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===Consonants===
===Consonants===
Aryan is reconstructed as having 41 consonants, with an assumption made that it would have maintained the 36 main consonants of the Pangaean Code in some form.
Aryan is reconstructed as having 41 consonants, with an assumption made that it would have maintained the 36 main consonants of the Pangaean Code in some form while adding a labialized series of velars.


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Revision as of 17:44, 26 October 2024


Aryan (Pre-Expansion: *Airáh0, pronounced /ai̯ˈrəʔ/; Post-Expansion: *Āryā́, pronounced /aːˈri̯aː/) is an ab interiori language equivalent to Proto-Indo-Anatolian.

Aryan
*airáh0
Pronunciation[ai̯ˈrəʔ]
Created byVeno
Date8000-6000 BP
SettingCaucasus Mountains
Native speakers- (2024)
Pangaean Code
  • Aryan
Early form
Transitional Dialect
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Introduction

[...]
The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek).

Phonology

Consonants

Aryan is reconstructed as having 41 consonants, with an assumption made that it would have maintained the 36 main consonants of the Pangaean Code in some form while adding a labialized series of velars.

Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Pharyngeal Glottal
Nasal Voiceless *m̥ *n̥
Voiced *m *n
Plosive Voiceless *p *t *k *kʷ
Voiced *b *d *g *gʷ
Aspirated- *ph *th *kh *kʷh
Aspirated+ *bh *dh *gh *gʷh
Ejective *p’ *t’ *k’ *kʷ’
Fricative Voiceless *s *x *h
Voiced *z
Vibrant Voiceless *r̥
Voiced *r
Lateral Voiceless *l̥
Voiced *l
Approximant Voiceless *j̊ *ẘ
Voiced *j *w

Transitional Table of Aryan

Aryan
p *phth / *ph / *phkh; *phh
t *thkh; *thh / *th / *thph
k *khph / *kh; *kʷ / *khth
b *bd / *b / *bg; *bgʷ
d *dg; *dgʷ / *d / *db
g *gb / *g, *gʷ / gd
*pʼtʼ / *pʼ; *p / *pʼkʼ; *pʼkʷʼ
*tʼkʷʼ / *tʼ, t / *tʼpʼ
kʼpʼ / *kʼ; *k; *kʷʼ / kʼtʼ
ɓ *bhdh / *bh / *bhgh; *bhh
ɗ *dhgh; *dhh / *dh / *dhbh
ɠ *ghbh / *gh; *gʷh / *ghdh

Transitional Table (from Aryan to Indo-European Languages)

Sanskrit Avestan O.C.S. Lithuanian Albanian Armenian Hittite Tocharian Greek Latin Goidelic Gothic
>*p p; pʰ p; f p p p h; w p; pp p p / pt p f; β
>*t x x
>*k x x
>*ḱ x x

p pt p ∅ f; b [β] [C 6] f; v, f[C 2]


thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...
Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants
PIE Indo-Iranian Balto-Slavic Alb. Arm. Anatol. Toch. Greek Italic Celtic Germanic
Sanskrit Avestan O.C.S. Lith. Hitt. Latin Old Irish Gothic English
normal C+[j] [C 1] normal -C- [C 2] [C 1]
*p p; ph [pʰ] [C 3] p; f [C 4] p h;
w [C 5]
p, pp p pt p f;
b [β] [C 6]
f;
v, f[C 2]
*t t; th [t̪ʰ] [C 3] t; θ[C 4] t tʿ [tʰ] t, tt;
z [ts] [C 7]
t;
c [c] [C 7]
t s; tt/ss[C 5] t t th [θ] þ [θ];
d [ð]; [C 6]
th;
d; [C 6]
*ḱ ś [ɕ] s š [ʃ] th [θ];
k[C 8]
s k, kk k;
ś [ɕ][C 8]
k c [k] c [k] ch [x] h;
g [ɣ] [C 6]
h;
;[C 2]
y [C 6]
*k k; c [t͡ɕ]; [C 7]
kh [kʰ] [C 3]
k; c [tʃ]; [C 7]
x[C 4]
k;
č [tʃ]; [C 7]
c [ts][C 9]
k k;
q [c][C 9]
kʿ [kʰ]
*kʷ k;
s; [C 7]
q [c][C 9]
ku, kku p;
t; [C 7]
k[C 10]
qu [kʷ];
c [k] [C 11]
ƕ [ʍ];
gw, w [C 6]
wh;
w [C 6]
*b b; bh [C 3] b; β [C 12] b p b pt b b [b] -[β]- p
*d d; dh [C 3] d; δ [C 12] d d;
dh [ð][C 2]
t ts;
ś [ɕ] [C 7]
d z [zd] > [z] d d [d] -[ð]- t
j [d͡ʑ];
h [ɦ] [C 3]
z ž [ʒ] dh [ð];
g[C 8]
c [ts] k k;
ś [ɕ][C 8]
g g g [ɡ] -[ɣ]- k c / k;
ch[C 9]
*g g; j [d͡ʑ]; [C 7]
gh; [C 3] h [ɦ] [C 3]
g; j [dʒ]; [C 7]
γ [C 12]
g;
ž [ʒ]; [C 7]
dz[C 9]
g g k
*gʷ g;
z; [C 7]
gj [ɟ][C 9]
ku b;
d; [C 7]
g[C 10]
u [w > v];
gu [ɡʷ] [C 13]
b [b] -[β]- q [kʷ] qu
*pʰ bh [bʱ] b; β [C 12] b b;
w[C 2]
p ph [pʰ] pt f;[C 14]
b
b [b];
b [β];[C 2]
f [C 15]
b;
v / f[C 16]
*tʰ dh [dʱ] d; δ [C 12] d t t;
c [c] [C 7]
th [tʰ] tt/ss f;[C 14]
d;
b [C 17]
d [d] -[ð]- d;
d [ð];[C 2]
þ [C 15]
d
*ǵʰ h [ɦ] z ž [ʒ] dh [ð];
d[C 8]
j [dz];
z[C 2]
k k;
ś [ɕ] [C 7]
kh [kʰ] h;
h / g[C 8]
g [ɡ] -[ɣ]- g;
g [ɣ];[C 2]
g [x] [C 15]
g;
y / w[C 16]
*gʰ gh [ɡʱ];
h [ɦ] [C 7]
g; j [dʒ]; [C 7]
γ [C 12]
g;
ž [ʒ]; [C 7]
dz[C 9]
g g g;
ǰ [dʒ] [C 7]
*gʷʰ g;
z; [C 7]
gj [ɟ][C 9]
ku ph [pʰ];
th [tʰ]; [C 7]
kh [kʰ][C 10]
f;[C 14]
g /
u [w];[C 2]
gu [ɡʷ] [C 13]
g;
b;[C 14]
w;[C 2]
gw [C 13]
g;
b;[C 14]
w[C 2]
*s s h [h, x] s sh [ʃ];
gj [ɟ];[C 18]
h[C 2]
h;
[C 2]
š [s] s;
[ʂ]
h;[C 14]
s;[C 19][C 15]/
;[C 2]
[¯] [C 20]
i s;
r[C 2]
s ʃ -[h]- s;
z [C 6]
s;
r [C 6]
[ʂ][C 21] š [ʃ][C 21] x [x][C 21] š [ʃ][C 21]
*m m in m m [m] -[w̃]- m
*-m [C 15] m ˛ [˜] n n n -- m [˜] n
*n n n;
˛ [˜] [C 15]
n n;
ñ [ɲ]
n in n
*l r (dial. l) r l l;
ll [ɫ][C 2]
l /
ɫ
> ɣ]
l il l
*r r/l[C 22] r r [ɾ];
rr [r][C 2]
r ir r
*y y [j] j [j] gj [ɟ];
y [j] z [zd] > [z] /
h;
[C 2]
?i i [j];
[C 2]
j y
*w v [ʋ] v [w] v v [ʋ] v g / w w w > h / ∅ i u [w > v] f -- w
PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Alb. Arm. Hitt. Toch. Greek Greek+/j/ Latin Old Irish Gothic English

Notes for table 1:

  1. ^ a b A capital C stands for consonant in this table
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Between vowels
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Before an original h₂.
  4. ^ a b c Before a consonant or original laryngeal.
  5. ^ a b After a vowel.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i Following an unstressed vowel (Verner's law).
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Before a (PIE) front vowel (*i, *e).
  8. ^ a b c d e f Before a sonorant.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.
  10. ^ a b c Before or after a (PIE) u
  11. ^ Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel (*u, *o).
  12. ^ a b c d e f In Younger Avestan, after a vowel.
  13. ^ a b c After n.
  14. ^ a b c d e f At the beginning of a word
  15. ^ a b c d e f At the end of a word.
  16. ^ a b Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)
  17. ^ After u, r or before r, l.
  18. ^ Before a stressed vowel
  19. ^ Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)
  20. ^ Before or after a resonant (r, l, m, n).
  21. ^ a b c d After r, u, k, i (Ruki sound law).
  22. ^ rare

Consonant clusters

Proto-Indo-European also had numerous consonant clusters, such as *st, *ḱs. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):

Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters
PIE Indo-Iranian Balto-Slavic Alb. Arm. Anatol. Toch. Greek Italic Celtic Germanic
Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Hitt. Latin Old Irish Gothic English
normal C+[j]
*sr sr r str sr rr [r] (a)r š(ša)r ʃʃr rh n/a fr-, -br- sr str str
*tw tv θβ tv tv t kʿ [kʰ] ttu, ddu s-, -ss- n/a p? t þw thw
*dʰw dhv ðβ dv dv d ? tu, du f d dw dw
*dw dv (e)rk tu, du b tw tw
*tl sl kl, sl tl kl tl
*dl ll
*dn nn, ṇṇ
*ḱw śv sp sv šv s sk, š n/a qu [kʷ] cu [kʷ] Template:Transl [xʷ] wh
*ǵʰw hv zv žv z
*ǵw jv q [kʷ] qu [kw]
*sw sv xuu [xʷ] sv sv v, d[CC 1] kʿ [kʰ] normal dev. h n/a su [sw] s sw sw
*sp sp sp [CC 2] sp f sp [CC 2]
/ pʿ [pʰ]
normal dev. sp [CC 2] ? sp f sp [CC 3]
*sbʰ spʰ
*sd d; ḷ[CC 4] > ḍ, ḍḍ zd zd zd st d -t- [d] st st
*sdʰ dh; ḷh[CC 4] > ḍh, ḍḍh zd zd zd sth -t- [d] zd d
*st st; ṣṭ[CC 4] st [CC 2] st sht [ʃt] st [CC 2] normal dev. st [CC 2] s; tt/ss[CC 5] st st [CC 3]
*sḱ ch [t͡ɕʰ]; cch[CC 5] s? sk š? h ?? č`; c`[CC 5] normal dev. sk; [CC 2]
kh [kʰ];[CC 6]
skh [skʰ] [CC 7]
sc [sk] sc [sk] sk [CC 3] sh [ʃ]
*sk sk, {śc, ch}[CC 8] sk, sč [CC 2] normal dev. ? sk [CC 2] normal dev.
*skʷ norm. squ [skʷ] sq [CC 3]
*t+t [tst] tt; tth [CC 9] st; ?[CC 10] st s s? zt, zzašt, zzazz [tst] ss? st ss ss / st
*sǵ jj
*sgʰ jj[CC 8]
*dt tt st st st s ss ss [s]
*ddʰ ddʰ zd d t
*dʰt ddʰ zd, st st st
*pt pt ft t? pt t pt pt cht [xt] ft [CC 3]
*ḱt ṣṭ [ʂʈ] št [ʃt] st št [ʃt] kt ct [kt] ht [CC 3] ght [t] [CC 3]
*kt kt xt t? kt
*kʷt pt ct [kt]
*ps ps ps ps s, ss fs ps
*ts ts
*ḱs kṣ š sh [ʃ] ks x [ks] hs x [ks]
*ks kṣ[CC 4] [CC 4] (ks)
*kʷs kʷs ps x [ks]
*gs kṣ
*gʷs kṣ
*ǵʰs kṣ ž ks
*gʰs kṣ
*gʷʰs kṣ ps
*tḱ kṣ š k kt s
*tk kṣ kt
*dʰǵʰ kṣ z ž tk tk/k khth
*dʰgʰ kṣ tk
*dʰgʷʰ kṣ γž kts phth s
PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Alb. Arm. Hitt. Toch. Greek Greek+/j/ Latin Old Irish Gothic English


-->

Orthography

Trad. PIE Laryng. PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Arm. Alb. Toch. Hitt. Greek Latin[V 1] Proto-Celtic Gothic[V 2] Old English[V 1]
normal umlauted[V 3]
*e *e, *h₁e a e je, ie, e, i; ja[V 4] ä e, ʔe, i e i; [ɛ][V 5] e; eo[V 6] i; ie[V 6]
*a (*a[V 7]), *h₂e o a a ha, a ā ha, a a a æ; a;[V 8] ea[V 6] e; ie[V 6]
*o *h₃e o, a a a, e a o
*o a; ā[V 9]
[V 10] *h₁[V 10] i i, ∅ a, ∅ ā e a a, ∅
*h₂[V 10] a
*h₃[V 10] o
*- *h₁-[V 11] e (a?) a, ∅ e (o)
*h₂-[V 11] a ḫa a
*h₃-[V 11] a, ha o
, *eh₁ ā ě ė i o, ua a/e?; ā?[V 12] ē, e, i ē ī ē ǣ
([V 7]), *eh₂ a o [oː] a a/o? a, ah ā > ē[V 13] ā ā ō ē
, *eh₃ uo u e a/ā?; ū?[V 12] a, ā ō ā; ū[V 12]
*i *i i ь i i i; e[V 14] ä i, ī i i; [ɛ][V 5] i
*ih₁ ī i y [iː] i i ī ī ei [iː] ī
*ih₂ i
or (j)a?[V 15]
ī or (j)ā?[V 15]
*ih₃ ī or (j)ō?[V 15]
*ei *ei, *h₁ei ai > ē ai > ōi,
āi > aē[V 9]
ei; ie[V 16] i e ē ei ī ē
*oi *oi, *h₃ei ě ai; ie[V 16] e e, ai ē, ai oi ū oi ái ā ǣ
*ai (*ai[V 7]), *h₂ei ai ae ai
*ēi *ēi āi > ai; ā[V 12] āi; ā(i)[V 12] i i ē ēi ī? ei [iː] ī
*ōi *ōi (*oei) y; u[V 12] ai; ui[V 12] e, ai ai ōi ō u[V 12] ái ā ǣ
*āi *eh₂ei ě ai āi > ēi[V 13] ae
*u *u u ъ u u u; y[V 17] ä u u u u; o[V 18] u; [ɔ][V 5] u; o[V 19] y
*uh₁ ū y ū y; i[V 12] u ū ū ȳ
*uh₂ u
or (w)a?[V 15]
ū or (w)ā?[V 15]
*uh₃ ū or (w)ō?[V 15]
*eu *eu, *h₁eu au > ō ə̄u; ao[V 9] ju iau oy e u eu ū ou iu ēo īe
*ou *ou,*h₃eu u au a o, au ou áu ēa
*au (*au[V 7]), *h₂eu aw au au
*ēu *ēu āu > au āu u iau e ū? iu ēo
*ōu *ōu a au ō áu ēa
*m̥ *m̥ a ę im̃; um̃[V 20] am a äm a, un a em em, am um um ym
*m̥̅ *mh₁ ā ìm; ùm[V 20] ama
*mh₂ mā > mē[V 13]
*mh₃
*m̥m *m̥m am ьm/ъm im; um[V 20] am am em am
*n̥ *n̥ a ę ; [V 20] an än an a en en, an un un yn
*n̥̄ *nh₁ ā ìn; ùn[V 20] ana
*nh₂ nā > nē [V 13]
*nh₃
*n̥n *n̥n an ьn/ъn ; [V 20] an an en an
*l̥ *l̥ ərə lь/lъ il̃; ul̃[V 20] al il, li; ul, lu äl al la ol li;[V 21] al ul ul; ol[V 19] yl
*l̥̄ *lh₁ īr; ūr[V 22] arə ìl; ùl[V 20] ala al
*lh₂ lā > lē[V 13]
*lh₃
*l̥l *l̥l ir; ur[V 22] ar ьl/ъl il; ul[V 20] al, la al el al
*r̥ *r̥ ərə rь/rъ ir̃; ur̃[V 20] ar ir, ri; ur, ru är ar, ur ra or ri;[V 21] ar aúr [ɔr] ur; or[V 19] yr
*r̥̄ *rh₁ īr; ūr[V 22] arə ìr; ùr[V 20] ara ra
*rh₂ rā > rē[V 13]
*rh₃
*r̥r *r̥r ir; ur[V 22] ar ьr/ъr ir; ur[V 20] ar ar ar ar
Trad. PIE Laryng. PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Arm. Alb. Toch. Hitt. Greek Latin[V 1] Proto-Celtic Gothic[V 2] normal umlauted[V 3]
Old English[V 1]

Consonants

Vowels

Prosody

Stress

Intonation

Phonotactics

Morphophonology

Morphology

Correlatives

German:

dieser Mensch
dies-er Mensch
DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person
"this" "person"
this person

Russian:

этот человек
эт-от человек
DEITIC-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person.NOMINATIVE
"this" "person"
this person

Latin:

iste homo
iste homo
DEITIC.PROXIMAL .NOMINATIVE person.NOMINATIVE
"that" "person"
that person

Greek:

οὗτος ἄνθρωπος
οὗτ-ος ἄνθρωπ-ος
DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE
"this" "person"
this person

Aryan:

*tad dʰgʰā́m
*tad *dʰgʰā́m
DEITIC.3PERSON.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE soil(adjective).SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE
"that" "person"
that person

The above samples follow the term *tad instead of *sa, as the former is used to refer to third person in general. *sa *tad <

  • h0e * eah0 *as *ats
    • pʰirás > pʰā́r = *dʰgʰūmás > *gʰā́mar, *gʰā́man
    • pʰerós > *phṓr dʰ

Syntax

Constituent order

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Example texts

Other resources


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