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There are also '''tense markers''' which are added to the above stems to form the base for other TAM:
There are also '''tense markers''' which are added to the above stems to form the base for other TAM:
* the '''future''' formant is ''-iṣy-'' (or ''-ṣy-'' after vowels), added to the past stem (more precisely, to the zero grade root<ref>While there is no difference for most verbs, this is meaningful in the case of verbs with suppletive stems: for example, ''meś-'' has the suppletive past stem ''āsmy-'', but the future stem is ''miśiṣy-''.</ref>);
* the '''future''' formant is ''-iṣy-'' (or ''-ṣy-'' after vowels), added to the past stem (more precisely, to the zero grade root<ref>While there is no difference for most verbs, this is meaningful in the case of verbs with suppletive stems: for example, ''meś-'' has the suppletive past stem ''āsmy-'', but the future stem is ''miśiṣy-''.</ref>);
* the formant of the so-called '''future intentional''' is ''-āḍ-'', added to the perfect stem;
* the '''situational''' is formed with the marker ''-āp-'', added to either the zero grade root or the perfect stem.
* the '''situational''' is formed with the marker ''-āp-'', added to either the zero grade root or the perfect stem.


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* Frequentative: frequentative stem + frequentative terminations
* Frequentative: frequentative stem + frequentative terminations
* Future: future "stem" + perfect terminations
* Future: future "stem" + perfect terminations
* Future intentional: future intentional "stem" + perfect terminations
* Imperfective situational: zero grade root plus ''-āp-'' formant + present terminations
* Imperfective situational: zero grade root plus ''-āp-'' formant + present terminations
* Perfective situational: perfect stem with ''-āp-'' formant + perfect terminations
* Perfective situational: perfect stem with ''-āp-'' formant + perfect terminations
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The forms with vowel in the present are used after a consonant; the 3SG form is therefore a zero-marker in many common forms such as after the agent trigger (cf. ''teṇa'' "3SG is fed" and ''teṇū'' "3SG feeds").
The forms with vowel in the present are used after a consonant; the 3SG form is therefore a zero-marker in many common forms such as after the agent trigger (cf. ''teṇa'' "3SG is fed" and ''teṇū'' "3SG feeds").
Note that the perfect 2PL termination ''-iśa'' becomes ''-iṣa'' when immediately after the future intentional marker ''-āḍ-'', assimilating to the preceding retroflex, therefore resulting in ''-āḍ-iṣa''.


Exclusively for the dative argument, there is a set of dative terminations that show indirect object concord in all voices except for dative-trigger. The terminations are the same as the [[#Possessive_suffixes|possessive suffixes]] used with nouns, except for 1SG and 1DU having ''-m-'' instead of ''-b-'' as the thematic consonant:
Exclusively for the dative argument, there is a set of dative terminations that show indirect object concord in all voices except for dative-trigger. The terminations are the same as the [[#Possessive_suffixes|possessive suffixes]] used with nouns, except for 1SG and 1DU having ''-m-'' instead of ''-b-'' as the thematic consonant:
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! colspan=2 | !! <small>1SG</small> !! <small>2SG</small> !!<small>3SG</small> !! <small>1DU</small> !! <small>2DU</small> !! <small>3DU</small> !! <small>1PL</small> !! <small>2PL</small> !! <small>3PL</small>
! colspan=2 | !! <small>1SG</small> !! <small>2SG</small> !!<small>3SG</small> !! <small>1DU</small> !! <small>2DU</small> !! <small>3DU</small> !! <small>1PL</small> !! <small>2PL</small> !! <small>3PL</small>
|-
|-
! rowspan=6 | Indicative !! Present
! rowspan=5 | Indicative !! Present
| śroh || śravi  || śro || śroba || śrosa || śroḍa || śravevu || śroḫo || śravāhai
| śroh || śravi  || śro || śroba || śrosa || śroḍa || śravevu || śroḫo || śravāhai
|-
|-
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! Future
! Future
| śrūṣyam || śrūṣyī || śrūṣya || śrūṣyara || śrūṣyari || śrūṣya || śrūṣyima || śrūṣyiśa || śrūṣya
| śrūṣyam || śrūṣyī || śrūṣya || śrūṣyara || śrūṣyari || śrūṣya || śrūṣyima || śrūṣyiśa || śrūṣya
|-
! Future intentional
| uśrūvāḍam || uśrūvāḍī || uśrūvāḍa || uśrūvāḍara || uśrūvāḍari || uśrūvāḍa || uśrūvāḍima || uśrūvāḍiṣa || uśrūvāḍa
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Subjunctive !! Imperfective
! rowspan=2 | Subjunctive !! Imperfective
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: '''ᘔ00''' <small>(1440<sub>10</sub>)</small> tāldatrāṣoḍa
: '''ᘔ00''' <small>(1440<sub>10</sub>)</small> tāldatrāṣoḍa
: '''Ɛ00''' <small>(1584<sub>10</sub>)</small> ṣūḍantrāṣoḍa.
: '''Ɛ00''' <small>(1584<sub>10</sub>)</small> ṣūḍantrāṣoḍa.
'''1.000''' <small>(1728<sub>10</sub>)</small> is ''śāyāja'' and numbers above are separate words, without saṃdhi, e.g. '''1.001''' ''śāyāja emibe'', '''6.2ᘔ9''' <small>(10785<sub>10</sub>)</small> ''ūṃse śāyāja rirätrāṣoḍatāldamūmaiḍor̃a''.<br/>
'''1.000''' <small>(1728<sub>10</sub>)</small> is ''śāyāja'' and numbers above are separate words, without saṃdhi, e.g. '''1.001''' ''śāyāja emibe'', '''6.2ᘔ9''' <small>(10785<sub>10</sub>)</small> ''tuɂla śāyāja rirätrāṣoḍatāldamūmaiḍor̃a''.<br/>
Note that 2.000<sub>12</sub> may be either one of ''śāyājeve'', ''rirä śāyāja'' - the most common one -, or (only emphatically) ''rirä śāyājeve''.
Note that 2.000<sub>12</sub> may be either one of ''śāyājeve'', ''rirä śāyāja'' - the most common one -, or (only emphatically) ''rirä śāyājeve''.


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====Postpositions====
====Postpositions====
* '''araṇa''' (+ bound form (accusative in formal usage)) is an ornative particle, originally a perfect form of the class 0 root ''raṇ-'' (to equip, to confer), e.g. ''dvārmev '''araṇa''' līve'' (formal: ''dvārmeyītha araṇa līve'') "two-room flat".
* '''araṇa''' (+ bound form (accusative in formal usage)) is an ornative particle, originally a perfect form of the class 0 root ''raṇ-'' (to equip, to confer), e.g. ''dvārmev '''araṇa''' līve'' (formal: ''dvārmeyītha araṇa līve'') "two-room flat".
====Particles expressing time====
The following table shows the main particles used for expressions of time, which can have different meanings depending on the cases used:
'''N.B.''' that the "weekdays" used in the table (''emibe-laire'', ''rirä-laire'' etc.) simply mean "day 1", "day 2" etc. and are placeholders used as long as the Dundulanyä calendar is not detailed.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Particle !! Case/Mood !! Meaning !! Example
|-
! rowspan=5 | selakat !! <small>Ablative</small>
| ago || '''nältū naṃśālū selakat''' four years ago
|-
! <small>Bound form</small>
| for/since || '''nälte naṃśāla selakat''' for four years
|-
! <small>Bound forms and ''-t'' clitic</small>
| between; from ... until || '''emibe-lairet rirä-lairet selakat''' between Weekday1 and Weekday2
|-
! <small>Imperfective subjunctive</small>
| until (action underway) || '''drūvāt selakat''' until you'll do it, until you'll be doing it
|-
! <small>Perfective subjunctive</small>
| until (completed action) || '''adrūvāt selakat''' until you'll have done it
|-
! rowspan=4 | biśat !! <small>Ablative</small>
| in ... time<br/><small>(at the end of a certain period of time)</small><br/>by || '''nältū naṃśālū biśat''' in four years, four years from now<br/>'''śulka-lairū biśat''' by Weekday5
|-
! <small>Bound form</small>
| in<br/><small>(within, during a certain period of time)</small> || '''nälte naṃśāla biśat''' for the coming four years, until four years from now
|-
! <small>Imperfective situational</small>
| as long as (action underway) || '''drāpūvi biśat''' as long as you are/will be doing it, throughout the whole time you are/will be doing it
|-
! <small>Perfective situational</small>
| as long as, before (completed action) || '''adrāpūvī biśat''' throughout the whole time until you did/will have done it
|-
! rowspan=3 | prāyo !! <small>Bound form</small>
| rowspan=3 | after || '''nälte naṃśāla prāyo''' after four years
|-
! <small>Imperfective subjunctive</small><sup>1</sup>
| '''drūvāt prāyo''' after you('ll have) started doing it
|-
! <small>Perfective subjunctive</small><sup>1</sup>
| '''adrūvāt prāyo''' after you did/will have done it
|-
! rowspan=3 | anuyo !! <small>Bound form</small>
| rowspan=3 | before || '''nälte naṃśāla anuyo''' four years before
|-
! <small>Imperfective subjunctive</small><sup>1</sup>
| '''drūvāt anuyo''' before you('ll have) started doing it
|-
! <small>Perfective subjunctive</small><sup>1</sup>
| '''adrūvāt anuyo''' before you did/will have done it
|}
# '''prāyo''' and '''anuyo''' are particles; in colloquial, informal and neutral styles, the corresponding adverbs '''prāśā''' (after) and '''anuśā''' (before) can be used instead in the phrases with subjunctive verbs.


===Derivational morphology (''vāb̃lavona hufāmvailaḫlana'')===
===Derivational morphology (''vāb̃lavona hufāmvailaḫlana'')===
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The typical organization of the sentence is, therefore:
The typical organization of the sentence is, therefore:


'''Sentence with explicit topic:'''<br/>
{| class="wikitable"
explicit topic — temporal complement — (anti)benefactives — compl. of manner~essive case — locative complements — semantic patient — semantic agent — direct argument — verb — sentence-final particles
|+ Sentence with explicit topic
|-
| Explicit topic || Temporal complement || (Anti)benefactives || Compl. of manner;<br/>essive case || Locative complements || Semantic patient || Semantic agent || Direct argument || Verb || Sentence-final particles
|}


'''Sentence with unmarked topic:'''<br/>
{| class="wikitable"
unmarked topic — temporal complement — (anti)benefactives — compl. of manner~essive case — locative complements — semantic patient — semantic agent — verb — sentence-final particles
|+ Sentence with unmarked topic
|-
| Unmarked topic || Temporal complement || (Anti)benefactives || Compl. of manner;<br/>essive case || Locative complements || Semantic patient || Semantic agent || Verb || Sentence-final particles
|}


Note that temporal complements may, in certain circumstances, act as if they were explicit topics, but not marked with ''ba''. In that case, the structure followed is, in fact, the same as for sentences with explicit topics, i.e. with the direct argument immediately preceding the verb.
Note that temporal complements may, in certain circumstances, act as if they were explicit topics, but not marked with ''ba''. In that case, the structure followed is, in fact, the same as for sentences with explicit topics, i.e. with the direct argument immediately preceding the verb.
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}}
}}


Sentences can act as unmarked topics of other sentences, see e.g. the following rather more complex example:
Sentences can act as unmarked topics of other sentences, see e.g. the following rather more complex examples:
{{Gloss
| phrase = naviṣya ubukhāyē guntī; lūnūbhoba ga ṣurṭāgī lilarān.
| morphemes = naviṣya ubukhai-ē gunt-∅-∅-ī lūnūbhoba ga ṣurṭāg-ī lila-rān
| gloss = book.<small>DIR.SG</small>. Ubukhai-<small>ERG.SG</small>. buy-<small>EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND</small>. writer.<small>DIR.SG</small>. <small>COP</small>. Skyrdagor-<small>BOUND.PL</small>. person.<small>DIR.SG-3PL.POSS</small>.
| translation = Ubukhai bought a book; the author is Skyrdagor.<ref>Example taken from [https://www.reddit.com/r/conlangs/comments/1bop7pa/2034th_just_used_5_minutes_of_your_day/ the translation activity "''2034th Just Used 5 Minutes of Your Day''"] started by u/mareck_ on the r/conlangs subreddit, Mar 27, 2024, adapted for the purpose of this page.</ref>
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = tainah haice nusmai sure ravikai gālavī, didya, bāhṛmū ajalsāgi mimendnābgī va tūva gaujulḍa kilahmullat yunat himena khurūvoba gālorap.
| phrase = tainah haice nusmai sure ravikai gālavī, didya, bāhṛmū ajalsāgi mimendnābgī va tūva gaujulḍa kilahmullat yunat himena khurūvoba gālorap.
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| gloss = three-<small>ABL</small>. book-<small>ABL.SG</small>. see-<small>EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND</small>. lie_on-<small>EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND</small>. cat-<small>ABL.SG</small>=and.
| gloss = three-<small>ABL</small>. book-<small>ABL.SG</small>. see-<small>EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND</small>. lie_on-<small>EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND</small>. cat-<small>ABL.SG</small>=and.
| translation = I see the three books, as well as the cat lying on them.
| translation = I see the three books, as well as the cat lying on them.
}}
===Explicit and unmarked topic===
Explicit topic (''iḍiṭa tatsampra'') is typically used for marking an element that has a semantic but not syntactic role in the sentence. Many basic sentences make use of explicit topicalization, such as existentials, predicative possessions, or telling one's age:
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba mūmaiḍor̃esi lo.
| morphemes = yuna ba mūmaiḍor̃-esi lo-∅-∅-∅
| gloss = <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. 19<sub>12</sub>-<small>ORD.DIR</small>. go-<small>EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND</small>.
| translation = I am in my 19<sub>12</sub>th year of age. <small>''(i.e. I am 20<sub>10</sub>.)''<ref>Dundulanyä age reckoning counts the number of the ongoing year, not how many years have passed - thus a newborn is in their first year, and a 20-years-old is in their twenty-first year.</ref></small>
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba ñältēve tedīya.
| morphemes = yuna ba ñält-ēve ta<ı>dī-∅-∅-a
| gloss = <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. sister-<small>DIR.DU</small>. <small>PLACE</small>.stand<small>.PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND</small>.
| translation = I have two sisters.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba līvā śulka dvārma amyūva.
| morphemes = yuna ba līv-ā śulka dvārma a-myū-∅-∅-a
| gloss = <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. apartment-<small>LOC.SG</small>. five.<small>DIR</small>. room.<small>DIR.SG</small>. <small>PERF</small>-lie.<small>MASSES-EXP-PAT-PERF.3.IND</small>.
| translation = In my apartment there are five rooms.
}}
}}


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|-
|-
! People, children<br/>Pets and farm animals<br/>Dolls, plush toys
! People, children<br/>Pets and farm animals<br/>Dolls, plush toys
| ''-√oṭ-'' <small>(III)</small><br/>(-uɂuṭa) || ''-√ko-'' <small>(III)</small><br>(-akava) || ''-√de-'' <small>(II)</small><br/>(-edaya) || ''-√oṭ-on-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''-√ko-on'' <small>(III)</small><br/>(-kavon-) || ''-√de-on-'' <small>(II)</small><br/>(-dayon-) || ''-√tol-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√yaṅk-'' <small>(I)</small> || ''√eñj-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=7 | - || ''√yug-'' (0)
| ''-√oṭ-'' <small>(III)</small><br/>(-uɂuṭa) || ''-√ko-'' <small>(III)</small><br>(-akūva) || ''-√de-'' <small>(II)</small><br/>(-edīya) || ''-√oṭ-on-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''-√ko-on'' <small>(III)</small><br/>(-kavon-) || ''-√de-on-'' <small>(II)</small><br/>(-dayon-) || ''-√tol-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√yaṅk-'' <small>(I)</small> || ''√eñj-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=7 | - || ''√yug-'' (0)
|-
|-
! Masses, generic/uncategorized<br/>Contained, heterogeneous masses<br/>Figurative
! Masses, generic/uncategorized<br/>Contained, heterogeneous masses<br/>Figurative
| (amyava) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''√myo-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''ta-√myo-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | - || ''√ilm-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√kon-'' <small>(III)</small>
| (amyūva) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''√myo-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''ta-√myo-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | - || ''√ilm-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√kon-'' <small>(III)</small>
|-
|-
! Non-contained liquids
! Non-contained liquids
| (emaya) || ''√me-'' <small>(II)</small> || - || - || ''√mañc-'' <small>(0)</small>
| (emīya) || ''√me-'' <small>(II)</small> || - || - || ''√mañc-'' <small>(0)</small>
|-
|-
! Contained liquids
! Contained liquids
| (aśoma) || ''√śom-'' <small>(III)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√pse-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√lon-'' <small>(III)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√so-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√klem-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | -
| (uśuma) || ''√śom-'' <small>(III)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√pse-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√lon-'' <small>(III)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√so-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√klem-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | -
|-
|-
! Contained masses of homogeneous solids
! Contained masses of homogeneous solids
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|-
|-
! Large objects that cannot be carried<br/>Wild animals
! Large objects that cannot be carried<br/>Wild animals
| (-edaya) || (utūṣa) || (achāsa) || ''-√de-'' <small>(II)</small> || ''√tvoṣ-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√chās-'' <small>(0)</small> || - || - || - || ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || -  
| (-edīya) || (utūṣa) || (achāsa) || ''-√de-'' <small>(II)</small> || ''√tvoṣ-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√chās-'' <small>(0)</small> || - || - || - || ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || -  
|}
|}


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===Time===
===Time===
'''TBA:''' native terms for most such subdivisions.
The Dundulanyä calendar counts the 418-day Eventoan solar year (''naṃśāla''), divided into 14 months (''asānai'', sg. ''asāna'') of varying length (30 days on average), as well as a concurrent (not numbered) shorter cycle, called ''juñśätanä'' (from Lannä ''zunosä tanäy'' "count of days") of 216 days, which forms the basis of the "week" system, dividing that number of days into 18 "weeks" of 12 days each.
The solar year is not exactly 418 days long (the exact amount being roughly 418.1668 days), so that each sixth calendar year is a 419-day long leap year, adding one day at the end of the last month. The 418- or 419-day year and 216-day ''juñśätanä'' are grouped together into 78-year cycles (151 ''juñśätanä''), where the 78th year is a leap year (the thirteenth in such a cycle) and the 151st ''juñśätanä'' also adds a single day (hence having a length of 217 days), so that both counts end on the same day (the 32,617th of the cycle) at the end of the 78th solar year / 151st ''juñśätanä''.
The start of the calendar year is on the Southern hemisphere fall equinox, while days start at dawn. Months are grouped according to astronomical seasons of the Southern hemisphere, but it is the same nevertheless in the few areas of the Dundulanyä world north of the Equator; these are not immediately related to climatical seasons, as the Dundulanyä heartlands of Mandabuda have a monsonic climate with two distinct seasons and most of the Dundulanyä live in areas with tropical or equatorial climates.
The Eventoan day is about 34.8 Earth hours long, and there is no uniform standard to divide it among the various parts of the planet. The Dundulanyä divide the day into 48 (40<sub>12</sub>) subdivisions called ''garaṇai'' (singular ''garaṇa''), each one about 43.5 Earth minutes long. The day is, for timekeeping and time expressions, divided into eight periods, called TBD, of six ''garaṇai'' each.
The Eventoan day is about 34.8 Earth hours long, and there is no uniform standard to divide it among the various parts of the planet. The Dundulanyä divide the day into 48 (40<sub>12</sub>) subdivisions called ''garaṇai'' (singular ''garaṇa''), each one about 43.5 Earth minutes long. The day is, for timekeeping and time expressions, divided into eight periods, called TBD, of six ''garaṇai'' each.


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==="Thinking" in Dundulanyä===
==="Thinking" in Dundulanyä===
The English verb "to think" may be translated in different ways in Dundulanyä. Its meaning "to think" in the sense of imagining or communicating in one's own mind is translated by the root ''√nely-'':
The English verb "to think" may be translated in different ways in Dundulanyä. Its meaning "to think" in the sense of imagining or communicating in one's own mind is translated by the root ''√nely-'':
: ''nad tho nelyah''. — I'm thinking about you.
: ''kata tho nelyah''. — I'm thinking about you.
: ''nelyāpah jallah''. — I think, therefore I am.
: ''nelyāpah jallah''. — I think, therefore I am.


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''√sām-'' is used also to state one's opinion about a situation (still requiring ''tati'') as well as in the construction ''(2SG) inyo'', better translated as "if I were you" (needs a subjunctive verb):
''√sām-'' is used also to state one's opinion about a situation (still requiring ''tati'') as well as in the construction ''(2SG) inyo'', better translated as "if I were you" (needs a subjunctive verb):
: ''taśive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think it's a good idea.
: ''taśive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think it's a good idea.
: ''viṣam guntai nad inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd buy the other one. (note imperfective subjunctive)
: ''viṣam guntai kata inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd buy the other one. (note imperfective subjunctive)
: ''viṣam uguntai nad inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd have bought the other one. (perfective subjunctive here)
: ''viṣam uguntai kata inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd have bought the other one. (perfective subjunctive here)


''√nely-'', on the other hand, is used in the past to state something that was thought to be one way but turned out not to be. Also, it is used for future forecasts:
''√nely-'', on the other hand, is used in the past to state something that was thought to be one way but turned out not to be. Also, it is used for future forecasts:
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