
| kāmuš/assakš | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Neuter Inanimate Sg. | |||
| eyham | |||
| tāram | |||
| kāmum/aššakam | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="5" | Plural | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left"| 1st Plural Inclusive | |||
| eħħak | |||
| --- | |||
| --- | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left"| 1st Pl Exclusive | |||
| eyham | |||
| --- | |||
| --- | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left"| 2nd Pl. | |||
| ettam | |||
| tartam | |||
| kamtam/aššaktam | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Common Pl. | |||
| eyhakm | |||
| tārakm | |||
| kāmukm/aššakukm | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Neut. Anim. Pl. | |||
| eyhi | |||
| tāri | |||
| kāmi/aššaki | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Neut. Inanim Pl. | |||
| emmaħ | |||
| tammaħ | |||
| kammaħ/aššakmaħ | |||
|} | |||
=== Numbers === | |||
====Cardinals and Ordinals==== | |||
Cardinal and ordinal numbers are one of the [two/XX] groups of true adjectives in the Minhast language. Minhast employs a vigesimal, i.e. base-20, counting system. Numeric expressions involve binding the number and modified noun in a specific construct involving the ligature: Both cardinal and ordinal numbers can take possessive pronominal suffixes (see Part III "Syntax - Possession" for discussion of possessive constructs), which then convey "X number of..." in the case of cardinal numbers, and "the Xth one of/among..." for ordinals, e.g.: | |||
''Meneħnemš nasxēreħ inkunnuħnemaran'' "Four of us went out there into the forest."<br/> | |||
''Menhakkem nasxēreħ inkunnuħkēmaran'' "The fourth one among them went into the forest." | |||
Numbers even have intransitive verbal forms, meaning "There were X number of us/you/them." The cardinal, ordinal, and verbal forms are summarized below: | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible" | ||
| Line 719: | Line 1,027: | ||
| šiktāz | | šiktāz | ||
| šiktezāx | | šiktezāx | ||
| -- | | -šiktāz-an | ||
|- style="" | |- style="" | ||
! style="" | twelve | ! style="" | twelve | ||
| sen | | sen | ||
| senāx | | senāx | ||
| -- | | -sen-an | ||
|- style="" | |- style="" | ||
! style="" | thirteen | ! style="" | thirteen | ||
| halk | | halk | ||
| halkāx | | halkāx | ||
| -- | | -halk-an | ||
|- style="" | |- style="" | ||
! style="" | fourteen | ! style="" | fourteen | ||
| duggalk | | duggalk | ||
| duggalxāx | | duggalxāx | ||
| -- | | -duggalk-an | ||
|- style="" | |- style="" | ||
! style="" | fifteen | ! style="" | fifteen | ||
| Line 764: | Line 1,072: | ||
| šentāz | | šentāz | ||
| šentezāx | | šentezāx | ||
| - | | šentāz-an | ||
|- style="" | |- style="" | ||
! style="" | twenty-one | ! style="" | twenty-one | ||
| šentāz-u-šum | | šentāz-u-šum | ||
| šentāz-u-manāx | | šentāz-u-manāx | ||
| -- | | šentāz-ammā šum-an | ||
|- style="" | |- style="" | ||
! style="" | twenty-two | ! style="" | twenty-two | ||
| Line 827: | Line 1,135: | ||
|} | |} | ||
== | ====Fractions==== | ||
As in the Classical language, Modern Standard Minhast expresses fractions using the formula, ''X min yešpa=yar Y ikšimakman'', where ''X'' represents the denominator and ''Y'' represents the numerator, a common pattern in dependent-marking languages such as Basque and Japanese. Examples include ''Šentaz min yešpayār duxt ikšimakman'' for 3/20 (lit. From twenty portions, three have come). Mathematical operations becomes tricky with fractions; adding 3/20 + 2/20 = 5/20 results in ''Šentaz min yešpayār duxt ikšimakman, šentaz min yešpayār šāni ikšimakman, wahēk, matti šentaz min yešpayār meneħ ikšimakman'', or "From twenty portions, three have stepped forward, from twenty portions, two have stepped forward; now behold, there are from twenty portions that five have stepped forward." | |||
== | However, in practice the formula for forming fractions and conducting mathematical operations has been simplified. One encounters instead truncated formulas such as ''Šentazešpār duxtakman'' for 3/20, or ''Šentazešpār duxtakmammā, šentazešpār šānikman; šentazešpār menekmandūr'' for 3/20 + 2/20 = 5/20. The latter example, in addition to demonstrating truncation, shows how clause-like constructions involving the Subordinative ''=mā'' and Resultative ''-dūr'' have replaced what was originally a large noun phrase complex. The ''min''=construction with ''yešpa'' and the Ablative clitic ''=yār'' was itself truncated and re-analyzed as the derivational suffix ''-ešpār'' for fractions. This is a Gull Speaker innovation that has been attested as early as the 1600's, and has spread throughout the Lower Minhast dialects. It has also spread into some Upper Minhast dialectal areas, principally in Išpa, Warat, and Uħpar Prefectures in Dog Speaker Country. This innovation has also been adopted into the City Speaker dialect since it coalesced into a distinct dialect in the 1950's, via Bayburim, a Gull Speaker settlement that was incorporated into Aškuan before being returned to the Gull Speakers in 2016. However, the rest of the Upper Minhast dialects preserve the Classical format. | ||
In both the Classical and Gull Speaker systems, the third person common plural agreement marker ''-km-'' is always used in the numerator component, regardless of the gender, number, or animacy of the NP. ''Kaħtamešpār duxta<span style="font-weight:bold;color:blue;text-decoration:underline">km</span>an min turšatta'' (''turšatta'' = corpse, 3.INAN.SG), the agreement marker disagrees with the gender, animacy, and number of its head, nevertheless is required to be well-formed. | |||
Additionally, | Additionally, a secondary set of fractional numbers, albeit limited, exists and is divided into two categories, an attributive and a verbal: | ||
=== | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg " | ||
! | |||
! Attributive | |||
! Verbal | |||
|- style="" | |||
! style="" | half | |||
| kāmak | |||
| kāmakian | |||
|- style="" style="" | |||
! style="" | third | |||
| haddeħ | |||
| haddeħħan | |||
|- style="" | |||
! style="" | quarter | |||
| mū | |||
| mūan | |||
|- style="" | |||
! style="" | tenth | |||
| erritt | |||
| irtan | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
Note the upper bound is "tenth" ''(erritt)'', not "twentieth", the expected form given Minhast's vegisemal system; instead, this set demonstrates a decimal pattern. The secondary fractions bear no resemblance to their primary counterparts, having originated from different roots. Additionally, the verbal forms display some irregularity, as in ''kāmak<span style="font-weight:bold;color:blue;text-decoration:underline">i</span>an'' vs the expected ''kāmakan'', ''hadde<span style="font-weight:bold;color:blue;text-decoration:underline">ħ</span>ħan'' instead of the expected ''haddehan'', and ''<span style="font-weight:bold;color:blue;text-decoration:underline">irt</span>an'' instead of the expected ''errittan''. | |||
== Verbs == | |||
Minhast verbs display a complex structure, demonstrated in particular by its elaborate polysynthetic morphology. The Minhast verb inflects not only for tense and aspect, but can inflect to indicate mood, modality, causation, potentiality, intensity, and other functions. The verb also possesses a well-developed set of pronominal affixes used to cross-reference the core arguments of a clause. These pronominal affixes indicate both gender and number of the nouns they cross-reference, an essential function as nouns themselves do not carry any case or number marking. | |||
Additionally, the verb can alter the argument structure of a clause through noun incorporation, antipassivation, and applicative formation. These strategies are used by speakers for discourse purposes such as backgrounding previously established information, maintaining cross-reference of subjects across multiple clauses, and to employ various rhetorical effects, among others. The verb's polysynthetic feature can lead to very long verbs that can express an entire sentence, such as the following example illustrates: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Kemaran yattah, tayentišnišpimbastannasumtittaharu. | |||
|IPA = | |||
| morphemes = Kem=aran yattah ta-yent-šn-šp-b-mat-sar-nasum-tittah-ar-u | |||
| gloss = 3P.OBL=DAT evidence NEG-DEFFERED-CON-CAUS-RESUMP-INSTR.APPL-look.at-matter-3S.INANIM.ABS+2S.NOM-PST-TRANS | |||
| translation = You have not tried to get them to reconsider the evidence. | |||
}} | |||
The verb ''"tayentišnišpimbastannasumtittaharu"'' is an individual sentence in its own right. It encodes both subject and object, mood, tense and aspect, polarity, manner, and even case relations. Words that contain several morphemes to represent the majority if not all the arguments we would expect in a whole, felicitous sentence are said to be ''holophrastic'', a technical term for the more informal expression, "sentence-word". | |||
Transitivity is determined by the number of core arguments, that is Agent or Patient/Goal. Minhast verbs do not necessarily map to traditional (i.e. Indo-European) notions of transitivity. As an example, the English sentence, "He jumped on the table" is grammatically intransitive. Available to the Minhast verb are both intransitive and transitive mappings: ''"Zekyaškī nirriekaran"'' , which is grammatically intransitive, with ''zekyaš=kī'' an oblique argument. The same meaning can be expressed transitively when the verb's valence is altered when the locative applicative affix ''(i)-n(i)-'' is applied: ''Zekyaš in-nirrieku''. | |||
=== Verb Types === | |||
Minhast verbs can perform functions that are usually associated with other grammatical categories in other languages. For example, Minhast does not have a separate grammatical category for adjectives. Instead, verbs are used in place of adjectives. Verbs are divided into five broad categories: | |||
# Interrogative | |||
# Impersonal | |||
# Attributive | |||
# Stative | |||
# Event | |||
==== Interrogative Verbs ==== | |||
Interrogative verbs are an unusual feature of the Minhast verbal system, and are rare cross-linguistically but may be found in other languages such as Takic, a North American language from the Uto-Aztecan family. In many languages, certain interrogative words co-occur with certain verbs with high frequency. Using English as an example, the verbs in the questions "What happened?", "Where are you going?", "Why did you do it?" illustrate that certain verbs, when they take a WH-word as an argument, have a statistically higher probability of picking one or two WH-words above others. In Minhast, the Interrogative Verbs serve as a shortcut, precluding the need for constructing a whole interrogative sentence with at least two constituents, the WH-word and the verb it is serving as an argument to. | |||
=== | Interrogative verbs can either be zero-valent (i.e. an Impersonal Verb), as in ''"Innearaš?" >> *inea-ar-an=š'' [what.happened-PAST-INTRANS=IRREAL] ("What happened?"), univalent, e.g. ''"Nassuriattaharaš?" >> *nassuriat-tah-ar-an=š'' [what.did.do-2S.ABS-PAST=IRREAL] ("What did you do?"), or even divalent, i.e. transitive, e.g. ''"Išpinassuriattaharuš?" >> *šp-nassuriat-tah-u=š'' [CAUS-what.did.do-2S.ERG+3MS.ABS-TRANS=IRREAL] ("What did you make him do?). | ||
Interrogative Verbs can be inflected for tense, aspect, person-number (for univalent verbs), and in some cases, theme, as illustrated in the last example. Moreover, the Irrealis marker ''-š'' is obligatory. | |||
Where person-number marking is allowed, both second and third person singular/plural marking predominate; first person marking is infrequent. Many of these verbs appear to have a default tense, usually in the past but sometimes in the future, even though the verb has no explicit tense marking, e.g. ''maymaštahaš'' seems to have a default past tense even though the past tense affix ''-ar-'' does not appear; however if the past tense affix appears, the verb remains well-formed. Present tense meaning, if intended, is usually recoverable from context or discourse. | |||
The following table contains the most frequently used Interrogative Verbs:<br/><br/> | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Verb !! Meaning !! Valency !! Gloss !! Notes | ||
! | |- | ||
! | ! style="text-align:left"| tippakaš | ||
! | | “How did it happen?” | ||
| zero | |||
| ''tippak-an=š'' <br/> [happen.how-INTRANS-IRREAL] | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left"| kurraktahaš | |||
| "How many do you want?" | |||
| univalent | |||
| style="text-align:left"| ''kurrak-tah-an=š'' <br/> [how.many.want-2S.ABS-INTRANS-IRREAL] | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left"| yuškiduytahaš | |||
| "How many of these fish do you want?" | |||
| univalent | |||
| style="text-align:left"| ''yuški-dūy-tah-an=š'' <br/> [how.many.want-fish-2S.ABS-INTRANS-IRREAL] | |||
| This verb requires an incorporated noun. | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="text-align:left"| nassuriattahaš | ||
| - | | "What did you do?" | ||
| univalent | |||
| | | ''nansuriat-tah-an=š'' <br/> [what.do-2S.ABS-INTRANS-IRREAL] | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="text-align:left"| inneaš | ||
| | | "What happened?" | ||
| | | zero | ||
| | | ''innea-ar-an=š'' <br/> [what.happen-INTRANS-IRREAL] | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="text-align:left"| aššanaktaš | ||
| - | | "How much is it?" | ||
| zero | |||
| | | ''aššanakt-an=š'' <br/>[what.cost-INTRANS-IRREAL] | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="text-align:left"| ruhāyaš | ||
| | | "Are you sure?" | ||
| | | zero | ||
| | | ''ruhāy-an=š'' <br/>[be.sure-INTRANS-IRREAL] | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="text-align:left"| paxtamaš | ||
| | | "When did it happen?" | ||
| | | zero | ||
| | | ''paxtam-ar-an=š'' <br/>[when.do-INTRANS-IRREAL] | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="text-align:left"| iskumattahaš | ||
| - | | "When will you come?" | ||
| univalent | |||
| ''iskumat-tah-an=š'' <br/>[when.come-2S.ABS-INTRANS-IRREAL] | |||
| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="text-align:left"| naktatintahaš | ||
| - | | "Where are you going?" | ||
| | | univalent | ||
| ''naktatin-tah-an=š'' <br/>[where.are-2S.ABS-INTRANS-IRREAL] | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="text-align:left"| annatimaraš | ||
| - | | "Where did this happen?/Where was this done?<br/> Where did he do this?" | ||
| univalent | |||
| | | ''annatim-ar-an=š'' <br/>[where.happen-PAST-INTRANS-IRREAL] | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="text-align:left"| maymaštahaš | ||
| - | | "Who did this?" | ||
| zero | |||
| | | ''maymaštah-an=š'' <br/>[who.do-INTRANS-IRREAL] | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="text-align:left"| puħtakyaš | ||
| | | "Where is he?" | ||
| | | univalent | ||
| | | ''puħta-ki-an=š'' <br/>[sit-location-INTRANS-IRREAL] | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="text-align:left"| ašiknuaš | ||
| - | | "What are you doing/What is s/he doing?" | ||
| zero | |||
| | | ''ašiknu-an=š'' <br/>[what.do-INTRANS-IRREAL] | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="text-align:left"| kuyyureaš | ||
| - | | "Why is this a bad thing to say/think?" | ||
| zero | |||
| | | ''kuyyure-an=š'' <br/>[why.bad.thought.-INTRANS-IRREAL] | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="text-align:left"| tumbehētaš? | ||
| | | "How long will you be there/How long will you be doing that?" | ||
| | | univalent | ||
| | | ''tumbehē-tah-an=š'' <br/>[how.long.be.there-2S.ABS-INTRANS-IRREAL] | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="text-align:left"| uzurtahaš? | ||
| | | "What do you think?" | ||
| | | univalent | ||
| | | ''uzur-tah-an=š'' <br/>[what.think-2S.ABS-INTRANS-IRREAL] | ||
|- | | | ||
| | |||
|} | |} | ||
=== | ==== Phenomenological Verbs ==== | ||
=== Verb Template === | |||
The Minhast verb is divided into three major segments: the Preverb, the Verb Core, and the Terminatives. Each of these segments are divided into smaller sections or "slots", as they are termed in Minhastic linguistic literature. | |||
{{Minhast_Verb_Template}} | |||
==== Preverb 1 Scalar Operator Affixes ==== | |||
The | The positions of these affixes in relation to each other is fixed, and are mutually exclusive, with the exception of the negation affixes. The negator ''ta-'' can be attached to all of the scalar operators with the exception of the Cautionary and Negative Cautionary affixes. The affixes in the Preverb 1 slot have wide scope at the ''clausal'' level. The forms ''tara-, tarra-, tabbina-'' are the Absolute Negation prefixes; ''tabbina-'' is quite rare and found only in some Classical Minhast texts, probably derived from ''hatā' hambin''. | ||
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
! | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
|- | |||
! | |||
! Affix | ! Affix | ||
! Meaning | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Negation | ||
| - | | ta- <br/> ta'- <br/> t- <br/>tara-, tarra-, tabbina- | ||
- | | no, not <br/><br/><br/>never, never again; not at all | ||
|- | |||
! Immediacy | |||
| ussa- | |||
| now, immediately | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Contradictory | ||
| - | | -ps- | ||
| however, on the contrary | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Delimited | ||
| - | | -reħt- | ||
| until | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Deferred | ||
| - | | -yent- | ||
| still, yet, have yet to | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Exclusive | ||
| - | | -wašk- | ||
| only | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Rhetorical | ||
| - | | -kist- <br/>-ks- | ||
| just, simply | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Absolute | ||
| - | | -sull- | ||
| | | anyway | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Additive | ||
| - | | -nuħħ- | ||
| also, even | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Cautionary | ||
| - | | -kur- | ||
| otherwise, lest | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Negative Cautionary | ||
| - | | kurħāti- | ||
| otherwise...not, lest...not | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | <!-- | ||
| - | ! Concurrent I | ||
| -(a)ssek- | |||
| while | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Concurrent II | ||
| - | | -hirat- <br/> -ħrat- <br/> -rħat- | ||
| while | |||
--> | |||
|} | |} | ||
<!-- | |||
Each clause, including the first one, that forms a concurrent clause chain must be marked by the Concurrent affix ''-(a)ssek-'', and are joined together by the Subordinative ''-mā'' suffix (see the "Terminatives" section below). The Concurrent I form appears in the first clause of the chain, whose subject must be in the Absolutive, and for all other clauses that whose Absolutive arguments are coreferent with the Absolutive of the first clause; thus it is used in S/O pivots: | |||
==== | {{Gloss | ||
|phrase = Assekkallutekarabampā, assekkirimekaraban. | |||
|IPA = | |||
| morphemes =Assek-kallut-ek-ar-ab-an-pi-mā, assek-kirim-ek-ar-ab-an | |||
| gloss = Concurrent.I-eat-1S.ABS-PST-IMPF-INTRANS-ANTI-SUBORD Concurrent.I-speak-1S.ABS-PST-IMPF-INTRANS | |||
| translation = I ate while I spoke. | |||
}} | |||
The Concurrent II form appears only if the S/O pivot must be broken, where the core arguments exchange roles or a new argument assumes the Absolutive role. The Concurrent II form never appears in the first clause: | |||
==== | {{Gloss | ||
|phrase = Assekasumikkirgimatekammā, hiratasunkeydan. | |||
|IPA = | |||
| morphemes =Assek-asum-ikkirgimat-ek-an-mā, hirat-asum-keyd-an | |||
| gloss = Concurrent.I-HAB-be.busy-1S.ABS-INTRANS-SUBORD Concurrent.II-HAB-play-INTRANS | |||
| translation =While I always work, he's always playing. | |||
}} | |||
--> | |||
==== Preverb 2 Locational Affixes ==== | |||
This slot contains deictic markers indicating where an event took place in relation to the speech participants. Some affixes can be traced to the independent deictic particles, e.g. ''-ssaha-'' < ''sappu'' "here", ''-yašša-'' < ''wašia'' "yon". This slot is <u>not</u> found in the Gull, Salmonic and Horse Speaker dialects, nor in Classical Minhast. Instead, they occur after the verb root, in the Terminatives slot. It is unclear whether the locational affixes in those dialects are older than the ones in Modern Standard Minhast and the other dialects. On the one hand, some of the Preverb 2 affixes have no obvious relationship with their independent particle counterparts, e.g. ''-xitta-'' "there" vs. ''naš'', which would suggest the Preverb 2 variants are older, whereas their counterparts in the Terminatives slot are etymologically transparently related to the extant independent particle variants. However, it is generally agreed the Terminatives slot is older, as its affixes follow a strict templatic order, whereas the affixes in the other slots between the scalar operators (Slot 1) and applicative affixes (Slot 5) are scope ordered and their affixes apparently derived through earlier noun incorporation, verb serialization, and other accretive processes. | |||
= | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
|- | |||
! | |||
! Affix | |||
! Meaning | |||
|- | |||
! Proximal, Static | |||
| -ssaha-<br/>-ssaħ- | |||
| here, near or adjacent to speaker | |||
|- | |||
! Medio-Distal | |||
| -xitta- | |||
|- | | nearer to listener than speaker | ||
| | |- | ||
| | ! Distal | ||
| -yašša- | |||
| | | far from both speaker and listener | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Invisible | |||
| | | -kit(t)- | ||
| | | beyond sight of both speaker and listener | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |} | ||
| | <!-- | ||
| | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
|- | |||
! | |||
! Affix | |||
! Meaning | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Proximal, Static | |||
| | | -ssaha- | ||
| | | here, stationary | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Proximal, Cislocative | |||
| | | -ssan- | ||
| | | here, approaching closer | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Proximal, Translocative | |||
| -ssatt- | |||
| here, going away | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Medio-Distal, Static | |||
| -xitta- | |||
| near to listener, stationary | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Medio-Distal, Cislocative | |||
| -xišn- | |||
| near to listener, approaching closer | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Medio-Distal, Translocative | |||
| -xiššat- | |||
| near to listener, going away | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Distal, Static | |||
| | | -yašša- | ||
| | | far from both speaker and listener, stationary | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Distal, Cislocative | |||
| -yašn- | |||
| far from both speaker and listener, approaching closer | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Distal, Translocative | |||
| -yaššat- | |||
| far from both speaker and listener, going away | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
--> | |||
==== Preverb 3 Mood-Aspect-Manner Affixes ==== | |||
This slot contain numerous affixes that serve myriad functions, not just conveying mood and aspect, but also encoding manner and other adverbial semantic information. The table below lists the most common affixes, but there are close to four hundred other affixes not listed here that may occur in this slot, such as the affix ''-xp-'' (to enjoy), -''ruxt-'' (to like), -''kašk-'' (do well, c.f. ''kaškakan'' to do something skillfully, perform skillfully), -''yunn-'' (to fall short, fail, c.f. ''yurunan'' to reach out to something out of reach) etc. | |||
Unlike other verb slots, where the affixes are strictly ordered in relation to each other, the affixes in the Preverb 3 slot exhibit free order, or to be more precise, they are scope-ordered. Within this slot, a given affix exhibits scope over the element immediately to its right. With few exceptions, several affixes may occur simultaneously, limited only by whether the combination "makes sense", i.e. the resulting semantic meaning is felicitous. | |||
The positional variability within this slot traces back to an earlier stage in the language when these affixes were originally independent words in either a preposed-''wa'' construction, or verb-verb apposition structure. These older analytic structures were eventually reanalyzed and gramatticalized, ultimately fusing both phonetically and morphologically into the verb complex. | |||
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg sortable mw-collapsible" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Type | ||
! | ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" |Affix | ||
! Meaning | |||
! Additional Notes | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Expective | ||
| - | | -naš- | ||
| supposed to <br/> expect to <br/> to wait for | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Potentive | ||
| - | | -nitt(a)- | ||
| might, possibly | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | !Necessitive | ||
| - | | -(y)yat- | ||
| to be necessary | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Desiderative I (SS) | ||
| - | | -šak- | ||
| to desire, wish (same Subject) | |||
| Used when the Controllee is the same as the Controller, e.g. ''Šakiknatūmanekāš'' "I want to go home." | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Desiderative II (DS) | ||
| -sašp- <br/> -sassi- | |||
| to desire, wish (different Subject) | |||
| This affix differs from the Desiderative I affix in the following ways: | |||
# It is used when the Controllee is different from the Controller, e.g. ''Sašpiknatūmantaħkūš'' "I want <u>you</u> to go home." | |||
# The Desiderative II affix raises the valency, so the Transitive affix surfaces. | |||
# As this verb form creates a transitive clause, the Controller becomes the ergative argument and the Controllee becomes the absolutive argument. | |||
# The ''-sassi-'' allomorph surfaces when immediately followed by an affix starting with /s, ʃ/, as in the Causative ''-šp-'' affix, e.g. ''Sassišpikallutekarūš'' "I wanted to make him eat" (i.e. I wanted to feed him), or with affixes that start with a consonant cluster such as the Cessative ''-kš-'', e.g. ''Sassikšikallutekarūš'' "I wanted him to stop eating". | |||
The Desiderative II affix evolved from the fusion of the Desiderative I affix with the Causative during the Late Classical Minhast period or shortly after, when the Desiderative and the Causative were regularly combined to express different-subject "to want" structures; c.f. Classical Minhast ''Šakišpikallutekarunuš'' "I wanted to cause him to eat" for "I want him to eat". | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Aversive | ||
| - | | -nisp-<br/> -niss- <br/> -nis- | ||
|- | | to avoid; to dislike, hate | ||
| If the Aversive co-occurs with the Desiderative I affix, the Desiderative always precedes it, with the meaning "to wish to avoid" | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Conative | ||
| - | | -šn- | ||
| try | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! Abilitative | |||
| -mar- | |||
| can, to be able to | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! Abilitative-Cognitive | |||
| -kmiz- | |||
| know how to be/become; know how to do | |||
| Denotes knowledge of attaining a state or carrying out and action | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Preparative | ||
| - | | -kar(a)- | ||
| to get ready to | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! Incipient | |||
| -ntar- | |||
| almost, about to | |||
| Denotes an action that was or is nearly to be carried out. Requires the Irrealis. | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Causative | ||
| - | | -šp- | ||
| to cause, bring about | |||
| When used with the Privative, become the Negative Causative | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Permittive (Indirect Causative) | ||
| - | | -mušk- | ||
| to allow | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Reversative-Privative | ||
| - | | -mašn- | ||
| to undo or prevent | |||
| Reverses or prevents a state or action. | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | !Inchoative | ||
| - | | -saxt- <br/> -sax- | ||
| | | to become | ||
| The Inchoative is primarily used to denote changes of state with stative verbs, e.g. ''saxpayyarkurran'' "He became black from the ashes", from the root ''-kūr-'' "to be black". | |||
< | The form ''-sax-'' is used when followed by a stop, e.g. ''saxtaharran'' "He became green" (from ''tahāl-'' "be green"), or /h,ħ/, e.g. ''Saxušuran'' "He became blue" (from ''hušur-'' "be blue") . Voiced stops become devoiced. In some dialects this form is used whenever followed by any consonant. | ||
The Inchoative is also used to derive the middle voice from transitive verbs, e.g. ''Yahamb saxaradaran'' "The fish pot broke", c.f. ''Yahamb harattarru'' <!-- from harad (to break st) --> "He broke the fish pot." | |||
|- | |||
!Simulative | |||
| -šupn- <br/>-šu- (+CC) | |||
| to resemble | |||
| When used with semantically active verbs, it conveys performing an action in the manner indicated, e.g. ''Šukkirmektahuš'' ("Speak as I do"), ''Šupnikirimtahaš'' ("Speak like this) ''Šupnikirimtahampiš'' , ("Say it like this"). With stative verbs, it conveys being in like or similar to the state indicated, e.g. ''Ruppumakide uryataran šupnikūran/Ruppumakte uryataran šukkūran'' ("His face is as black as obsidian/He is incomprehensible/inscrutable"). | |||
Often found in combination with the verb root ''kifrak'' (to be the color of) + NI, meaning "to be x-colored", e.g. ''šupnikifrakteslakmahan/šukkifrakteslakmahan'' (to be algae-colored); also appears in complex verbs signifying "to play", "to pretend", etc. | |||
When used with common food items, it derives the idiom, "To taste like", e.g. ''Šuttirappian'' "It tastes like tilapia" (also meaning, "This is boring"). | |||
<!-- | |||
DOC:: Derived from verb root "-šupn-" (to resemble; to mirror), c.f. Nankõre "hompe" (to stand next to something) | |||
--> | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! rowspan="3"| Qualitatives | ||
| -rur- <br/> -rr- <br/> -kašk- | |||
| well, good, skillfully, thoroughly | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| -yay- | |||
| - | | badly, clumsily | ||
| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
| -xupm(a)- | |||
| - | | little by little | ||
| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Intensive | ||
| - | | -nt(a)- | ||
| | | very, extremely | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Mitigative | ||
| - | | -hipsa- <br/> -psa- <br/>-ps- | ||
| | | a little, somewhat | ||
| Opposite and incompatible with the Intensive | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | !Excessive | ||
| -(a) | | -(ha)pm(a)-<br/>-ntatta- | ||
| | | very, extremely, too much | ||
| | | | ||
# The full form ''-hapma-'' predominates in the Upper Minhast dialects. It occurs somewhat infrequently in Modern Standard Minhast, where the ''-pm(a)-'' form is preferred. | |||
<br/> | # The ''-ntatta-'' form is derived through partial reduplication of the Intensive ''-nta-'', inherited from Salmonic/Horse Speaker origins. | ||
|- | |||
| | ! Habitual | ||
| -asum- <br/> -asm- <br/> -asun- | |||
| habitually, usually, often; <br/> always (when combined with Imperfect) | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Resumptive | ||
| - | | -b- | ||
| again | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | !Inclinative | ||
| - | | -pniš- | ||
|tending towards, to tend to | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | !Cessative | ||
| - | | -kš- | ||
| | | to cease | ||
| Indicates the cessation of an action or state | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | !Completive | ||
| - | | -šmuxt-, -šmux- <br/>-šnux- | ||
| to finish | |||
| Indicates completion | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | !Inceptive | ||
| | | -nd- | ||
| | | to begin | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
!Continuative | |||
| -xt- | |||
| to continue | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | !Iterative | ||
| - | | -xr- | ||
| | | to do several times in discrete units | ||
| This affix appears in verbs that are semantically semelfactive | |||
|- | |||
!Reactive | |||
| -knak- | |||
| to immediately do the same action | |||
| This affix occurs only with semantically non-stative verbs. For transitive verbs, it means "to do something back at someone else", in which case the Reciprocal Adversarial affix must co-occur. For intransitive, agentive verbs, it means "he/she/it did the same thing too". The immediacy of the action is highly salient. | |||
|} | |} | ||
==== Preverb 4 Control Affixes ==== | |||
The Inverse Volitional affix interacts with the semantics of the verb root. If a verb root semantically implies the Agent has no control over an event, or the event is by happenstance and not by deliberate intent, the Inverse Volitional derives a verb that implies the Agent has control of an event or is actively seeking to determine its outcome. As an illustration, the verb root ''-sar-'' (to see) implies happenstance, where as the addition of the Inverse Volitional affix, yielding the form ''kaħsaran'' < ''-kah-sar-'' changes the meaning to "to look at" or even "to stare at". In contrast, the verb root ''-misk-'' (to be ill) semantically implies lack of control. Adding the Inverse Volitional Affix plus the Reflexive-Benefactive ''-sakšar-'' to yield the form ''kaħmisiksakšaran'' < ''-kah-misk-sakšar'' changes the meaning to "to deliberately infect oneself in order to play hooky". | |||
The Preverb 4 affixes are restricted to this position in the verb template. Other than the Verb Core, the only affixes that can follow this slot are the Applicative affixes, located in the Preverb 5 slot. Additionally, the Preverb 4 affixes usually do not occur together; when they do, the resulting verb implies a sense of sloppiness on the part of the Agent. | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Control Type | ||
! Affix | ! Affix | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Inverse Volitional | ||
| - | | -kah- | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Partial Control | ||
| -šk(e)- | |||
| -( | |||
|} | |} | ||
==== Preverb 5 Applicative Affixes ==== | |||
=== | |||
The Preverb 5 slot contains exclusively the Applicative Affixes. These affixes are used to change the argument structure of a clause by increasing its valency, or by changing an oblique NP to core status as an Absolutive argument. The process of using an Applicative affix is often called "Applicative Formation", although other linguists prefer to use the term "Applicative Voice". This article will use the term "Applicative Formation" to emphasize that the argument structure of the clause is being changed by use of the Applicative affix. The Applicatives are used to promote an oblique argument to the Absolutive. | |||
All of the Preverb 5 affixes are mutually exclusive. Moreover, they are tightly bound to the next segment of the verb complex, namely the Verb Core; no affixes may intervene between the Applicative affixes and the Verb Core. Because of this strong connection to the Verb Core, it has been argued that the Applicatives be reclassified under the Verb Core segment. | |||
Although the Applicative Affixes encode spatial or directional information like the Oblique case clitics, they do not resemble them in form. The location and tight binding of these affixes belie their origins as the remnants of incorporated nouns from Proto-Nahenic; supporting evidence of this comes from the existence of independent cognate nouns in Nankôre, such as ''rahko'' "gift", ''macihi'' "hand", and ''nahko'' "room, enclosure", which is also cognate with the Minhast locative interrogative ''nakkī'' "where". | |||
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
| | ! Case Role | ||
! Affix | |||
! Example | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! Dative | ||
| | | -dut- <br/> | ||
-utt- <br/> | |||
-tuCC-, -tuCt-<ref>This variant, originally from the Salmonic and Osprey dialects in the Nammawet region, has rapidly spread in the expatriate communities and now has gained popularity amongst Millennials in the Urban Colloquial dialect. The ''-tuCC-'' allophone surfaces a geminate voiceless stop, whereas the ''-tuCt-'' form surfaces with a preceding fricative or sonorant, per Minhast's overall tendency to devoice consonants. C.f Nammawet Salmonic ''Tukkirmekarun'' vs. Iskamharat Salmonic ''Duktirmekarun'', both meaning "I spoke to him"; Nammawet Osprey Speaker ''Tuštinnanku'' vs. Dayyat Prefecture Osprey Speaker ''Duštinnanku'', both meaning "I spread it before him." </ref> | |||
| | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Anxekt duktirmekaru. | |||
| IPA = | |||
| morphemes = anxea=ek=de dut-kirim-ek-ar-u | |||
| gloss = brother=1S.AGT+3S.PT=GEN DAT.APPL-speak-1S.AGT+3S.PT-PST-TRNS | |||
| translation = I spoke to my brother. | |||
}} | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! Benefactive | ||
| | | -rak- | ||
| | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Anxekt rakkirmekaru. | |||
| IPA = | |||
| morphemes = anxea=ek=de rak-kirim-ek-ar-u | |||
| gloss = brother=1S.AGT+3S.PT=GEN BEN.APPL-speak-1S.AGT+3S.PT-PST-TRNS | |||
| translation = I spoke on behalf of my brother. | |||
}} | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! Instrumental | ||
| | | -mat- | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! Locative | ||
| -n- | |||
-naħk- <br/> | |||
-nak-<sup>†</sup> | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! Commitative | ||
| -ngar-<br/> | |||
-ggar-<br/> | |||
-gar- | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! Ablative | ||
| -raħk-<br/> | |||
-rak-<sup>†</sup> | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Malefactive | |||
| -nusk- | |||
|} | |} | ||
== | <sup>†</sup>''These forms are used when the following syllable starts when followed by another syllable starting with ''/k/'' | ||
==== Verb Core ==== | |||
The verb core is diachronically the oldest part of the verb complex, containing six sub-slots. They contain the bare minimum affixes required to form a structurally complete verb (sub-slots #1, 4, 5, 6), and two additional ones sandwiched in between the obligatory affixes (sub-slots #2, 3): | |||
#Verb Root | |||
#Incorporated Noun | |||
#Prepronominal Affixes | |||
#Pronominal Affixes | |||
#Tense-Aspect Affixes | |||
#Transitivity Affixes | |||
=== | ===== Verb Root ===== | ||
This is the morpheme that gives the entire verb complex its basic semantic meaning. The majority of verb roots are at most one or two syllables. Larger verb roots usually descend from compounds that became lexicalized and later phonologically eroded. | |||
===== Incorporated Noun ===== | |||
Like many polysynthetic languages, such as Ainu and the Iroquioan languages, Minhast employs noun incorporation (NI) extensively to carry out various processes: derivation, case modification and valence operations, and discourse manipulation. The motivating factors for NI is a complex topic which is dealt separately in [[Minhast/Noun_Incorporation|Noun Incorporation]]. | |||
Noun incorporation is the process whereby a noun lexeme is absorbed into the verb complex. The noun is stripped of any inflectional markers and is then inserted immediately after the verb root. The noun is essentially treated as a verbal affix and plays an important morphological role. The incorporated noun is subject to complex morphophonemic sandhi, as described earlier in the [[Minhast#Phonology|Phonology]] section; moreover, most nouns have a reduced incorporating form, as in the case of ''-rupmak-/-rumpak-'' << ''ruppamak'' (face). These reduced forms are highly irregular and must be memorized. | |||
Not all nouns can be incorporated. Proper nouns and many kinship terms, e.g. ''anxea'' (brother) cannot be incorporated. Similarly, toponyms and demonyms cannot be incorporated. Only one lexical noun root can be incorporated at a time. Nouns functioning in most case roles can be incorporated, but such incorporation interacts with the semantics of the verb, e.g. Locatives are restricted to locomotive and positional verbs, while Datives are restricted to donor verbs. The incorporation of Instrumentals and Datives usually do not affect valency, as the Patient argument slot of the clause remains open. However, as in most incorporating languages, Agents cannot be incorporated. | |||
<!-- | |||
=== Adverbial Affixes === | |||
The Adverbial affixes qualify the manner or degree of a state or an event. Only one Adverbial affix may surface at any time. Each Adverbial affix usually has an antonym counterpart. They may interact with one or more of the Preverbal affixes, particularly the ones which themselves have encode some adverbial semantic information, such as the Mitigative, e.g. ''Hipsašnišuptaru'' << ''hipsa-ušn-šupt-∅-ar-u'' (MIT-hit-quickly-3S.ABS+3S.ERG-PST-TRANS) "He hit him somewhat quickly". The following table lists the most commonly encountered Adverbial affixes, but currently around 300+ affixes have been documented. Most affixes have an accompanying antonym. | |||
Note that there the Adverbial affixes have corresponding independent verbal counterparts, such as the Adverbial affix ''-yakkark-'' vs ''kiskār-an'' (to be strong, to do quickly). The Adverbial affixes usually bear no etymological relationship to its verbal counterpart, save for a couple of instances, such as ''-naskef-'' (cleverly) and ''nask-an=mā kafak-an'' (to be smart and deceitful). Adverbial affixes such as these often lack a corresponding antonym. | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Function | |||
! Affix | |||
! Meaning | ! Meaning | ||
|- | |||
! Speed | |||
|- | | -šupt-/-hakw- | ||
! | | quickly/slowly | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Strength | ||
| | | -hepr-/-(r)ruk- | ||
| | | strongly/weakly | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Sound | ||
| | | -we'ah-/-yakkark- | ||
| | | -loudly-/quietly ("silently" with Intensive) | ||
|} | |} | ||
--> | |||
{{Minhast_Prepronominal_Affixes_Template}} | |||
===== Pronominal Affixes ===== | |||
The pronominal affixes present one of the greatest challenges to the students of the Minhast language due to their inherent complexity in structure and morphosyntax. These affixes are agreement markers for the core arguments, i.e. the Ergative and Absolutive arguments. In addition to marking the syntactic roles of the core arguments, gender, animacy, and number are also encoded by the pronominal affixes. These affixes, along with the role affixes, also serve to identify the verb as transitive or intransitive, and thus must agree with the appropriate Transitive affix (see below). For the transitive verb, the pronominal affixes present greater complexities than those of the intransitive verb - the transitive affixes, representing both the ergative and absolutive arguments of the clause, are portmanteau affixes; although some patterns can be discerned from this fusion of the segments representing the ergative and absolutive components, the transitive pronominal affixes are mostly irregular and have to be memorized individually. As expected, the affixes may change shape due to the sound changes created by adjacent morphemes. However, many of these sound changes deviate from the normal assimilation patterns described earlier in [[Minhast#Syllabic_Structure_and_Phonemic_Interactions|Phonology]]. | |||
Animacy marking is differentiated for the neuter genders only, as the masculine and feminine genders are inherently animate and thus require no special marking. Both the masculine and the feminine 3rd person plurals have merged into one common gender, while the gender for animate and inanimate neuter nouns are still distinguished. Remnants of a split ergativity can be found in the third person neuter animate singular, where the submorphememe of the portmenteau affix for the patient is derived from an earlier ''*-tir-'' Accusative form, as opposed to the expected form ''-mah-''. | |||
Due to the complexity of the transitive pronominal affixes, their full forms are summarized in the next table:<br/><br/> | |||
{{Minhast_Portmanteau_Pronominal_Affixes1}} | |||
{{Minhast_Portmanteau_Pronominal_Affixes2}} | |||
In comparison to the transitive pronominal affixes, the affixes for the intransitive verb are much simpler. The forms of the Absolutive are listed below in the following table: <!--, although the passive forms demonstrate quite a bit of unexpected variability. Most noticeable in the passive forms is the occurrence of lenition, a morphophonemic alternation that occurs nowhere else in the Minhast verb, or nouns for that matter. Moreover, the passive forms show considerable polysemy. Diachronic developments explain the source for these otherwise aberrant features. These developments can be found in [[Minhast/Diachronic_Changes]]--> | |||
<br/><br/> | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {|class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
|- | |||
! Person | |||
! Absolutive | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="text-align:left"| 1st Sg. | ||
| -k- | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="text-align:left"| 2nd Sg. | ||
| | | -tah-<br/>-ta-<br/> -t- | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Masculine - Common Sg. | ||
| | | -Ø- | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Feminine Sg. | ||
| | | -šš- | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Neuter Animate Sg. | ||
| | | -Ø-<br/> -s- | ||
| | |- | ||
! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Neuter Inanimate Sg. | |||
| -m- | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left"| 1st Plural Inclusive | |||
| -hak- | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left"| 1st Pl Exclusive | |||
| -mm- | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left"| 2nd Pl. | |||
| -tam- | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Common Pl. | |||
| -km- | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Neut. Anim. Pl. | |||
| -i- | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Neut. Inanim Pl. | |||
| -mah- <br/> -ma- | |||
|} | |} | ||
=== | <br/><br/> | ||
=====Tense-Aspect (TA) Affixes ===== | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {|class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Tense | ||
! | ! style="width: 100px;" | Affix | ||
! | ! Additional Notes | ||
|- | |||
|- | ! Remote Past | ||
! | | -šerr- | ||
| The Remote Past usually encompasses periods of decades or longer | |||
|- | |||
! Past | |||
| -ar- <br/> -r- | |||
| The ''-r-'' allomorph often surfaces in rapid speech when the preceding syllable terminates in ''r'', e.g. ''dar<u>r</u>an'' for expected ''dār<u>ar</u>an'' "to recite an epic". | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Hodiernal Past | ||
| | | -wax- | ||
| | | Past event/state that occurred no earlier than the day of the speech event. | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Present | ||
| | | -Ø- | ||
| | | Also encompasses the immediate past, and may serve to express the gnomic aspect. | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Future | ||
| ( | | -nes- <br/>-ness- <br/> -ness(V)- <br/> -ne- <br/> -sn(e)- | ||
| The ''-nes-'', ''-ness-'', and ''-ness(V)-'' forms are preferred in Modern Standard Minhast, most Upper Minhast dialects, and the Gull Speaker dialect. These are the only forms found in Classical Minhast. ''-nes-'' is used when immediately followed by a consonant, ''-ness-'' when followed by a vowel, and '' -ness(V)-'' when followed by a consonant cluster; the epenthentic vowel in the ''-ness(V)-'' form usually echoes the vowel of the next syllable, e.g. ''kallutek-ness'''<u>a</u>'''-mp<u>'''a</u>'''māš iknatumanek-ness-aš'' "I will eat something and then return home." | |||
| ( | |||
The allomorph ''-sn(e)-'' is also found in Modern Standard Minhast, but is in practice rarely used. This allomorph is of Stone Speaker origin. | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Distal Future | ||
| | | -(a)satt- | ||
| | | | ||
|} | |} | ||
<br/> | |||
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|- | |||
! Aspect | |||
! Affix | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Imperfect | ||
| -(a)b- | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! Perfect | ||
| -Ø- | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! Distributed-Periodic | ||
| -(a)x- | |||
|- | |||
! Partial Completion | |||
| -knakt- | |||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
==== '' | A few additional comments need to be made about the tense and aspect markers. The Present Tense in combination with the Imperfect Aspect is commonly used as the "narrative tense" in both traditional oral literature, and modern literature involving poetry and fiction where the author wishes to convey a sense of intimacy and immediacy in a narrative. The Present Imperfect is also used in ordinary speech to describe an action that began in the past but nevertheless is still continuing, illustrated in such sentences as the following: | ||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Tenkūr wandiraħħiššabu <!-- **Yes, notice that /ħ/ here is a phoneme, not an allophone, despite compensatory lengthening; this is true for both Upper Minhast and MSM --> | |||
|IPA = | |||
| morphemes = tenkūr wa=ind-raħy-šš-ab-u | |||
| gloss = morning CONN=INCEP-cry-DISTR-3SF-IMPF-TRANS | |||
| translation = She started crying earlier this morning and hasn't stopped since (lit. This morning she begins crying still) | |||
}} | |||
Minhast does have a Continuative affix ''-xt-'', but it occurs in the Preverb 1 slot. A different meaning would result if intervening affixes from the Preverb 1 slot surfaced. For example, the combination of the Iterative affix with the Continuative affix yields a different meaning: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Tenkūr waxtixriraħħitaššabu. <!-- ** Yes, notice that /ħ/ here is a phoneme, not an allophone, despite compensatory lengthening; this is true for both Upper Minhast and MSM --> | |||
|IPA = | |||
| morphemes = tenkūr wa=xt-xr-raħy-tar-šš-ab-u | |||
| gloss = morning CONN=INCEP-ITER-cry-DISTR-3SF-IMPF-TRANS | |||
| translation = She has been crying on and off since this morning and hasn't stopped (lit. This morning she begins to continue to cry on and off and is still crying) | |||
}} | |||
This example implies the act of crying occurred in discrete individual events since the crying started, up until the present. The first example, however, cannot be interpreted in that manner. This example shows that Minhast speakers consider time frames as relative to each other, as opposed to typical Indo-European languages that consider time as having discrete start and end points. | |||
The Distributed-Periodic aspect marker, often translated as "from time-to-time" or when used with discrete time references ("every Thursday") indicates that the action, event, or state occurs with some sort of periodicity. If the periodicity is predictable (e.g. "every Thursday"), it often co-occurs with the Habitual affix. The Distributed-Periodic does not indicate punctual or durative information, as they may occur ad-hoc in both telic and atelic verbs. Durative and punctual information is instead indicated by separate affixes, the Semelfective and the Durative; these affixes are derivational in nature and occur in a different slot in the verb template. | |||
{| | ===== Participial ===== | ||
The Participial slot is a small segment of the verb template, consisting of only one affix, ''-x-''. Past literature on the language variously placed them in the Tense-Aspect slot, whilst others placed in the Transitivity. Current practice is to place it in its own slot, as the affix can co-occur with the affixes of either slot yet does not semantically correspond to either. Its uses vary, sometimes forming an embedded clause of a causal sentence, e.g. ''Iknakara<u>x</u>an išpisaxtikaraššaru'' "My departure saddened her/By departing, I saddened her", a temporal subordinator, e.g. ''Redaktān iknatahara<u>x</u>an išpiharsummektarundurkilmakš!'' "When you went with that man you shamed us all/In going out with that man you shamed us all!", and occasionally in Modern Standard Minhast but more often in Lower Minhast, it may convey concurrent actions, i.e. circumstantial clauses, e.g. ''Luktarabampi, išpisaxtikurgadešlekarba<u>x</u>an'' "He was cooking while I concentrated on my studies" (lit. "He was cooking in the time I was causing myself to become strong in mind")<ref>Notice that the Participial affix allows breaking the S/O pivot, as demonstrated in the two preceding examples.</ref>. It is often used in conjunction with the Habitual affix ''-asum-'' and nominalizer ''=naft'' to derive professions, as in ''asumišpinakkallutixnaft'' "chef, cook" (lit. "one who habitually causes others to eat for their benefit"). | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! colspan="2"| Participial | ||
| | |- | ||
| | ! Affix | ||
|- | | -x- | ||
|- | |||
| | |} | ||
The Participial also creates deverbals, which nominalizes a verb stem. This nominalization in turn may be incorporated into a matrix verb. Five requirements must be satisfied before the nominalization can be incorporated: | |||
#All ''wa=''-binding is stripped from the nominalization; | |||
#Tense-Aspect markers are stripped from the verb complex; | |||
#The affixes from the Transitivity and Terminals slots are stripped from the nominalization; | |||
#The pronominal affixes are stripped and the nominalization inherits its polypersonal referencing from its matrix verb; | |||
#A linker morpheme ''-n-'' in the matrix verb precedes the embedded nominalization; | |||
#The nominalization is inserted into the NI slot of the verb template. | |||
The following text illustrates the incorporation of a nominalization with the Participial: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Izzesparaktirekt tankuryār išpisaxnuwassuk<u>n</u>išpisaxxalamiħyišatti<u>xx</u>iššaru. | |||
| IPA = | |||
| morphemes = izzesparak-tirek=de tankūr=yār šp-saxt-nuwassuk-n-[šp-saxt-kalam-iħy-šatt]-x-rti-ar-u | |||
| gloss = canoe.ABS-3NS.INAN.ACC+1S.NOM=GEN eels=ABL CAUS-INCH-contain-LNK-[CAUS-INCH-be.high-in.air-RFLX-PTCP]-3S.INAN.PT+3S.INDEF.AGT-PST-TRNS | |||
| translation = My hovercraft is full of eels, <span style="font-style:normal">lit.</span> "My canoe, my flying one, someone filled it with eels." | |||
}} | |||
Deverbals formed by the Participial can incorporate nouns, and serve as modifiers to the head of an NP. Thus, a truly complex nominal can be created, as in the following example: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = išpisaxxalamiħyišattima<u>xx</u>im izzesparaktirekte | |||
| IPA = | |||
| morphemes = šp-saxt-kalam-iħy-šatt-mah-x=min izzesparak-tirek=de | |||
| gloss = INCH-be.high-in.air-RFLX-3NS.INAN.NOM-PTCP=CONN canoe-3S.INAN.ACC+1S.NOM=ERG | |||
| translation = my hovercraft | |||
}} | |||
Notice that the pronominal ''-mah-'' resurfaces, which is allowed since this complex is not incorporated. | |||
Interestingly, it appears that noun incorporation can occur recursively in these deverbals formed by the Participial, such as in the next example, the result of a speech game between two speakers: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Nireppa nišwakanaft kalluntirruspanniyaxpaxinnipsaspeksespiriškissartahabuš. | |||
| IPA = | |||
| morphemes = Nireppa nišwak-∅-an=naft kallut-n-[[n-ruspar-niyaxpa-x]-n-[n-psa-subek-sespir-šk-x]]-x-sar-tah-ab-u=š | |||
| gloss = little.bear.ABS be.white-3MS.NOM-INTR=NMLZ eat-LNK-<nowiki>[</nowiki>[LNK-play-in.fountain.grass-PTCP]-LNK-[LNK-[MIT-hold-in.hand-PARTIAL.CTRL]-PTCP]-PTCP-look-3MS.ACC+2S.NOM-IMPF-TRNS=IRR | |||
| translation = Watch the white cub eating playing in the grass with the stick he's barely holding onto. | |||
}} | |||
As a deverbal, they can also form compounds: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = išpisaxturasmiħyišattimaššumbat | |||
| IPA = | |||
| morphemes = šp-saxt-urasm-iħy-šatt-mah-x-šumbat | |||
| gloss = INCH-be.high-with.star-RFLX-3NS.INAN.NOM-PTCP-arrow | |||
| translation = the starship | |||
}} | |||
===== Transitivity Affixes ===== | |||
These affixes serve to mark the verb's transitivity. There are two verbalizers<ref>The transitive and intransitiver suffixes are descended from Old Minhast participle affixes, *''-ɪ'nun'' and *''-ɪ'nan'', respectively, which in turn are ultimately derived from the Proto-Nahenic auxiliaries, ''*ne'nok'' "do", and ''*ya'na:ʔ'' "be"</ref>, a Detransitivizer and a Transitivizer, and the Antipassive. | |||
The Detransitivizer combines with other affixes, such as the Reflexive, Reciprocal, and the Antipassive. The Detransitivizer occurs oftentimes when NI has taken place, provided that the totality of the verb's valence operations did not promote a former Absolutive argument to Ergative case, which may happen if the Applicative affixes and/or the Causative surface, as in ''Redadde kaslub dutittaħšitipraru'' ("The man gave the dog some meat", lit: The man the dog he-meat-gave-towards). | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Class | ||
| | ! width="100" | Affix | ||
| '' | ! Notes | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Detransitivizer | ||
| | | -an- <br/> -ēn-<br/> -en + C <br/> -ean <br/> -ā <br/> -ē | ||
| '' | | The ''-ēn-'' and ''-en'' + C forms are non-pausal forms for when the preceding vowel is ''-e-'' or ''-ē-''. <br/>Otherwise, the combination ''-ean'' occurs if the verb is sentence-final and no other affix follows. The pausal forms ''-ā'' and ''-ē'' are seen only in the poetry of Classical Minhast and the Upper Minhast Fox Speaker dialect. | ||
|- | |||
! Transitivizer | |||
| -u- <br/> <br>-ū- <br/> -un- | |||
| The archaic form ''-un-'' is often seen in Salmon Speaker and Wolf Speaker speech, and frequently in Horse Speaker poetry. Moreover, the nominalizer clitic ''=naft'' triggers the ''-un-'' allomorph in all Upper Minhast dialects. When the ''-un-'' variant surfaces among MSM speakers, it occurs chiefly during nominalization among people originally hailing from the northern prefectures. <br/><br/>The allomorph ''-ū-'' occurs when the verb root ends with an ''-i-'', e.g. ''išpikaggi-'' (to hang on a wall or pole). The allomorph originally occurred only when there were no intervening affixes, i.e. the final vowel of the verb root immediately preceded ''-ū-'', but now it occurs even if other affixes intervene between the root's final vowel and the transitivizer, e.g. ''išpinikaggi-sikyalar-''<u>'''ū'''</u>, "He hangs up a painting/photo for him". | |||
|- | |||
! Antipassive | |||
| -pi- <br/> -pa- <br/> =pā, =pamā | |||
| Since the Antipassive always results in a monovalent argument structure, it always occurs with the Detransitivizer affix ''-an-''. The ''-pa-'' allomorph occurs when followed by the Nominalizer ''=naft'', whereas the ''=pā/=pamā'' allomorphs are a portmanteau of the Antipassive and the coordinative clitic ''=mā''. | |||
|} | |||
<!-- Move to another section in the template! | |||
=== Assertive-Reflective Affixes === | |||
These affixes combine the functions of referencing a previous statement, conveying the speaker's attitude towards the statement (usually negative), and under certain circumstances, may affect the semantics of a coordinate or subordinate clause. | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Function | ||
! Affix | |||
! Meaning | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Assertive Contrastive | ||
| | | - šeħr(a)- | ||
| "even though" | |||
|- | |||
! Assertive Accusatory | |||
| -taħr(a)-, - tayra-, -tayħr(a)- | |||
| | | "and yet (you/he,she,it, you all, they) (still)" | ||
|- | |} | ||
! | --> | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|} | |||
==== Terminative Affixes ==== | |||
These affixes occupy the final position of the verb complex, consisting of six slots. They perform a variety of functions such as marking evidentiality, conveying attitude, marking hypotheticals, and clause embedding and subordination. | |||
Some languages with evidential verbal affixes require their appearance, but in Minhast the evidential affixes are optional. Moreover, they have corresponding particles that may appear in their place. If the evidential affixes appear at the end of the verb complex, the Irrealis marker ''-š-'' cannot appear with the any of the Hearsay or Inferential evidentials, simply because the ''-š-'' has already fused with the base morpheme. The Visual evidentials, if accompanied by ''-š-'', convey the meaning, "It appears to be..."; without it, they convey the meaning, "I know this because you (and I) have witnessed this." If the Scriptive appears with ''-š-'', it either indicates that the speaker does not believe what was written, or that what was written turned out to be incorrect; thus it becomes a sort of counterfactual marker. The counterfactual meaning can be reinforced if the Scriptive is followed by the Unexpected marker ''-kil-'' + ''-š-'', e.g. ''Ušnaruškattekiš << *ušn-ar-u-škatte-kil-š'' (hit-PST-TRANS-SCRIP-UNEXP-IRREAL) "It was reported (in the newspaper) that he hit him...''(but) instead''...," or "Had he hit him, as was reported in the newspaper..." | |||
{| | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! colspan = "2" | Function | ||
| | ! width="100"| Affix | ||
|- | ! Notes | ||
! | |- | ||
| | ! rowspan="9" |Evidentials | ||
| | ! Factive | ||
| -∅- <br/>-ne <br/>-št(a)-<br/>-štanne | |||
The | | Referred to as the Gnomic, Aorist, and Neutral in other comparative linguistics material, the term Factive is used due to the influence of Iroquoian linguistic literature, since early treatises of Minhast were conducted by experts in the Iroquoian languages, who noticed structural and typological similarities between the two otherwise different language groups. | ||
|- | |||
! Semblative | |||
# | | -sašš(a)- | ||
| Means "It seems..." or "I think..." | |||
|- | |||
! Visual - Exclusive | |||
| -(u)kku- | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! Visual - Inclusive | |||
| -ha-<br/> -hāra- | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! Auditory | |||
| -pt- | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! Hearsay | |||
| -āhiš- | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! Hearsay - Dubitative | |||
| -harašša- | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! Inferential | |||
| -wašša- | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! Scriptive | |||
| -škatte- | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="4" |Miratives | |||
! Unexpected | |||
| -kil- <br/> -kila | |||
| Indicates the verb is a sudden, unexpected event or state. The second form occurs in verb-final position. | |||
|- | |||
! Unexpected Negative <br/> Exclamatory | |||
| -kilmakš- <br/> -kilmāš- | |||
| Indicates the verb is a sudden, unexpected event or state, with strong negative connotations or disapproval. | |||
|- | |||
! Unexpected Positive <br/> Exclamatory | |||
| -kilwāš- | |||
| Indicates the verb is a sudden, unexpected event or state, with strong positive connotations or surprised delight | |||
|- | |||
! Declarative/Intentive Absolute | |||
| -rawāš-<br/> -rawaš-<br/>-warāš-<br/> -waraš- <br/> -rwaš- | |||
| Indicates the speaker is determined that the state or event shall be fulfilled; if accompanied by a negator, it conveys the meaning "never". The "-warāš-/-waraš-" forms occur when preceded by the Transitivizer ''-u''; in the Upper Minhast dialects, excluding the Seal and Elk Speaker dialects, the underlying ''n''-form of the Transitivizer surfaces, e.g. ''Ušneknesunwaraš'' ("I will definitely hit him!") | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="7" | Deictics and Locationals | |||
|- | |||
! Proximal | |||
| -sāhā<br/>-asāhā<br/>-ssāhā | |||
| rowspan="4"| These forms are found only in the Salmonic and Horse Speaker dialects, and Classical Minhast. These lects do not have the deictic affixes found in the Preverb 2 slot, although the meanings and usage are virtually identical. They are listed here because of Classical Minhast's prestige status.<br/><br/> To complicate matters further, the Gull Speaker dialect has its deictic verbal affixes in this slot too, but their forms are different. Interestingly, the Gull Speaker affixes are cognate with [[Nankôre#Deictics| Nankôre deictic particles]], whereas cognates with other Minhast dialects have thus far been wanting. | |||
|- | |||
! Medio-Proximal | |||
| -naššāhā<br/>-CC-aššā | |||
|- | |||
! Distal | |||
| -waššāhā | |||
|- | |||
! Invisible | |||
| -hurtāhā | |||
|- | |||
! Cislocative | |||
| -sušma- | |||
| May also convey a ventive sense, e.g. "inward, inside" | |||
|- | |||
! Translocative | |||
| -tarħa- | |||
| May also convey an andative sense, e.g. "outward, outside" | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="2" | Emphatic Imperative | |||
| -ška | |||
| The Emphatic Imperative is usually used in cases of urgency, such as emergencies. Outside that, it is considered course or otherwise rude. Combining it with the Declarative/Intentive Absolute ''-rawaš-'' makes it egregiously so, e.g.: ''Yekayektahurwaška!'' "Lick me!" (obsc.) | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="4" | Subordinative | |||
! General | |||
| -mā <br/> -pā-<br/><br/>-pamā-<br/> -pāš-<br/>-pamāš- | |||
| English translation: "then, and then, that". This suffix is the most commonly encountered Subordinative affix. Its primary use is to link Sequential clauses. It also interacts with other verbal affixes in clause combining operations to form conditionals, complements, and other clause types. <br/><br/>The allomorph ''-pā/pamā'' is a fusion of the Antipassive affix ''-pi'' + ''-mā''. The allomorph ''-pāš/-pamāš'' is a fusion of the Antipassive affix ''-pi'' + ''-mā'' + Irrealis ''-š''. However, if any of the Evidentials, Miratives, Deictics, or Imperatives appear, the portmanteau cannot be used, as the Antipassive marker must appear immediately before the Intransitive suffix. | |||
|- | |||
! Purposive | |||
| -nimmā <br/>-pannamā-<br/>-pannamāš- | |||
| English translation: "in order to". The Irrealis ''-š'' may cliticize to this affix under certain conditions, such as for non-past tenses, hypothetical statements, counterfactuals, and any other situation where the verb marked by ''=nimmā'' was not realized. <br/><br/>The allomorph ''-pannamā'' is a portmanteau of the Antipassive with the Purposive, ''-pi'' + ''-nimmā''. Similarly, the form ''-pannamāš-'' is a fusion of the Antipassive, Purposive, and Irrealis markers, ''-pi'' + ''-mā'' + ''-nimmā-'' + ''-š''. However, if any of the Evidentials, Miratives, Deictics, or Imperatives appear, the portmanteau cannot be used. Instead, the Antipassive marker must appear immediately before the Intransitive suffix, whilst the Irrealis marker appears in verb-final position, unless the nominalizer ''-naft'' appears, in which case the Irrealis is placed before the nominalizer. | |||
|- | |||
! Quotative | |||
| -namā | |||
| Marks the following clause as direct speech, usually translated as "saying", or "thus, he said". This affix allows for the breaking of the S/O pivot. | |||
|- | |||
<!--! Indirect Quotative | |||
| -tamā | |||
| English: "(s/he) said that". Marks the following clause as indirect speech. | |||
|- | |||
--> | |||
|- | |||
! Consequential | |||
| -dur- <br/> -dūr- | |||
| Indicates the clause is a direct result of the preceding clause. May or may not be preceded by a ''-mā'' clause. If the Irrealis ''-š'' is attached, the affix's final consonant elides to the Irrealis, yielding the form ''-duš/dūš''. | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="2" |Irrealis | |||
| -š- | |||
| This affix marks the VP as an unrealized and/or hypothetical state or event. It is used in interrogatives, hortatives, and imperatives. Additionally, this affix, combined with the Consequential affix and certain sentential particles to form hypothetical and conterfactual clauses. This affix tends to elide any consonant before it; when it does, the vowel is lengthened, although this is usually not reflected in the orthography. | |||
<br/>The Irrealis is required with certain affixes, such as the Desiderative and allied forms, the Inclinative, all Future tenses, and evidentials.<br/><br/> | |||
The Irrealis is multifunctional. In addition to marking uncertain outcomes semantically inherent in the aforementioned affixes, it is used to form conditional clauses, marking the first clause (protasis) along with the general subordinator ''-mā'', as well as the following clause (apodosis) in conjunction with the Resultative ''-dūr'', e.g.''Iknatahanessammā-š, tamašiktaħnessun-dūš'', "If you go, he will hunt you down". It is also the usual way of forming imperatives, e.g. ''Hittaduytahā-š!'', "Give him some salmon!" | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="2" height="70" | Nominalizer | |||
| =naft <br/> =aft | |||
| The ''=naft'' form is used when preceded by a vowel, otherwise either ''=aft'' is used. | |||
|} | |||
== Derivation == | |||
With the morphological complexity of the Minhast verb, capable of encoding various grammatical categories like gender, number, transitivity, tense, aspect, valence, mood, and many other functions, it is striking that derivational morphology is sparse when compared to other languages. Nevertheless, Minhast does have derivational mechanisms that vary between productive processes, as well as the remnants of older processes that have now become fossilized and are considered independent roots in their own right. | |||
=== Noun Augmentation === | |||
In Modern Standard Minhast and the majority of dialects, [[Minhast#Augmentive_Nouns|Augmentation]], along with [[Minhast#Type_I_Noun_Incorporation_Derivation|Type I Noun Incorporation]], is the most prevalent form of derivation. Augmentation, in addition to its primary function of deriving larger versions of the noun root, can derive mass or collective nouns. Apart from its use in deriving a larger version of its base noun, derivation of new, semantically different nouns via augmentation does not occur on an ad-hoc basis, as is the case in NI-derived lexical items, but where a perceived need to describe a new objects and phenomena. As a result, augmentative nouns may differ between dialects, or even between local speech communities within the same dialectal region. This is a characteristic of "institutionalized" lexification. | |||
Besides deriving mass or collective nouns, the Augmentive is one way of creating new technological terminology, e.g.: | |||
*''arrarar'' telescope (lit. "big eye", from '' ar'' "eye") | |||
*''iptartaras'' bulldozer, backhoe (from ''iptas'' "hoe") | |||
Augmentation is restricted in most dialects to nouns roots or in instances where the root carries a corresponding semantically nominal meaning. Otherwise, augmentation of roots that are carry strictly verbal semantics cannot be nominalized by the standard nominalizer ''=naft''. However, some Lower Minhast dialects can derive nouns from verbal roots through the augmentation process, provided that the deverbal Participial affix ''-x-'' has been applied before augmentation. | |||
=== Type I Noun Incorporation === | |||
Another major mechanism for deriving new vocabulary is through exploiting the language's extensive use of noun incorporation. A subtype of NI, called "Type I Noun Incorporation", is exploited to create verb-noun compounds to derive new vocabulary. Through this process, new verbs ''and'' nouns may be formed. | |||
A few common Type I Noun Incorporation formations are used to derive instrumental, locative, and manner nouns: | |||
*Instrument: Verb root + ''-sesp'' (from ''sepsir'' "hand"), e.g. ''kirismesp'' (lit. "speak-hand", i.e. "phone, cellular") | |||
*Location: Verb root + ''-kia(n)/-tappe'' (from ''kian''/''tappe'' "place"), e.g. ''kirinkian'' (lit. "speak-place", i.e. "auditorium"). <ref>The Salmonic dialects have an alternative suffix, ''-anki'', for deriving locative nouns, e.g. , ''saranki'' (lit. "see-place", i.e. "observation deck"). This suffix also appears in eastern varieties of the Horse Speaker dialect, an apparent development from dialectal mixing.</ref>,<ref>In the Gull Speaker dialect, Locative nouns are derived by adding the suffix ''-ru'' which elides with any preceding consonant and triggers gemination, e.g. ''kirir<u>ru</u>''. The Gull Speaker ''-ru'' is not derived from Type I incorporation but is instead a bonafide affix that may have come from a substratum language.</ref> | |||
*Manner: Verb root + ''-tak'' (from "style; way of doing something), e.g. ''kirimtak/kirintak'' (lit. "speak-way", i.e. "presentation", as in a business presentation/proposal; "delivery, oratory style") | |||
Other Type I Noun Incorporation compound derivations: | |||
*''ittahipna'' - computer, derived from ''yittahi'' (to think) + ''tihipna'' (storage chest). This noun has an irregular NI form: ''-tahipn-'' | |||
The prevalence of compounding extends to the noun phrase as well, mainly by noun-noun compounding: | |||
*''akkikruppumak'' - "Westerner", from ''akkik min ruppumak'' (lit. "Hairy-Face"). Irregular NI form: ''udak'' (lit: evil person) | |||
* ''gubbakkūni'' - war chieftain, admiral, general, from ''gubbāt min ikkūne'' (lit. war leader) | |||
*''apirtammus'' - grenade, derived from ''āpir'' (fire) + ''tammus'' (egg). Irregular NI form: ''-aptammus-'' | |||
* ''teymekšumbat'' - missile, derived from ''tayyamak'' (thunder) + ''šumbat'' (arrow). Irreg. NI form: ''-teššumbat-'' | |||
Note that either one or both of the members of words derived from compounding may experience some syllabic truncation, and often have irregular NI forms, or even no NI form, as in the case of ''gubbakkūni''. Sometimes syllabic truncation during noun-noun compounding becomes extreme to the point that the original noun becomes unrecognizable, for all intents and purpose becoming a derivational affix: | |||
*''<u>gu</u>-hūr'' "fortress; military base" (from ''gubbat min hūr'', lit. "war mountain)" | |||
*''ittahipn-<u>errad</u>'' "computer programmer", from ''ittahipna'' + ''redad'' (lit. "computer man") | |||
<!-- //Commented these out because they still don't act like nouns - they can't take Case Marking, for instance or serve as Agents or Patients | |||
Sometimes derivations may be created by affixing verbal affixes to a verb or noun root, excluding the Post-TA and succeeding verbal slots: | |||
* ''ixrikirim < *xr-kirim'' ITER-speak => "loquaciousness" | |||
*''ixrikirimtar < *xr-kirim-tar'' ITER-speak-DISTR => "gossip, rumour" | |||
When combined with NI of ''nea'' (thing), an abstract noun may be formed: | |||
*''ixrikirinnētar < *xr-kirim-nea-tar'' ITER-speak-thing-DISTR => "thing(s) being gossiped about" | |||
*''intaxrišarkirinnētar < *inta-xr-šar-kirim-nē-tar'' INTENS-ITER-RFLX-speak-about.thing-DISTR => "philosophy" (lit. "Intensely talking back and forth to oneself about various things'') | |||
These complex verbal derivations, when accompanied by the Inclinative or the Habitative affix plus the Detransitivizer + Nominalizer, may derive profession nouns or indicate a person who engages in the activity indicated by the verb root or complex. The result is a nominalized verb: | |||
*''ixripniškirimtarannaft < * xr-pniš-kirim-tar-an-naft'' ITER-INCL-speak-DISTR-DETRANS-NMLZ => "gossiper" | |||
Derivations resulting from a verb root plus one or more verbal affixes, be it a nominalization or otherwise, cannot undergo NI. | |||
--> | |||
The Diminutive had been long falling out of use, but has been revived in the modern language to coin new terms as well: | |||
*''iptis'' forceps (also from ''iptas'' "hoe") | |||
=== Gender-number Differentiation === | |||
Gender-number differentiation, the assignment of different grammatical genders and/or number to a lexical root, is exploited frequently to derive collective and mass nouns, and their corresponding count forms. Typically, a lexically collective or mass noun is assigned as a neuter inanimate singular noun, whilst their singulative forms are assigned to either to the third person masculine singular form, or the third person '''plural''' feminine form. The pluralization of the singulative forms usually involves assigning them to the neuter animate singular form. | |||
===Reduplication=== | |||
Partial or full reduplication of verb roots may also derive intensive or atelic verbs. They may also create onomatopoeic verbs, or in place of the Mitigative affix, attenuate the intensity of a verb: | |||
*''yakyakan'' (to be stranded) < ''yakan'' (to be still, static, unmoving) | |||
*''nurruran'' (to pour) < ''nurran'' (to spill) | |||
=== Affixal Derivation === | |||
==== Telicity ==== | |||
A process for deriving new verbs occurs via application of the Telicity affixes, the Durative ''-ħtaš'' and the Semelfactive ''-minn-''. Technically telicity is a type of aspect, but unlike other aspect markers, which can be spontaneously employed in a single utterance, these affixes serve a more derivational purpose; their function is chiefly semantic as opposed to syntactic. For example, the verb root ''-dāwap-'' "to drip", when prefixed with the Durative, creates the derived verb ''-ħtaštāwap-'', which means "to trickle", and the verb root ''-sar-'' (to see) becomes ''-ħtassar-'' (to watch). Examples of derivation with the Semalfactive include ''-minnisasšši-'' "to sit down" from the verb root ''-sašši-'' "to sit" and ''-minnittaħš-'' "to seize (violently)" from the verb ''-ittaħš-'' "to take, to have"<ref>Semantically, "to take" is a semelfactive verb, but semantic bleaching of ''-ittaħš-'' has occurred with this root, originally meaning "to take" in Classical Minhast. Classical Minhast used the verb root ''-kta-'' (properly, "to own") to secondarily express "to have". In the modern dialects where ''-kta-'' survives, it either retains its original meaning, or "to steal" (Osprey Speaker dialect), "to pick up from the ground" (Salmonic and Horse Speaker dialects), and "to gain, to come into possession (usually by purchase, barter, or other form of trade)" (Gull Speaker dialect).</ref>. | |||
==== Other Affixes ==== | |||
*The Salmonic dialects retain the Classical Minhast suffix ''-anki'' for deriving locative deverbals, e.g. ''saranki'' (lit. "see-place", i.e. "observation deck"), although there is a growing preference for using Type I noun incorporation in the Salmon Speaker dialect due to Horse Speaker influence. (See earlier discussion on Type I verb-noun derivational compounding). The Wolf Speaker dialect, in contrast, overwhelmingly prefers ''-anki''. This suffix appears rarely in Modern Standard Minhast, and only in words of Salmonic origin. | |||
*In the Gull Speaker dialect, ''-ru'', derives locative nouns from verbs. This suffix is the hallmark of the dialect, although the suffix has appeared in the City Speaker dialect, and its use appears to be increasing. (See earlier discussion on Type I verb-noun derivational compounding). | |||
*The Gerundial ''-x-'' is becoming more frequently used, particularly for forming technological terminology. | |||
*One major derivational affix that is associated with nouns is the suffix ''-ast'', which forms demonyms. Ironically, the word ''Minhast'' was not derived from this affix; it was derived from Proto-Minhast ''Nēn u θyatsə'' or ''Nēn u θyats'', which means "The True People Who Use the Spear" (c.f. Nankôre ''nan'' "human", Nahónda ''non, nahón'' "the People", ''yatsa'' "spike"). | |||
==== Fossilized Suffixes ==== | |||
A few non-productive derivational suffixes occur occasionally in the standard language, with increasing frequency in the Upper Minhast dialects. These affixes are considered fossilized, but Classical Minhast texts indicate they could be generated spontaneously. The most common ones found in the standard language are: | |||
* ''-(u)mbāt'': found mostly in collective nouns, and some abstract nouns. These nouns come from Salmonic dialects and Classical Minhast sources; | |||
* ''-ummāt, -mmāt'': also found mostly in collective nouns, and some abstract nouns. These nouns come from Horse Speaker sources and are cognate with Salmonic ''-(u)mbāt''; | |||
* ''-(u)m/(u)n'': derives locative nouns, e.g. ''aldu-<u>m</u>'' "school" (from ''aldu'' "learn" + ''-m'') and sometimes verbal nouns. Survives with some frequency in some Salmon Speaker toponyms and a few rare instances in the Horse Speaker dialect; the Gull Speaker cities Bundarun and Bayburim are believed to be a combination of the Gullic ''-rū'' affix plus this apparently Upper Minhast-derived suffix. | |||
* ''-pnis'': habitual activities; words containing this suffix indicate Upper Minhast origins; | |||
* ''-niwak'': habitual activities that occur daily; sometimes indicates a profession. Most noticeable in the term ''hupniwak'', tools associated with carrying out daily functions, e.g. a flint stone for lighting fire (this term has also become a derogatory term for the City Speakers, since they serve as "tools" for administering domestic policy); | |||
* ''-pa'': a deverbal that tends to denote abstract activities requiring several actors, e.g. ''nuyye-'' (to form an alliance), ''nuyye-pa'' (politics). C.f. Nankôre ''Hôkun Pe''' "tribal council, meeting place". | |||
* ''-uyyi''/''-ūy'': found mostly in abstract and some place nouns. Derived respectively from Horse Speaker and Salmon Speaker sources, words containing these fossilized suffixes have not been adopted in great numbers into Modern Standard Minhast due to speakers from other dialects having pronunciation difficulties with the ''uy(yi)'' sequence. | |||
* ''-a'': affix for deriving concrete, usually domestic and other common items, from a stative verb root, e.g. ''hamašni-a'' "mattress/cushion", from ''hamašni-an'', "to be comfortable to sit/lie/stand/lean/rest on" | |||
<!-- | |||
This is an old chart...can we salvage part of it? | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|+ style="TEXT-ALIGN: left;"| '''Derivational Affixes''' | |||
|- | |||
! style="TEXT-ALIGN: center;width:200px" |'''Affix''' | |||
! style="TEXT-ALIGN: center" | '''Gloss/Meaning''' | |||
|- | |||
| -hupnia | |||
| instrumental affix | |||
|- | |||
| -śnia,-śn | |||
| consisting of | |||
|- | |||
| -pniś | |||
| propensity towards | |||
|- | |||
| -pna | |||
| abstract affix, "-tude,-ity","-ness" | |||
|- | |||
| -sset | |||
| temporal affix, "time of" | |||
|- | |||
| -kian /kjan/ [çʲɐ̯n] | |||
| locative affix | |||
|- | |||
| -(n)niwak,-nwak | |||
| occupational affix, "one who engages in an activity" | |||
|- | |||
| -tak, -Vtka (V=a: -atk) | |||
| intransitive/transitive manner affix, "the manner of engaging in an activity; the manner of being" | |||
|- | |||
| -(a)rat| -(a)rt | |||
| the result of an action or event | |||
|- | |||
| -mbat, -umbat, -numbat| -(n)(u)mmat | |||
| similarity of the action/event/state of the verb; also serves as an abstraction affix like "-pna" | |||
|} | |||
== Derivation == | |||
Minhast relies on NI, often in combination with nominalization, to derive nouns from verbs. Compounding is also used to derive new vocabulary; often this compounding derives from Type I noun incorporation, or a noun phrase (oftentimes a quasi-verb noun) that was originally a ''min'' construction, but due to frequent use the ''min'' connective was eroded and additional morphophonetic changes derived a new noun. Combinations of Type I noun incorporation and nominalization also occur. A few examples of the derivational processes that Minhast employs are illustrated as follows: | |||
* Occupation: Type I Noun Incorporation + Nominalization: ''rayy-'' + verb root/complex , e.g. ''raysilapkannaft'' >> ''rayy-silap-gāl=naft'' person-ride.horse- i.e. "horseman" (Horse Speaker dialect); | |||
* Place: Quasi-verb NP + NP Compounding: Verb root/complex + ''kian-/kyan/tappe'', e.g. ''gubbattustappe'' >> ''gubbāt-dust-tappe'' >>'' gubbāt-dust min tappe'' make.war-RECIP.ADVERS-location, i.e. "battlefield" (Salmon Speaker dialect) | |||
* Time: Quasi-verb NP + NP Compounding: Verb root/complex + ''-ummak'', e.g. ''gubbattustummak'' >> ''gubbāt-dust-ummak'' >> ''gubbāt-dust min ummak'' make.war-RECIP.ADVERS-time.of.doing.something, i.e. "wartime" (Salmon Speaker dialect) | |||
* Instrument: Type I Noun Incorporation, e.g. ''isangarsakua'' >> ''isangar-sakua'' >> make.light.with.flame-drinking.glass, i.e. "light bulb" | |||
* Manner: Type I Noun Incorporation Verb root/complex + ''tak'' (manner, style), e.g. ''hipsakirimtak'' >> ''hipsa-kirim-tak'' >> MITG-speak-manner, i.e. "soft-spoken (manner)" | |||
--> | |||
== Particles == | |||
===Existentials=== | |||
Minhast uses two particles in Existential clauses, ''matti'' to indicate the presence of an entity, and ''hambin'' to indicate absence. Both particles can be marked for tense. ''Matti'' is joined to its head by the connective ''min'' or one of its allomorphs, whereas ''hambin'' is not. There is a diachronic reason for ''hambin'''s deviation from using the ''min'' particle. The particle's original form originated from the Old Minhast phrase ''*hatāʔ mattiaʔ emin'', which does contain the old form of the ''min'' connective. But by Middle Classical Minhast, the phrase had eroded to ''hammᵊmin'', and finally became its present-day form ''hambin''. So in a sense, the negative existential particle still has the ''min'' connective, but in a highly eroded form. | |||
The following table shows the existential particles with their tense conjugations:<br/> | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|+ '''The Existential Particles ''Matti'' and ''Hambin''''' | |||
! Form | |||
! Basic | |||
! Past Tense | |||
! Immediate Future | |||
! Future | |||
|- | |||
! Positive | |||
| matti min, mattim, matti | |||
| mattarim | |||
| mattanem | |||
| massātum | |||
|- | |||
! Negative | |||
| hambin | |||
| hambarin | |||
| hambanem | |||
| hambessum <br/> hambāssatum | |||
|} | |||
<br/> | <br/> | ||
The NP heads marked by ''matti'' and ''hambin'' must be in the Absolutive, as in the following examples: ''"Matti min redad"'' (There is a man, somebody is there) and ''"Hambin redad"'' (There is no man, nobody is here). The existential particles may precede a clause, in which case they are joined to the clause using the Preposed-''Wa'' structure, as in the following example: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Hambin redad, waššaħkurkitahuš | |||
|IPA = | |||
| morphemes = Hambin redad, wa=šak-hurk-tah-u=š | |||
| gloss = NEG.EXIST man CONN=DESID-harm-2S.ABS-TRANS=IRREAL | |||
| translation = There is no man (here) who wants to harm you. | |||
}} | |||
The form ''matti'' without the Connective ''min'' is common in informal speech, although this form is eschewed in the Salmonic and Horse Speaker dialects. | |||
These structures use an S/A pivot for the coreferrent NP of each clause, rather than the expected S/O pivot. This is an example of split ergativity manifesting at the syntactic level in Minhast, which is otherwise very strict in maintaining ergativity at both the morphological and syntactic levels. | |||
===Demonstrative Particles=== | |||
The demonstrative particles can be divided into two classes, a spatial class and a temporal class. Both classes, with a few exceptions, have at least three forms, an independent form, and two forms for preposed ''wa='' and postposed ''wa='' constructions. | |||
The spatial class also has an Interjective form, usually best translated as "Here ''x'' is/are!", "There ''x'' is/are!" The forms that are bound by the ''wa='' Connective always require a clause to bind to. In contrast, the Interjective forms must immediately precede standalone NPs, thus they are not bound by the ''wa='' Connective and cannot be followed by or embedded within a clause. | |||
Note that the Interjective forms are derived from different roots. The particle ''ne'' often follows them to provide additional reinforcement, e.g. ''Eyha ne''. In some dialects, ''ne'' cliticizes to the Interjective form, accompanied with gemination, e.g. ''Eyhanne'' /eɪhan:'e/. Note irregular pronunciation, with stress falling on the ultimate syllable. | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|+ '''Spatial Deictics''' | |||
|- | |||
! Type | |||
! Independent Form | |||
! Preposed ''Wa='' Form | |||
! Postposed ''Wa='' Form | |||
! Interjective Form | |||
|- | |||
! Proximal | |||
| sappu | |||
| sappu wa= | |||
| wassappu | |||
| eyha | |||
|- | |||
! Medio-Proximal | |||
| naš | |||
| naš wa= | |||
| wannaši | |||
| tāra | |||
|- | |||
! Distal | |||
| wašia | |||
| wašša= | |||
| wassaše | |||
| kāmu <br/> kammu <br/> aššak | |||
|- | |||
! Invisible | |||
| hūrit | |||
| hūritta= | |||
| wahūrit | |||
| (n/a) | |||
|} | |||
Just as Minhast has an array of deictic markers that encode proximity and distance from the speaker, the language has an array of particles encoding temporal relations: | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|+ '''Temporal Deictics''' | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="2" | Type | |||
! Independent Form | |||
! Preposed ''Wa='' Form | |||
! Postposed ''Wa='' Form | |||
! Meaning | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="2" | Present | |||
| | |||
# attim | |||
# damikmān | |||
| attim wa= | |||
| wattim | |||
| | |||
# now | |||
# at this very moment | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" | Past | |||
! Proximal | |||
| | |||
# runa | |||
# damikmān<ref>C.f. Classical Minhast ''dam-km-ar-an'' (lit. they fell to the ground, spilled, scattered on the floor)</ref> | |||
| runa wa= | |||
| warruna | |||
| | |||
<span style="padding-left:30px">just a while ago</span> | |||
|- | |||
! Distal | |||
| | |||
# demaħt | |||
# damikman | |||
| demaħte wa= | |||
| n/a | |||
| | |||
# a long time ago | |||
# once upon a time | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" | Future | |||
! Proximal | |||
| | |||
# sukku | |||
# damikmān | |||
| sukku wa= | |||
| wassukku | |||
| | |||
<span style="padding-left:30px">soon</span> | |||
|- | |||
! Distal | |||
| | |||
# saħrap | |||
# damikman | |||
| saħrap wa | |||
| wassaħrap | |||
| | |||
# <span style="padding-right:30px">sometime later, months or <br/>perhaps even years later</span> | |||
# perhaps later | |||
|} | |||
As tense in Minhast is relative, all temporal particles operate under a relative time reference, a reference based not on the speech act, but on the connected discourse of the speaker's narrative. | |||
The particle ''damikmān'' can refer to the recent past, present or future time as well, dependent on its exact semantic meaning from the tense marker in the verb, whereas the other temporal markers mark explicit time spaces independent of the verb's tense marker. | |||
Native speakers report that ''damikmān'' conveys a hightened sense of uncertainty because of its sole reliance on the verb's tense marker, but based on both data from both recorded speech and texts, the particle oftentimes appears to mark definite endpoints in relation to a reference point that is recoverable by all speech participants. | |||
One final note on ''damikmān'': the particle always appears at the head of a clause and cannot be preceded by a ''wa''-Construction, nor can it be followed by a ''wa''-Construction. | |||
Textual examples of the use of ''damikmān'' illustrate how the particle derives its semantic meaning in marking a time reference: | |||
1) Example of Remote Past: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Damikmān Anyar iknatūmašnerrannimmāš raħkibayherradikminessuš. | |||
|IPA = | |||
| morphemes = damikmān anyar kna-∅-šerr-an-nimm-mā-š raħk-bayhe-redad-km-ness-u-š | |||
| gloss = PTCL PN.ABS go-NOM-RMT.PST-INTR-PURP-SUB-IRR APPL.ABL-seek.help-men-3S.ACC+3P.NOM-FUT-TRN-IRR | |||
| translation = On that day, Anyar went [to Attum Attar] to seek help from their men. | |||
}} | |||
2) Example of Recent Past: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Damikmān Izzye išpisaxlaxmakkarusašša. | |||
|IPA = | |||
| morphemes = damikmān izzye šp-saxt-laxmakk-ar-u-sašša | |||
| gloss = PTCL father CAUS-INCH-anger-PST-INTR-SEMB | |||
| translation = It seems that he angered Dad a few days ago. | |||
}} | |||
3) Example of Future: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Damikmān Yešker hanessanwašša. | |||
|IPA = | |||
| morphemes = damikmān yešker ha-ness-an-wašša | |||
| gloss = PTCL PN come-FUT-INTR-INFER | |||
| translation = Yešker should be arriving soon. | |||
}} | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|+ Other Temporal Adverbs | |||
|- | |||
! Type | |||
! Independent Form | |||
! Preposed ''Wa='' Form | |||
! Postposed ''Wa='' Form | |||
! Meaning | |||
|- | |||
! Proximal | |||
| tūmeymasn | |||
| n/a | |||
| n/a | |||
| today | |||
=== Credits === | |||
I would like to thank [[User:Nicolasstraccia|Nicolás Straccia]] for providing me inspiration and help on developing the Minhast dialectology. | |||
== | === External Websites === | ||
Future Official Website at Conlangs.org (a work in progress): | |||
https://minhast.conlang.org/ | |||
==== YouTube ==== | |||
Music Videos: | |||
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sed5FRn1sGU Urasmaran Niniwāzintaheknesuš "I Will Shoot Even the Stars For You" (cc)] | |||
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wg0DmtmW9OI Kaymawākanim Lahasmeššente "Kaymawākan's Song"] | |||
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jlMott2bDhE Yusap min Laham "Rain Song" (cc)] | |||
==== Sound Cloud ==== | |||
*[https://soundcloud.com/nickcamporillo/the-black-horse-carries-my-beloved-with-drum The Black Horse Carries My Beloved] | |||
*[https://soundcloud.com/nickcamporillo/gaggadi-min-sumbatide-a-thousand-arrows Gaggādi min Sumbātide "A Thousand Arrows"] | |||
*[https://soundcloud.com/nickcamporillo/a-mothers-tale?in=nickcamporillo/sets/minhast-songs Menā' min Darattillide<ref>On 1/2023, the 3NEUT.INAMIM + 3FS affix was changed to '-tišš-' to create a diachronic link with Nankôre, via the Nankôre-Minhast sound correspondence -r-/-šš- . So the realised form is "Darrattiššide"</ref> "A Mother's Tale"] | |||
== | ==== Blogs ==== | ||
Tumblr: | |||
[https://suyampamit.tumblr.com/ Suyampamit] | |||
==== Mirrors ==== | |||
The Minhast language is mirrored at these other sites | The Minhast language is mirrored at these other sites | ||
* Minhast - Geopoeia: http://www.geopoeia.net/wiki/Minhast<br/> | |||
Minhast - | * Minhast - Frathwiki: http://www.frathwiki.com/minhast | ||
Minhast | * The Minhast Language Page: http://www.freewebs.com/nickcamporillo/ (NB: This is ''very'' old stuff)<br/> | ||
[[category:Languages]] | |||
[[category:Conlangs]] | [[category:Conlangs]] | ||
[[category:Artlangs]] | [[category:Artlangs]] | ||
[[category:A priori]] | [[category:A priori]] | ||