Aryan: Difference between revisions

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===Orthography===
===Orthography===
{| class=wikitable
! rowspan=2|Trad. PIE !! rowspan=2|[[Laryngeal theory|Laryng. PIE]] !! rowspan=2|[[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Avestan|Av.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Greek language|Greek]] !! rowspan=2|[[Latin]]<ref group=V name=initial>In initial syllables only.</ref> !! rowspan=2|[[Proto-Celtic]] !! rowspan=2|[[Gothic language|Gothic]]<ref group=V name=nonfinal>In non-final syllables only.</ref> !! colspan=2|[[Old English]]<ref group=V name=initial/>
|- align=center
! normal !! [[Germanic umlaut|umlauted]]<ref group=V name=iumlaut>Before ''i'', ''ī'', or /j/ in the next syllable in [[Proto-Germanic]] ([[Germanic umlaut|''i''-umlaut]]).</ref>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*e}}
!{{PIE|*e}}, {{PIE|*h₁e}}
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|je, ie, e, i}}; {{PIE|ja}}<ref group=V name=closed>In a closed syllable.</ref>
|{{PIE|ä}}
|e, ʔe, i
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|aí}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh>Before ''r, h''.  Gothic, but not other Germanic languages, merges /e/ and /i/.</ref>
|{{PIE|e; eo}}<ref group=V name=OE>Before ''h, w'', or before ''r, l'' plus a consonant ([[Old English phonology#Breaking and retraction|"breaking"]]).</ref> || {{PIE|i; ie}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*a}}
!({{PIE|*a}}<ref group=V name=a?>The existence of PIE non-allophonic ''a'' is disputed.</ref>), {{PIE|*h₂e}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|o}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|ha, a}}
|{{PIE|ā}}
|{{PIE|ha, a}}
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=6|{{PIE|æ}}; {{PIE|a}};<ref group=V name=bright>Before a back vowel in the next syllable ([[Anglo-Frisian brightening#A restoration|''a'' restoration]]).</ref> {{PIE|ea}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|rowspan=6|{{PIE|e; ie}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|- align=center
!rowspan=2|{{PIE|*o}}
!{{PIE|*h₃e}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, a}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a, e}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan="2" colspan="3"|{{PIE|o}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*o}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}; {{PIE|ā}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann>In open syllables ([[Brugmann's law]]).</ref>
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ə}}<ref group=V name=CVC>Between consonants, or at the end of a word after a consonant.</ref>
!{{PIE|*h₁}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|i, ∅}}
|rowspan="6" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a, ∅}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ā}}
|∅
|{{PIE|e}}
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a, ∅}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*h₂}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
|ḫ
|{{PIE|a}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*h₃}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
|∅
|{{PIE|o}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*-}}
!{{PIE|*h₁-}}<ref group=V name=#VC>At the beginning of a word, followed by a consonant.</ref>
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|{{PIE|e (a?)}}
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|a, ∅
|{{PIE|e (o)}}
|rowspan="3" colspan="5"|{{PIE|∅}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*h₂-}}<ref group=V name=#VC/>
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|ḫa
|{{PIE|a}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*h₃-}}<ref group=V name=#VC/>
|{{PIE|a, ha}}
|{{PIE|o}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ē}}
!{{PIE|*ē}}, {{PIE|*eh₁}}
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
|{{PIE|ě}}
|{{PIE|ė}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, ua}}
|{{PIE|a/e}}?; {{PIE|ā}}?<ref group=V name=final>In a final syllable.</ref>
|{{PIE|ē, e, i}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ē}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|{{PIE|ē}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ā}}
!({{PIE|*ā}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*eh₂}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|o}} {{IPA|[oː]}}
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|a/o}}?
|{{PIE|a, ah}}
|{{PIE|ā > ē}}<ref group=V name=Attic>''ā'' > ''ē'' in Attic and Ionic dialects only.</ref>
|{{PIE|ā}}
|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=2 colspan=2|{{PIE|ō}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ē}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ō}}
!{{PIE|*ō}}, {{PIE|*eh₃}}
|{{PIE|uo}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|a/ā}}?; {{PIE|ū}}?<ref group=V name=final/>
|{{PIE|a, ā}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ō}}
|{{PIE|ā}}; {{PIE|ū}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*i}}
!{{PIE|*i}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|ь}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|e}}<ref group=V name=a>Before ''ā'' in the following syllable.</ref>
|{{PIE|ä}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}, ī
|colspan=3|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|aí}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh/>
|colspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ī}}
!{{PIE|*ih₁}}
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ei}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|rowspan=4 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ih₂}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|i}}<br/>or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>a}}?<ref group=V name=breaking>The so-called [[vowel breaking|breaking]] is disputed (typical examples are {{PIE|*proti-h₃kʷo-}} > Ved. ''prátīkam'' ~ Gk. {{lang|grc|πρόσωπον}}; {{PIE|*gʷih₃u̯o-}} > Ved. ''jīvá-'' ~ Arm. ''keank‘'', Gk. {{lang|grc|ζωός}}; {{PIE|*duh₂ro-}} > Ved. ''dūrá-'' ~ Arm. ''erkar'', Gk. {{lang|grc|δηρός}})</ref>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|yā}}
|{{PIE|ī}} or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>ā}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ih₃}}
|{{PIE|ī}} or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>ō}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ei}}
!{{PIE|*ei}}, {{PIE|*h₁ei}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ai > ē}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ai > ōi}},<br/>{{PIE|āi > aē}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann/>
|{{PIE|ei}}; {{PIE|ie}}<ref group=V name=stress>Under stress.</ref>
|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|ē}}
|{{PIE|ei}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|{{PIE|ē}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*oi}}
!{{PIE|*oi}}, {{PIE|*h₃ei}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ě}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ai}}; {{PIE|ie}}<ref group=V name=stress/>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|e}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|e, ai}}
|rowspan=2|ē, ai
|{{PIE|oi}}
|{{PIE|ū}}
|{{PIE|oi}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ái}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ai}}
!({{PIE|*ai}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*h₂ei}}
|{{PIE|ai}}
|{{PIE|ae}}
|{{PIE|ai}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ēi}}
!{{PIE|*ēi}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|āi}} > {{PIE|ai}}; {{PIE|ā}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|āi}}; {{PIE|ā(i)}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|{{PIE|i}}
|
|
|{{PIE|i}}
|
|ē
|{{PIE|ēi}}
|{{PIE|ī}}?
|
|{{PIE|ei}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ōi}}
!{{PIE|*ōi (*oei)}}
|{{PIE|y}}; {{PIE|u}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|{{PIE|ai}}; {{PIE|ui}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|e, ai}}
|
|{{PIE|ai}}
|{{PIE|ōi}}
|{{PIE|ō}}
|{{PIE|u}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ái}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*āi}}
!{{PIE|*eh₂ei}}
|{{PIE|ě}}
|
|
|
|ai
|{{PIE|āi > ēi}}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|{{PIE|ae}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*u}}
!{{PIE|*u}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|ъ}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|y}}<ref group=V name=i>Before ''i'' in the following syllable.</ref>
|{{PIE|ä}}
|rowspan=7|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|o}}<ref group=V name=wa>Before ''wa''.</ref>
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|aú}} {{IPA|[ɔ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh/>
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|o}}<ref group=V name=nonhigh>Before a non-high vowel in the next syllable ([[Germanic a-mutation|''a''-mutation]]).</ref>
|{{PIE|y}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ū}}
!{{PIE|*uh₁}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|ū}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ū}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}}; {{PIE|i}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|ū}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="4"|{{PIE|ū}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ȳ}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*uh₂}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|u}}<br/>or {{PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>a}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|wā}}
|{{PIE|ū}} or {{PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>ā}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*uh₃}}
|{{PIE|ū}} or {{PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>ō}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*eu}}
!{{PIE|*eu}}, {{PIE|*h₁eu}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|au}} > {{PIE|ō}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ə̄u}}; {{PIE|ao}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann/>
|{{PIE|ju}}
|{{PIE|iau}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|oy}}
|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|eu}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ū}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ou}}
|{{PIE|iu}}
|{{PIE|ēo}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|īe}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ou}}
!{{PIE|*ou}},{{PIE|*h₃eu}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|u}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|au}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, au}}
|{{PIE|ou}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|áu}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ēa}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*au}}
!({{PIE|*au}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*h₂eu}}
|{{PIE|aw}}
|{{PIE|au}}
|{{PIE|au}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ēu}}
!{{PIE|*ēu}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|āu}} > {{PIE|au}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|āu}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|iau}}
|
|{{PIE|e}}
|
|
|
|{{PIE|ū}}?
|
|{{PIE|iu}}
|{{PIE|ēo}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ōu}}
!{{PIE|*ōu}}
|
|
|
|{{PIE|a}}
|
|au
|{{PIE|ō}}
|
|
|{{PIE|áu}}
|{{PIE|ēa}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*m̥}}
!{{PIE|*m̥}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ę}}
|{{PIE|im̃}}; {{PIE|um̃}}<ref group=V name=labvel>In the neighbourhood of labiovelars.</ref>
|{{PIE|am}}
|rowspan=10|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|äm}}
|a, un
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|em}}
|{{PIE|em, am}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|um}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|um}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ym}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*m̥̅}}
!{{PIE|*mh₁}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìm}}; {{PIE|ùm}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ama}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|mā}}
|rowspan=3|
|{{PIE|mē}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|mā}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*mh₂}}
|{{PIE|mā > mē}}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*mh₃}}
|{{PIE|mō}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*m̥m}}
!{{PIE|*m̥m}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|am}}
|{{PIE|ьm/ъm}}
|{{PIE|im}}; {{PIE|um}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|am}}
|
|
|{{PIE|am}}
|{{PIE|em}}
|{{PIE|am}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*n̥}}
!{{PIE|*n̥}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ę}}
|{{PIE|iñ}}; {{PIE|uñ}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|an}}
|{{PIE|än}}
|an
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|en}}
|{{PIE|en, an}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|un}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|un}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|yn}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*n̥̄}}
!{{PIE|*nh₁}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìn}}; {{PIE|ùn}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ana}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|nā}}
|rowspan=3|
|{{PIE|nē}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|nā}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*nh₂}}
|{{PIE|nā > nē}} <ref group=V name=Attic/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*nh₃}}
|{{PIE|nō}}
|- align=center
!|{{PIE|*n̥n}}
!|{{PIE|*n̥n}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|an}}
|{{PIE|ьn/ъn}}
|{{PIE|iñ}}; {{PIE|uñ}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|an}}
|
|
|{{PIE|an}}
|{{PIE|en}}
|{{PIE|an}}
|- align=center
!|{{PIE|*l̥}}
!{{PIE|*l̥}}
|{{PIE|r̥}}
|{{PIE|ərə}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|lь/lъ}}
|{{PIE|il̃}}; {{PIE|ul̃}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|al}}
|{{PIE|il, li; ul, lu}}
|{{PIE|äl}}
|al
|{{PIE|la}}
|{{PIE|ol}}
|{{PIE|li}};<ref group=V name=VPM>Before a stop or ''m''.</ref> {{PIE|al}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ul}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ul; ol}}<ref group=V name=nonhigh/>
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|yl}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*l̥̄}}
!{{PIE|*lh₁}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|īr}}; {{PIE|ūr}}<ref group=V name=labial>In the neighbourhood of labials.</ref>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|arə}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìl}}; {{PIE|ùl}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ala}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|al}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|lā}}
|rowspan=3|
|{{PIE|lē}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|lā}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*lh₂}}
|{{PIE|lā > lē}}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*lh₃}}
|{{PIE|lō}}
|- align=center
!|{{PIE|*l̥l}}
!|{{PIE|*l̥l}}
|{{PIE|ir}}; {{PIE|ur}}<ref group=V name=labial/>
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ьl/ъl}}
|{{PIE|il}}; {{PIE|ul}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|al, la}}
|
|
|
|{{PIE|al}}
|{{PIE|el}}
|{{PIE|al}}
|- align=center
!|{{PIE|*r̥}}
!{{PIE|*r̥}}
|{{PIE|r̥}}
|{{PIE|ərə}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|rь/rъ}}
|{{PIE|ir̃}}; {{PIE|ur̃}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ir, ri; ur, ru}}
|{{PIE|är}}
|ar, ur
|{{PIE|ra}}
|{{PIE|or}}
|{{PIE|ri}};<ref group=V name=VPM/> {{PIE|ar}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|aúr}} {{IPA|[ɔr]}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ur; or}}<ref group=V name=nonhigh/>
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|yr}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*r̥̄}}
!{{PIE|*rh₁}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|īr}}; {{PIE|ūr}}<ref group=V name=labial/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|arə}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìr}}; {{PIE|ùr}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ara}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ra}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|rā}}
|rowspan=3|
|{{PIE|rē}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|rā}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*rh₂}}
|{{PIE|rā > rē}}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*rh₃}}
|{{PIE|rō}}
|- align=center
!|{{PIE|*r̥r}}
!|{{PIE|*r̥r}}
|{{PIE|ir}}; {{PIE|ur}}<ref group=V name=labial/>
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ьr/ъr}}
|{{PIE|ir}}; {{PIE|ur}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|ar}}
|
|
|
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|- align=center
! rowspan=2|Trad. PIE !! rowspan=2|[[Laryngeal theory|Laryng. PIE]] !! rowspan=2|[[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Avestan|Av.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Greek language|Greek]] !! rowspan=2|[[Latin]]<ref group=V name=initial/> !! rowspan=2|[[Proto-Celtic]] !! rowspan=2|[[Gothic language|Gothic]]<ref group=V name=nonfinal/> !! normal !! [[Germanic umlaut|umlauted]]<ref group=V name=iumlaut/>
|- align=center
!colspan=2|[[Old English]]<ref group=V name=initial/>
|}
===Consonants===
===Consonants===


Revision as of 17:22, 25 October 2024


Aryan (Pre-Expansion: *Airáh0, pronounced /ai̯ˈrəʔ/; Post-Expansion: *Āryā́, pronounced /aːˈri̯aː/) is an ab interiori language equivalent to the reconstruction of Indo-European Languages (Proto-Indo-European).

Aryan
*airáh0
Pronunciation[ai̯ˈrəʔ]
Created byVeno
Date8000-6000 BP
SettingCaucasus Mountains
Native speakers- (2024)
Pangaean Code
  • Aryan
Early form
Transitional Dialect
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Introduction

Phonology

Transitional Tables

Sanskrit Avestan O.C.S. Lithuanian Albanian Armenian Hittite Tocharian Greek Latin Goidelic Gothic
>*p p; pʰ p; f p p p h; w p; pp p p / pt p ∅ f; β
>*t x x
>*k x x
>*ḱ x x

p pt p ∅ f; b [β] [C 6] f; v, f[C 2] 


thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...
Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants
PIE Indo-Iranian Balto-Slavic Alb. Arm. Anatol. Toch. Greek Italic Celtic Germanic
Sanskrit Avestan O.C.S. Lith. Hitt. Latin Old Irish Gothic English
normal C+[j] [C 1] normal -C- [C 2] [C 1]
*p p; ph [pʰ] [C 3] p; f [C 4] p h;
w [C 5] 		p, pp p pt p ∅ f;
b [β] [C 6] 		f;
v, f[C 2]
*t t; th [t̪ʰ] [C 3] t; θ[C 4] t tʿ [tʰ] t, tt;
z [ts] [C 7] 		t;
c [c] [C 7] 		t s; tt/ss[C 5] t t th [θ] þ [θ];
d [ð]; [C 6] 		th;
d; [C 6]
*ḱ ś [ɕ] s š [ʃ] th [θ];
k[C 8] 		s k, kk k;
ś [ɕ][C 8] 		k c [k] c [k] ch [x] h;
g [ɣ] [C 6] 		h;
∅;[C 2]
y [C 6]
*k k; c [t͡ɕ]; [C 7]
kh [kʰ] [C 3] 		k; c [tʃ]; [C 7]
x[C 4] 		k;
č [tʃ]; [C 7]
c [ts][C 9] 		k k;
q [c][C 9] 		kʿ [kʰ]
*kʷ k;
s; [C 7]
q [c][C 9] 		ku, kku p;
t; [C 7]
k[C 10] 		qu [kʷ];
c [k] [C 11] 		ƕ [ʍ];
gw, w [C 6]
 wh;
w [C 6]
*b b; bh [C 3] b; β [C 12] b p b pt b b [b] -[β]- p
*d d; dh [C 3] d; δ [C 12] d d;
dh [ð][C 2] 		t ts;
ś [ɕ] [C 7] 		d z [zd] > [z] d d [d] -[ð]- t
*ǵ j [d͡ʑ];
h [ɦ] [C 3] 		z ž [ʒ] dh [ð];
g[C 8] 		c [ts] k k;
ś [ɕ][C 8] 		g g g [ɡ] -[ɣ]- k c / k;
ch[C 9]
*g g; j [d͡ʑ]; [C 7]
gh; [C 3] h [ɦ] [C 3] 		g; j [dʒ]; [C 7]
γ [C 12] 		g;
ž [ʒ]; [C 7]
dz[C 9] 		g g k
*gʷ g;
z; [C 7]
gj [ɟ][C 9] 		ku b;
d; [C 7]
g[C 10] 		u [w > v];
gu [ɡʷ] [C 13] 		b [b] -[β]- q [kʷ] qu
*pʰ bh [bʱ] b; β [C 12] b b;
w[C 2] 		p ph [pʰ] pt f;[C 14]
b 		b [b];
b [β];[C 2]
f [C 15] 		b;
v / f[C 16]
*tʰ dh [dʱ] d; δ [C 12] d t t;
c [c] [C 7] 		th [tʰ] tt/ss f;[C 14]
d;
b [C 17] 		d [d] -[ð]- d;
d [ð];[C 2]
þ [C 15] 		d
*ǵʰ h [ɦ] z ž [ʒ] dh [ð];
d[C 8] 		j [dz];
z[C 2] 		k k;
ś [ɕ] [C 7] 		kh [kʰ] h;
h / g[C 8] 		g [ɡ] -[ɣ]- g;
g [ɣ];[C 2]
g [x] [C 15] 		g;
y / w[C 16]
*gʰ gh [ɡʱ];
h [ɦ] [C 7] 		g; j [dʒ]; [C 7]
γ [C 12] 		g;
ž [ʒ]; [C 7]
dz[C 9] 		g g g;
ǰ [dʒ] [C 7]
*gʷʰ g;
z; [C 7]
gj [ɟ][C 9] 		ku ph [pʰ];
th [tʰ]; [C 7]
kh [kʰ][C 10] 		f;[C 14]
g /
u [w];[C 2]
gu [ɡʷ] [C 13] 		g;
b;[C 14]
w;[C 2]
gw [C 13] 		g;
b;[C 14]
w[C 2]
*s s h [h, x] s sh [ʃ];
gj [ɟ];[C 18]
h[C 2] 		h;
∅[C 2] 		š [s] s;
ṣ [ʂ] 		h;[C 14]
s;[C 19][C 15]/
∅;[C 2]
[¯] [C 20] 		i s;
r[C 2] 		s ʃ -[h]- s;
z [C 6] 		s;
r [C 6]
ṣ [ʂ][C 21] š [ʃ][C 21] x [x][C 21] š [ʃ][C 21]
*m m in m m [m] -[w̃]- m
*-m [C 15] m ˛ [˜] n ∅ n n -- m [˜] n ∅
*n n n;
˛ [˜] [C 15] 		n n;
ñ [ɲ] 		n in n
*l r (dial. l) r l l;
ll [ɫ][C 2] 		l /
ɫ [ɫ
> ɣ] 		l il l
*r r/l[C 22] r r [ɾ];
rr [r][C 2] 		r ir r
*y y [j] j [j] gj [ɟ];
∅ 		∅ y [j] z [zd] > [z] /
h;
∅ [C 2] 		?i i [j];
∅ [C 2] 		∅ j y
*w v [ʋ] v [w] v v [ʋ] v g / w w w > h / ∅ i u [w > v] f -∅- w
PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Alb. Arm. Hitt. Toch. Greek Greek+/j/ Latin Old Irish Gothic English

Notes for table 1:

  1. ^ a b A capital C stands for consonant in this table
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Between vowels
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Before an original h₂.
  4. ^ a b c Before a consonant or original laryngeal.
  5. ^ a b After a vowel.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i Following an unstressed vowel (Verner's law).
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Before a (PIE) front vowel (*i, *e).
  8. ^ a b c d e f Before a sonorant.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.
  10. ^ a b c Before or after a (PIE) u
  11. ^ Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel (*u, *o).
  12. ^ a b c d e f In Younger Avestan, after a vowel.
  13. ^ a b c After n.
  14. ^ a b c d e f At the beginning of a word
  15. ^ a b c d e f At the end of a word.
  16. ^ a b Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)
  17. ^ After u, r or before r, l.
  18. ^ Before a stressed vowel
  19. ^ Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)
  20. ^ Before or after a resonant (r, l, m, n).
  21. ^ a b c d After r, u, k, i (Ruki sound law).
  22. ^ rare

Consonant clusters

Proto-Indo-European also had numerous consonant clusters, such as *st, *ḱs. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):

Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters
PIE Indo-Iranian Balto-Slavic Alb. Arm. Anatol. Toch. Greek Italic Celtic Germanic
Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Hitt. Latin Old Irish Gothic English
normal C+[j]
*sr sr r str sr rr [r] (a)r š(ša)r ʃʃr rh n/a fr-, -br- sr str str
*tw tv θβ tv tv t kʿ [kʰ] ttu, ddu s-, -ss- n/a p? t þw thw
*dʰw dhv ðβ dv dv d ? tu, du f d dw dw
*dw dv (e)rk tu, du b tw tw
*tl sl kl, sl tl kl tl
*dl ll
*dn nn, ṇṇ
*ḱw śv sp sv šv s sk, š n/a qu [kʷ] cu [kʷ] Template:Transl [xʷ] wh
*ǵʰw hv zv žv z
*ǵw jv q [kʷ] qu [kw]
*sw sv xuu [xʷ] sv sv v, d[CC 1] kʿ [kʰ] normal dev. h n/a su [sw] s sw sw
*sp sp sp [CC 2] sp f sp [CC 2]
/ pʿ [pʰ] 		normal dev. sp [CC 2] ? sp f sp [CC 3]
*sbʰ spʰ
*sd d; ḷ[CC 4] > ḍ, ḍḍ zd zd zd st d -t- [d] st st
*sdʰ dh; ḷh[CC 4] > ḍh, ḍḍh zd zd zd sth -t- [d] zd d
*st st; ṣṭ[CC 4] st [CC 2] st sht [ʃt] st [CC 2] normal dev. st [CC 2] s; tt/ss[CC 5] st st [CC 3]
*sḱ ch [t͡ɕʰ]; cch[CC 5] s? sk š? h ?? č`; c`[CC 5] normal dev. sk; [CC 2]
kh [kʰ];[CC 6]
skh [skʰ] [CC 7] 		sc [sk] sc [sk] sk [CC 3] sh [ʃ]
*sk sk, {śc, ch}[CC 8] sk, sč [CC 2] normal dev. ? sk [CC 2] normal dev.
*skʷ norm. squ [skʷ] sq [CC 3]
*t+t [tst] tt; tth [CC 9] st; sθ?[CC 10] st s s? zt, zzašt, zzazz [tst] ss? st ss ss / st
*sǵ jj
*sgʰ jj[CC 8]
*dt tt st st st s ss ss [s]
*ddʰ ddʰ zd d t
*dʰt ddʰ zd, st st st
*pt pt ft t? pt t pt pt cht [xt] ft [CC 3]
*ḱt ṣṭ [ʂʈ] št [ʃt] st št [ʃt] kt ct [kt] ht [CC 3] ght [t] [CC 3]
*kt kt xt t? kt
*kʷt pt ct [kt]
*ps ps ps ps s, ss fs ps
*ts ts
*ḱs kṣ š sh [ʃ] ks x [ks] hs x [ks]
*ks kṣ[CC 4] xš[CC 4] (ks)
*kʷs kʷs ps x [ks]
*gs kṣ
*gʷs kṣ
*ǵʰs kṣ ž ks
*gʰs kṣ
*gʷʰs kṣ ps
*tḱ kṣ š k kt s
*tk kṣ xš kt
*dʰǵʰ kṣ z ž tk tk/k khth
*dʰgʰ kṣ tk
*dʰgʷʰ kṣ γž kts phth s
PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Alb. Arm. Hitt. Toch. Greek Greek+/j/ Latin Old Irish Gothic English


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Orthography

Trad. PIE Laryng. PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Arm. Alb. Toch. Hitt. Greek Latin[V 1] Proto-Celtic Gothic[V 2] Old English[V 1]
normal umlauted[V 3]
*e *e, *h₁e a e je, ie, e, i; ja[V 4] ä e, ʔe, i e i; aí [ɛ][V 5] e; eo[V 6] i; ie[V 6]
*a (*a[V 7]), *h₂e o a a ha, a ā ha, a a a æ; a;[V 8] ea[V 6] e; ie[V 6]
*o *h₃e o, a a a, e a o
*o a; ā[V 9]
*ə[V 10] *h₁[V 10] i i, ∅ ∅ a, ∅ ā ∅ e a a, ∅
*h₂[V 10] ḫ a
*h₃[V 10] ∅ o
*- *h₁-[V 11] ∅ e (a?) ∅ a, ∅ e (o) ∅
*h₂-[V 11] a ḫa a
*h₃-[V 11] a, ha o
*ē *ē, *eh₁ ā ě ė i o, ua a/e?; ā?[V 12] ē, e, i ē ī ē ǣ
*ā (*ā[V 7]), *eh₂ a o [oː] a a/o? a, ah ā > ē[V 13] ā ā ō ē
*ō *ō, *eh₃ uo u e a/ā?; ū?[V 12] a, ā ō ā; ū[V 12]
*i *i i ь i i i; e[V 14] ä i, ī i i; aí [ɛ][V 5] i
*ī *ih₁ ī i y [iː] i i ī ī ei [iː] ī
*ih₂ i
or (j)a?[V 15] 		yā ī or (j)ā?[V 15]
*ih₃ ī or (j)ō?[V 15]
*ei *ei, *h₁ei ai > ē ai > ōi,
āi > aē[V 9] 		ei; ie[V 16] i e ē ei ī ē
*oi *oi, *h₃ei ě ai; ie[V 16] e e, ai ē, ai oi ū oi ái ā ǣ
*ai (*ai[V 7]), *h₂ei ai ae ai
*ēi *ēi āi > ai; ā[V 12] āi; ā(i)[V 12] i i ē ēi ī? ei [iː] ī
*ōi *ōi (*oei) y; u[V 12] ai; ui[V 12] e, ai ai ōi ō u[V 12] ái ā ǣ
*āi *eh₂ei ě ai āi > ēi[V 13] ae
*u *u u ъ u u u; y[V 17] ä u u u u; o[V 18] u; aú [ɔ][V 5] u; o[V 19] y
*ū *uh₁ ū y ū y; i[V 12] u ū ū ȳ
*uh₂ u
or (w)a?[V 15] 		wā ū or (w)ā?[V 15]
*uh₃ ū or (w)ō?[V 15]
*eu *eu, *h₁eu au > ō ə̄u; ao[V 9] ju iau oy e u eu ū ou iu ēo īe
*ou *ou,*h₃eu u au a o, au ou áu ēa
*au (*au[V 7]), *h₂eu aw au au
*ēu *ēu āu > au āu u iau e ū? iu ēo
*ōu *ōu a au ō áu ēa
*m̥ *m̥ a ę im̃; um̃[V 20] am a äm a, un a em em, am um um ym
*m̥̅ *mh₁ ā ìm; ùm[V 20] ama mā mē mā
*mh₂ mā > mē[V 13]
*mh₃ mō
*m̥m *m̥m am ьm/ъm im; um[V 20] am am em am
*n̥ *n̥ a ę iñ; uñ[V 20] an än an a en en, an un un yn
*n̥̄ *nh₁ ā ìn; ùn[V 20] ana nā nē nā
*nh₂ nā > nē [V 13]
*nh₃ nō
*n̥n *n̥n an ьn/ъn iñ; uñ[V 20] an an en an
*l̥ *l̥ r̥ ərə lь/lъ il̃; ul̃[V 20] al il, li; ul, lu äl al la ol li;[V 21] al ul ul; ol[V 19] yl
*l̥̄ *lh₁ īr; ūr[V 22] arə ìl; ùl[V 20] ala al lā lē lā
*lh₂ lā > lē[V 13]
*lh₃ lō
*l̥l *l̥l ir; ur[V 22] ar ьl/ъl il; ul[V 20] al, la al el al
*r̥ *r̥ r̥ ərə rь/rъ ir̃; ur̃[V 20] ar ir, ri; ur, ru är ar, ur ra or ri;[V 21] ar aúr [ɔr] ur; or[V 19] yr
*r̥̄ *rh₁ īr; ūr[V 22] arə ìr; ùr[V 20] ara ra rā rē rā
*rh₂ rā > rē[V 13]
*rh₃ rō
*r̥r *r̥r ir; ur[V 22] ar ьr/ъr ir; ur[V 20] ar ar ar ar
Trad. PIE Laryng. PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Arm. Alb. Toch. Hitt. Greek Latin[V 1] Proto-Celtic Gothic[V 2] normal umlauted[V 3]
Old English[V 1]

Consonants

Vowels

Prosody

Stress

Intonation

Phonotactics

Morphophonology

Morphology

Syntax

Constituent order

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Example texts

Other resources


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