Plevian: Difference between revisions

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|name = Plevian
|name = Plevian
|nativename = sa dengua pleviana
|nativename = sa dengua pleviana
|pronunciation = sa ˈdeŋɡwa pleˈvjana
|pronunciation = sa ˈdeŋɡʷa pleˈvʲana; sa ˈðeŋɡʷa ɸleˈvʲana
|creator = [[User:Shariifka|Shariifka]]
|creator = [[User:Shariifka|Shariifka]]
|region = Europe
|region = Europe
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|familycolor = Indo-European
|familycolor = Indo-European
|fam1 = [[w:Indo-European_languages|Indo-European]]
|fam1 = [[w:Indo-European_languages|Indo-European]]
|fam2 = [[w:Romance_languages|Romance]]
|fam2 = [[w:Italic_languages|Italic]]
|fam3 = [[w:Latin|Latin]]
|ancestor = [[w:Old_Latin_language|Old Latin]]
|ancestor = [[w:Old_Latin_language|Old Latin]]
|ancestor2 = Old Plevian
|ancestor2 = Old Plevian
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-->
-->
===Orthography===
===Orthography===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Plevian orthography
|-
! Grapheme !! Environment !! IPA !! Remarks
|-
| a || everywhere || {{IPA|a}} ||
|-
| b || everywhere || {{IPA|b}} || May be pronounced {{IPA|[β]}} in leniting environments.
|-
| rowspan="2"| c || before ⟨e⟩, ⟨y⟩, or vocalic ⟨i⟩ || {{IPA|tʃ}} || May be pronounced [ʃ] in leniting environments.
|-
| before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, or ⟨u⟩; before a consonant; word-finally || {{IPA|k}} || rowspan="2"| May be pronounced [x] in leniting environments.
|-
| ch || before ⟨e⟩, ⟨i⟩, or ⟨y⟩ || {{IPA|k}}
|-
| rowspan="2"| ci || before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨u⟩, or ⟨e⟩ || {{IPA|tʃ}} || May be pronounced [ʃ] in leniting environments.
|-
| otherwise || {{IPA|tʃi}} ||
|-
| cj || before a consonant; word-finally || {{IPA|tʃ}} || May be pronounced [ʃ] in leniting environments.
|-
| d || everywhere || {{IPA|d}} || May be pronounced {{IPA|[ð]}} in leniting environments.
|-
| dz || everywhere || {{IPA|dz}} || May be pronounced {{IPA|[z]}} in leniting environments.
|-
| e || everywhere || {{IPA|e}} ||
|-
| f || everywhere || {{IPA|f}} ||
|-
| rowspan="2"| g || before ⟨e⟩, ⟨y⟩, or vocalic ⟨i⟩ || {{IPA|dʒ}} || May be pronounced {{IPA|[ʒ]}} in leniting environments.
|-
| before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, or ⟨u⟩; before a consonant; word-finally || {{IPA|ɡ}} || rowspan="2"| May be pronounced {{IPA|[ɣ]}} in leniting environments.
|-
| gh || before ⟨e⟩, ⟨i⟩, or ⟨y⟩ || {{IPA|ɡ}}
|-
| rowspan="2"| gi || before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨u⟩, or ⟨e⟩ || {{IPA|dʒ}} || May be pronounced {{IPA|[ʒ]}} in leniting environments.
|-
| otherwise || {{IPA|dʒi}} ||
|-
| gj || before a consonant; word-finally || {{IPA|dʒ}} || May be pronounced {{IPA|[ʒ]}} in leniting environments.
|-
| rowspan="2"| gu || before vowels || {{IPA|ɡw}} || May be pronounced {{IPA|[w]}} in leniting environments.
|-
| otherwise || {{IPA|ɡu}} ||
|-
| h || all || {{IPA|χ}} ||
|-
| rowspan="2"| i || before vowels || {{IPA|j}} ||
|-
| otherwise || {{IPA|i}} ||
|-
| j || everywhere || {{IPA|j}} ||
|-
| k || in loanwords || {{IPA|k}} || May be pronounced [x] in leniting environments.
|-
| l || everywhere || {{IPA|l}} ||
|-
| rowspan="2"| li || before vowels || {{IPA|ʎ}} ||
|-
| otherwise || {{IPA|li}} ||
|-
| m || everywhere || {{IPA|m}} ||
|-
| n || everywhere || {{IPA|n}} ||
|-
| rowspan="2"| ni || before vowels || {{IPA|ɲ}} ||
|-
| otherwise || {{IPA|ni}} ||
|-
| o || everywhere || {{IPA|o}} ||
|-
| p || everywhere || {{IPA|p}} || May be pronounced [ɸ] in leniting environments.
|-
| qu || everywhere || {{IPA|kw}} || May be pronounced [xʷ] in leniting environments. Doubled as ⟨cqu⟩.
|-
| r || everywhere || {{IPA|r}} ||
|-
| rowspan="2"| s || between vowels; before voiced consonants || {{IPA|z}} || The [s~z] allophony is optional in word-initial position, and tends to co-occur with stop lenition.
|-
| otherwise || {{IPA|s}} || The combination /stʃ/ is often pronounced [ʃː].
|-
| t || everywhere || {{IPA|t}} || May be pronounced [θ] in leniting environments.
|-
| rowspan="2"| u || before vowels || {{IPA|w}} || After a consonant, usually pronounced as labialization {{IPA|[ʷ]}}.
|-
| otherwise || {{IPA|u}} ||
|-
| v || everywhere || {{IPA|v}} ||
|-
| w || in loanwords || {{IPA|ɡw}} || May be pronounced {{IPA|[w]}} between vowels.
|-
| rowspan="2"| x || before vowels; before voiced consonants || {{IPA|ʒ}} || The [ʃ~ʒ] allophony is optional in word-initial position, and tends to co-occur with stop lenition.
|-
| otherwise || {{IPA|ʃ}} ||
|-
| rowspan="3"| xi || between vowels || {{IPA|ʒ}} ||
|-
| before vowels otherwise || {{IPA|ʃ}} ||
|-
| otherwise || {{IPA|ʃi~ʒi}} || See above for allophony.
|-
| rowspan="2"| y || in loanwords before vowels || {{IPA|j}} ||
|-
| in loanwords otherwise || {{IPA|i}} ||
|-
| z || everywhere || {{IPA|ts}} || May be pronounced [s] in leniting environments.
|-
|}
===Consonants===
===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
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| m
| m
| n
| n
| ɲ
| (ɲ)<sup><small>1</small></sup>
| (ŋ)
| (ŋ)<sup><small>2</small></sup>
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" | Stop
! rowspan="2" | Stop
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!  voiced
!  voiced
| v
| v
| (z)
| (z)<sup><small>3</small></sup>
| (ʒ)
| (ʒ)<sup><small>3</small></sup>
|  
|  
|-
|-
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|
|
| l
| l
| ʎ
| (ʎ)<sup><small>1</small></sup>
|
|
|-
|-
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|
|
|}
|}
'''Notes:'''
<sup><small>1</small></sup> [ɲ] and [ʎ] are surface realizations of underlying /nj/ and /lj/ respectively.
<sup><small>2</small></sup> [ŋ] is an allophone of /n/ before velars.
<sup><small>3</small></sup> [z] and [ʒ] are allophones of /s/ and /ʃ/ respectively between vowels and before voiced sounds.
<sup><small>4</small></sup> Most consonants can be labialized and/or palatalized. However, these are considered to be sequences of consonant + /w/ or /j/ respectively.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
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*Rising: ''ia, ie, io, iu, ua, ue, uo, ui''
*Rising: ''ia, ie, io, iu, ua, ue, uo, ui''
*Falling: ''ai, ei, oi, au, eu, ou''
*Falling: ''ai, ei, oi, au, eu, ou''
The most common diphthongs are ''ia, ua, ue,'' and ''io''. Additionally, ''ui'' is common after /k/ and /ɡ/. The remaining diphthongs are rare.
 
Note that the glide in rising diphthongs is usually realized as palatalization (in the case of ''-i-'') or labialization (in the case of ''-u-'').


===Prosody===
===Prosody===
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<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
===Morphophonology===
===Morphophonology===
====Epenthetic consonants====
When a word ending in a vowel is followed by a word beginning in a vowel, an epenthetic consonant is usually inserted.
In the case of nouns and adjectives, the consonant used is ''-n''.
Third person plural verbs, while not ending in a vowel, take an epenthetic ''-t'' before vowel-initial words.
Other words can have varying epenthetic consonants (such as ''-n'', ''-d'', ''-b'', ''-g'', ''-t'', etc.) depending on their etymology.
Examples:
*''a'' "to" + ''America'' > ''ad America''
*''da'' "away from, out of" + ''America'' > ''dab America''
*''femna'' "woman" + ''alta'' "tall" > ''femnan alta''
*''ama'' "(s)he loves" + ''arbrex'' "trees" > ''amad arbrex''
*''aman'' "they love" + ''arbrex'' > ''amant arbrex''
Counter-examples:
*''de'' "of, from" + ''America'' > ''de America''
*''amo'' "I love" + ''arbrex'' "trees" > ''amo arbrex''
====Syntactic gemination====
Certain pronouns and particles cause the first consonant of a following consonant-initial word to geminate.
In most cases, these are the same words that add an epenthetic ''-d'', ''-g'', or ''-b'' when the following word begins in a vowel.
Examples:
*''a'' "to" + ''Canada'' > ''a cCanada''
*''da'' "away from, out of" + ''Canada'' > ''da cCanada''
*''ama'' "(s)he loves" + ''carne'' "meat" > ''ama ccarne''
==Morphology==
==Morphology==
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
Nouns
Nouns
Adjectives
Adjectives
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Particles
Particles
Derivational morphology
Derivational morphology
-->
===Nouns===
Nouns may be masculine or feminine.
Nouns are pluralized in ''-x''. After a consonant, this ending becomes ''-ex''.
Nouns ending in a vowel add an epenthetic ''-n'' when followed by a word beginning in a vowel.
===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree with the noun they govern in gender and number.
Adjectives whose masculine forms end in ''-o'' are feminized in ''-a''. Otherwise, the masculine and feminine forms are identical. Adjectives ending in a vowel add an epenthetic ''-n'' when immediately followed by a vowel.
Like nouns, adjectives are pluralized in ''-(e)x''.
====Comparative and superlative====
The comparative is formed with the suffix ''-iore(n)'' which replaces the adjective's final vowel. The glide ''-i-'' causes the same sound changes to labialized and coronal consonants as those experienced by Class 5 verbs.
The superlative is formed with the suffix ''-esmo(n)/a(n)''. When an adjective's stem ends in ''-r-'' or ''-l-'', it combines with the superlative suffix to form ''-(e)rmo(n)/a(n)'' or ''-(e)lmo(n)/a(n)'' respectively (where ''-(e)-'' is added when the ''-r-'' or ''-l-'' is preceded by a consonant).
Some adjectives ending in velar consonants palatalize them before the comparative and superlative suffixes, while some maintain their pronunciation.
Additionally, some adjectives have stem changes in stressed syllables (similar to those of verbs).
Some common adjectives have irregular comparatives and superlatives.
Due to the above reasons, the citation form of adjectives is usually "base form, comparative, superlative".
===Adverbs===
====Manner adverbs====
There are two main ways of deriving manner adverbs from adjectives:
#Adjectives ending in ''-o(n)/a(n)'': Replace the final vowel with ''-e(d)''
#Adjectives ending in ''-i(n)'', ''e(n)'', or another vowel: Replace the final vowel with ''-ter'' (with penultimate stress).
#*Assimilation applies as it does in the past participle. Expected ''-tt-'' is simplified to ''-t-'' after consonants.
====Comparative and superlative====
Before adding comparative and superlative suffixes, the final vowel (or, in the case of ''-ter'' adverbs, the final ''-er'') of the adverb is removed if present.
The comparative is formed with the suffix ''-iox''. The glide ''-i-'' causes the same sound changes to labialized and coronal consonants as those experienced by Class 5 verbs.
The superlative is formed with the suffix ''-esme(d)''. This suffix undergoes the same sound changes as the corresponding adjective suffix.
Some adverbs ending in velar consonants palatalize them before the comparative and superlative suffixes, while some maintain their pronunciation.
Additionally, some adverbs have stem changes in stressed syllables (similar to those of verbs).
Some common adverbs have irregular comparatives and superlatives.
Due to the above reasons, the citation form of adverbs is usually "base form, comparative, superlative".
===Articles===
Articles precede the noun they govern and agree with it in gender and number.
The definite article is ''so'', declined as below:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Masculine
| so(n) || sox
|-
! Feminine
| sa(n) || sax
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
<sup><small>1</small></sup> ''-n'' is added before words beginning in vowels.
The indefinite article is ''gueno'', declined as below:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Masculine
| guen(o)<sup><small>1</small></sup> || guenox
|-
! Feminine
| guen(a)<sup><small>2</small></sup> || guenax
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
<sup><small>1</small></sup> ''-o'' is added before words beginning in consonant clusters.
<sup><small>2</small></sup> ''-a'' is dropped before words beginning in vowels.
===Pronouns===
====Personal pronouns====
{|class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
! rowspan="2" |Person/ Number !! rowspan="2" | Subject !! rowspan="2" | Object !! colspan="2"| Clitic object !! colspan="2" |Possessive
|-
! Direct || Indirect || Weak || Strong
|-
! 1S
| mu || me || me(n) || me(d/G) || mo(n) || mexxo
|-
! 2S
| tu || te || te(n) || te(d/G) || to(n) || texxo
|-
! 3SM
| gio || gio || gio(n) || gio(d/G) || gio(n) || gioxxo
|-
! 3SF
| gia || gia || gia(n) || gia(d/G) || gia(n) || giaxxo
|-
! 3R
| su || se || se(n) || se(d/G) || so(n) || siaxxo
|-
! 1P
| nox || nox || nox || nox || nox || nuastro
|-
! 2P
| gox || gox || gox || gox || gox || guastro
|-
! 3PM
| giox || giox || giox || giox || giox || gioro
|-
! 3PF
| giax || giax || giax || giax || giax || giaro
|-
|}
===Numerals===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Essanian numerals
|-
! !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional
|-
! 0
| zero(n) || zerosmo(n), -a(n) || —
|-
! 1
| gueno(n), guena(n) || primo(n), -a(n) || —
|-
! 2
| dúox, dúax || secondo(n), -(n) || semesse(n)
|-
! 3
| trix || tiarzo(n), -a(n) || triante(n)
|-
! 4
| quáttor || quarto(n), -a(n) || quadrante(n)
|-
! 5
| quenche || quempto(n), -a(n) || quemptante(n)
|-
! 6
| siapx || siasto(n), -a(n) || sestante(n)
|-
! 7
| siapte(n) || siápmo(n), -a(n) || sepmante(n)
|-
! 8
| guapto || optago(n), -a(n) || optagante(n)
|-
! 9
| nuaghe(n) || nono(n), -a(n) || nonante(n)
|-
! 10
| diace(n) || diacmo(n), -a(n) || decmante(n)
|-
! 11
| guence(n) || guendecmo(n), -a(n) || guendecmante(n)
|-
! 12
| duocce(n) || duodiacmo(n), -a(n) || duodecmante(n)
|-
! 13
| trecce(n) || trediacmo(n), -a(n) || tredecmante(n)
|-
! 14
| quattorce(n) || quattordiacmo(n), -a(n) || quattordecmante(n)
|-
! 15
| quince(n) || quindiacmo(n), -a(n) || quindecmante(n)
|-
! 16
| secce(n) || sediacmo(n), -a(n) || sedecmante(n)
|-
! 17
| septence(n) || septendiacmo(n), -a(n) || septendecmante(n)
|-
! 18
| optocce(n) || optodiacmo(n), -a(n) || optodecmante(n)
|-
! 19
| noghence(n) || noghendiacmo(n), -a(n) || noghendecmante(n)
|-
! 20
| guigenti || guigesmo(m), -a(m) || guigesmante(n)
|-
! 21
| guigenti-gueno(n), -a(n) || guigenti-primo(n), -a(n) || guigenti-guenante(n)
|-
! 22
| guigenti-dúox, -dúax || guigenti-secondo(n), -a(n) || guigenti-duante(n)
|-
! 23
| guigenti-trix || guigenti-tiarzo(n), -a(n) || guigenti-triante(n)
|-
! 30
| trigenta || trigesmo(n), -a(n) || trigesmante(n)
|-
! 40
| quadragenta || quadragesmo(n), -a(n) || quadragesmante(n)
|-
! 50
| quencagenta || quencagesmo(n), -a(n) || quencagesmante(n)
|-
! 60
| sepsagenta || sepsagesmo(n), -a(n) || sepsagesmante(n)
|-
! 70
| sepmagenta || sepmagesmo(n), -a(n) || sepmagesmante(n)
|-
! 80
| optagenta || optagesmo(n), -a(n) || optagesmante(n)
|-
! 90
| nonagenta || nonagesmo(n), -a(n) || nonagesmante(n)
|-
! 100
| cianto(n) || centesmo(n), -a(n) || centesmante(n)
|-
! 200
| duox-ciantox || duox-centesmo(n), -a(n) || duox-centesmante(n)
|-
! 1000
| milli || millesmo(n), -a(n) || millesmante(n)
|-
! 2000
| duox-millia || duox-millesmo(n), -a(n) || duox-millesmante(n)
|-
! 10⁶
| millione(n) || milllionesmo(n), -a(n) || millionesmante(n)
|-
! 10⁹
| milliardo(n) || milliardesmo(n), -a(n) || milliardesmante(n)
|-
! 10¹²
| billione(n) || billlionesmo(n), -a(n) || billionesmante(n)
|}
===Verbs===
====Verb classes====
There are five verb classes:
#''-are'' verbs (class 1)
#''-ere'' verbs (class 2)
#Non-palatalized ''-re'' verbs (class 3)
#Palatalized ''-re'' verbs (class 4)
#''-ire'' verbs (class 5)
====Present indicative====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! Class !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5
|-
! 1S
| -o || -io || -o || -io || -io
|-
! 2S
| -ax || -ex || -ex || -ix || -ix
|-
! 3S
| -a(d/G) || -e(d/G) || -e(d/G) || -i(d/G) || -i(d/G)
|-
! 1P
| -amox || -emox || -mox || -mox || -imox
|-
! 2P
| -atex || -etex || -tex || -tex || -itex
|-
! 3P
| -an(t) || -en(t) || -on(t) || -ion(t) || -ion(t)
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
:1. Before a glide ''-i-'', labialized consonants lose their labialization. This applies in the 1S for Class 2, 4, and 5 verbs and the 3P for Class 4 & 5 verbs. Additionally, Class 4 & 5 verbs whose stems end in coronal consonants undergo stem changes in the 1S and 3P forms:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"
! Expected !! Changed to
|-
| ti
| z
|-
| di
| dz
|-
| si
| x
|-
| zi
| ci
|-
|}
:2. Verbs whose stem end in velar stops (''-c-'' or ''-g-'') maintain their spelling throughout the present indicative regardless of whether that would result in a "hard" or "soft" pronunciation. On the other hand, verbs whose stem ends in ''-ch-'' or ''-gh-'' drop the ''-h-'' when they are not followed by front vowels.
====Present subjunctive====
The present subjunctive is formed by removing ''-o'' from the 1S present indicative and adding the following endings:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! Class !! 1 !! Others
|-
! 1S
| -e(n) || -a(n)
|-
! 2S
| -ex || -ax
|-
! 3S
| -e(d/G) || -a(d/G)
|-
! 1P
| -emox || -amox
|-
! 2P
| -etex || -atex
|-
! 3P
| -en(t) || -an(t)
|-
|}
Class 1 verbs whose stems end in a velar stop maintain their lack of palatalization in the present subjunctive.
====Imperfect indicative====
The imperfect stem is formed by removing ''-o'' or (only for Class 2 verbs) ''-io'' from the 1S present indicative and adding the following endings:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! Class !! 1 !! Others
|-
! 1S
| -ava(n) || -eva(n)
|-
! 2S
| -avax || -evax
|-
! 3S
| -ava(d/G) || -eva(d/G)
|-
! 1P
| -avamox || -evamox
|-
! 2P
| -avatex || -evatex
|-
! 3P
| -avan(t) || -evan(t)
|-
|}
====Imperfect subjunctive====
The imperfect subjunctive is formed by adding the following endings to the verb's infinitive:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! Class !! All
|-
! 1S
| -(n)
|-
! 2S
| -x
|-
! 3S
| -(d/G)
|-
! 1P
| -mox
|-
! 2P
| -tex
|-
! 3P
| -n(t)
|-
|}
====Future====
The future is formed by adding the following endings to the imperfect stem:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! Class !! 1 !! Others
|-
! 1S
| -avo || -evo
|-
! 2S
| -avex || -evex
|-
! 3S
| -ave(d/G) || -eve(d/G)
|-
! 1P
| -ammox || -emmox
|-
! 2P
| -aftex || -eftex
|-
! 3P
| -avon(t) || -evon(t)
|-
|}
====Future perfect====
The future perfect stem is formed by replacing the final ''-t-'' of the supine stem (if present) with ''-s-'' (after a consonant) or ''-ss-'' (after a vowel). If the supine stem already ends in ''-s-'', the supine stem is used.
<!--
The future perfect stem may be formed in two ways depending on whether the present stem (the infinitive minus ''-re'' or equivalent) ends in a vowel or consonant.
# If it ends in a vowel: ''-re'' is removed from the infinitive and replaced with ''-ss-''.
# If it ends in a consonant: The final vowel from the past participle is removed. If the remaining supine stem ends in ''-t-'', it is also removed and replaced with ''-s-''.-->
Then, the following endings are added:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! !! Ending
|-
! 1S
| -o
|-
! 2S
| -ex
|-
! 3S
| -e(d/G)
|-
! 1P
| -emox
|-
! 2P
| -etex
|-
! 3P
| -en(t)
|-
|}
====Perfect indicative====
The perfect indicative is formed by adding the following endings to the perfect stem:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! !! All classes
|-
! 1S
| -e
|-
! 2S
| -este
|-
! 3S
| -e(d/G)
|-
! 1P
| -mox
|-
! 2P
| -estex
|-
! 3P
| -ron(t)
|-
|}
The perfect stem is derived from the present stem in different ways depending on the verb.
*Regular Class 1 & 5 verbs form it by removing ''-re'' from the infinitive and adding ''-g(h)-'' (always hard).
*Regular Class 2, 3, and 4 verbs form it by adding ''-u-'' to the present stem.
*There are many irregular verbs, especially in classes 2-4 (and sometimes 5).
====Perfect subjunctive====
The perfect subjunctive is formed by adding the following endings to the perfect stem:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! !! All classes
|-
! 1S
| -re(n)
|-
! 2S
| -rex
|-
! 3S
| -re(d/G)
|-
! 1P
| -remox
|-
! 2P
| -retex
|-
! 3P
| -ren(t)
|-
|}
====Pluperfect indicative====
The pluperfect indicative is formed by adding the following endings to the perfect stem:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! !! All classes
|-
! 1S
| -ra(n)
|-
! 2S
| -rax
|-
! 3S
| -ra(d/G)
|-
! 1P
| -ramox
|-
! 2P
| -ratex
|-
! 3P
| -ran(t)
|-
|}
====Pluperfect subjunctive====
The pluperfect subjunctive is formed by adding the following endings to the perfect stem:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! !! All classes
|-
! 1S
| -esse(n)
|-
! 2S
| -essex
|-
! 3S
| -esse(d/G)
|-
! 1P
| -essemox
|-
! 2P
| -essetex
|-
! 3P
| -essen(t)
|-
|}
====Imperative====
The imperative is formed by removing ''-x'' from the corresponding second person present indicative. This applies both in the singular and plural.
====Derived adjectives and nouns====
The following derived adjectives and nouns exist:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! Participle !! Formation !! Remarks
|-
! Present participle
| Formed by replacing ''-n(t)'' of the 3S present indicative with ''-nte(n)''. <!--removing ''-va(n)'' from the 1S imperfect indicative and adding ''-nte(n)''.-->
|
|-
! Past participle
| Regularly formed by removing ''-re'' from the infinitive and adding ''-to(n)'' (m.)/''-ta(n)'' (f.). Many verbs have an irregular past participle.
| The supine stem is formed by removing the final vowel from the past participle.
|-
! Future participle
| Formed by adding ''-uro(n)'' (m.)/''-ura(n)'' (f.) to the supine stem.
|
|-
! Gerundive
| Formed by replacing ''-n(t)'' in the 3P present indicative with ''-ndo(n)'' (m.)/''-nda(n)'' (f.)
| Roughly equivalent to the suffix "-able" in English. Depending on the verb, it may have active or passive meaning.
|-
! Agent noun
| Formed by adding ''-ore(n)'' (m.)/''-(t)rice(n)'' (f.) to the supine stem.
| ''-(t)-'' is added in the feminine when it is not already present at the end of the supine stem.
|-
|}
====Stem-changing verbs====
In stem-changing verbs, the stem changes depending on whether it is stressed or unstressed.
In most cases, this involves a vowel change. The main patterns are:
*Unstressed ''-e-'' > Stressed ''-ia-''
*Stressed ''-o-'' > Stressed ''-ua-''
The above stem changes are known as "breaking".
Due to historical sound changes, there may also be consonant changes. Some examples include:
*Addition of ''g-'' in the stressed stem.
**This happens in both types of breaking verbs when the unstressed stem begins in a vowel. In such verbs, ''e-'' and ''o-'' become ''gia-'' and ''gua-'' respectively when stressed.
*Delabialization of labialized consonants such as ''gu-, qu-, du-'', etc. in the stressed stem.
**This happens as a rule in ''e'' > ''ia'' verbs (e.g. unstressed ''gue-'' becomes stressed ''ghia-'' instead of ''*guia-'').
**In ''o'' > ''ua'' verbs, the two labializations are merged (e.g. unstressed ''guo-'' becomes stressed ''gua-'' and not *''guua-'').
====Assimiliation====
=====Infinitive=====
Class 3 and 4 verbs whose stems end in certain consonants assimilate the ''-r-'' of the infinitive into the final consonant. The assimilation has one of the following results depending on the stem structure:
*If the stem ends in a single ''-s, -r,'' ''-l,'' or ''-n'' preceded by a vowel: ''-r-'' is merged with the consonant causing it to be doubled.
*If the stem ends in ''-r,'' ''-l,'' or ''-n'' that is double or preceded by a consonant: ''-r-'' is dropped.
Note that ''-r-'' is neither dropped nor assimilated when it occurs after ''-s'' when it is doubled or occurs after a consonant.
When necessary, the end of the stem can be indicated with an apostrophe. For example:
*When ''-r-'' merges with the following consonant: ''gual'le, fiar're, es'se''
*When ''-r-'' is dropped: ''piall'e''
=====Past participle=====
In regular past participles of Class 3 & 4 verbs:
*A voiced stop is devoiced (in both pronunciation and writing) before ''-t-''. Voiced fricatives are also devoiced in this position, but this is not reflected in the orthography except in the case of ''-v-'', which becomes ''-f-''.
=====Finite forms=====
====Principal parts====
For the vast majority of verbs, whether regular or irregular, the full conjugation can be derived from the following four principal parts:
*Infinitive
*1S present indicative
*1S perfect indicative
*Singular masculine past participle
When the principal parts fail to show a stem change, additional principal parts may be added.
*Present stem: 1S imperfect indicative
**Comes after 1S present indicative
*Perfect stem: 2S perfect indicative
**Comes after 1S perfect indicative
*Supine stem: Singular masculine future participle
**Comes at end
In this article, these "extra" principal parts are shown in brackets.
====Irregular verbs====
=====''esse'' "to be"=====
Despite being classified as a Class 3 verb, the verb ''esse, so, (era), fue, futo'' "to be" is highly irregular and therefore must be treated on its own.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="3"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| esse
! colspan="3"| Present participle
| colspan="3"| sonte(n)
|-
! colspan="3"| Past participle
| colspan="3"| futo(n)/futa(n)
! colspan="3"| Future participle
| colspan="3"| futuro(n)/futura(n)
|-
! colspan="3"| Gerundive
| colspan="3"| sondo(n)/sonda(n)
! colspan="3"| Agent noun
| colspan="3"| futore(n)/futrice(n)
|-
!rowspan="2"| !! colspan=6 | Indicative !! colspan=4 | Subjunctive !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
|-
! Present !! Imperfect !! Perfect !! Pluperfect !! Future !! Future perfect !! Present !! Imperfect !! Perfect !! Pluperfect
|-
! 1S
| so(n) || era(n) || fue || essa(n) || ero || fuaro || fua(n) || esse(n) || fure(n) || fuesse(n) ||
|-
! 2S
|  ex || erax || fueste || essax || erex || fuarex || fuax || essex || furex || fuessex || ex
|-
! 3S
|  e(t) || era(d/G) || fue(d/G) || essa(d/G) || ere(d/G) || fuare(d/G) || fua(d/G) || esse(d/G) || fure(d/G) || fuesse(d/G) ||
|-
! 1P
| somox || eramox || fumox || essamox || ermox || fuarmox || fuamox || essemox || furemox || fuessemox ||
|-
! 2P
| estex || eratex || fuestex || essatex || ertex || fuartex || fuatex || essetex || furetex || fuessetex || este
|-
! 3P
|  son(t) || eran(t) || furon(t) || essan(t) || eron(t) || fuaren(t) || fuan(t) || essen(t) || furen(t) || fuessen(t) ||
|-
|}
=====Class 1=====
*''dare, do, '''diade, (dedeste)''', dato'' "to give"
*''stare, sto, '''stiate, (steteste)''', stato'' "to stand"
*''laguare, laguo, '''lague, loto''''' "to wash"
*''giogare, giogo, '''gioghe, gioto''''' "to help"
=====Class 2=====
*''flere, flio, '''fleghe''', fleto'' "to cry"
*''ridere, ridio, '''ride, riso''''' "to laugh"
*''guedere, guedio, '''guede, gueso''''' "to see"
*''goghere, guaghio, '''goghe, goto''''' "to vow, promise"
*''gere, gio, '''gighe, geto''''' "to go"
*Etc.
=====Class 3=====
*''agre, ago, '''ege, apto''''' "to act, behave"
*''decre, deco, '''depse, depto''''' "to say"
*''fegre, fego, '''fepse, fepto''''' "to place"
*''argure, arguo, '''argue''', arguto'' "to prove"
*''grascre, grasco, '''graghe, grato''''' "to be born"
*''groscre, grosco, '''groghe, groto''''' "to be acquainted"
*''pialle, pialo, '''piaple, (pepleste), polso''''' "to beat"
*''fiarre, fiaro, (fereva), '''tiatre, (tetreste), trato''''' "to carry"
*Etc.


-->
=====Class 4=====
*''facre, facio, '''fece, fapto''''' "to do, make"
*''capre, capio, '''cepe''', capto'' "to take, grasp"
*''fogre, fogio, '''foge''', fokto'' "to flee"
*Etc.
 
=====Class 5=====
*''parire, pario, '''piapre, (pepreste), parto''''' "to make, produce"
*''sentire, sianzo, '''sense, senso''''' "to smell (something)"
*''guenire, ghianio, '''guene''', ghianto, (guenturo)'' "to come"
*''sancire, sancio, '''sampse, sampto''''' "to respect"
*Etc.
 
====Compound forms====
Compound forms include:
=====Voices=====
*Passive: ''fire, fio, fighe, fito'' "to become" + past participle
*Middle: ''gere, gio, gighe, geto'' "to go" + past participle
=====Tense/Aspect=====
*Prospective: ''esse, so, (era), fue, futo'' "to be" + future participle
*Completive perfect: ''havere, havio, havue, hafto'' "to have" + past participle
**''havere'' may be in any tense to form a corresponding anterior tense denoting a completed action.
**This is similar to the perfect tenses, but it gives the implication that an action has been completed.
*Continuous: ''esse, so, (era), fue, futo'' + present participle
**Unlike in English, this can only be used for an action that is ongoing at the time referenced (as indicated by conjugation of ''esse'').
*Inchoative: ''fire, fio, fighe, fito'' "to become" + present participle
 
=====Others=====
*Causative 1: ''facre, facio, fece, fapto'' "to do" + infinitive
**Means "cause X to Y" or "make X Y".
*Causative 2: ''facre, facio, fece, fapto'' "to do" + past participle
**Means "cause X to be Y-ed" or "have X Y-ed".
====Negation====
Negation of verbs is accomplished with ''ho(d/G)'' or (rarely) ''ne''. Both of these particles precede the verb.
 
Alternatively, negation may be accomplished by using a negative word.
 
Double negation is not used in formal language.


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
Line 197: Line 1,047:
===Dependent clauses===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->
<!-- etc. etc. -->
==Vocabulary==
===Time - ''So Tiampre''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Seasons - ''Sax tempestatex''
! English !! Plevian
|-
| spring || guere(n)
|-
| summer || estate(n)
|-
| fall || optombro(n)
|-
| winter || xiame(n)
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Gregorian months - ''Sox mesex gregorianox''
! English !! Plevian
|-
| January || gianguario(n)
|-
| February || fevrario(n)
|-
| March || marzo(n)
|-
| April || aprile(n)
|-
| May || magio(n)
|-
| June || giunio(n)
|-
| July || giulio(n); quemptili(n)
|-
| August || ogosto(n); sestili(n)
|-
| September || septiambre(n)
|-
| October || optombre(n)
|-
| November || noghiambre(n)
|-
| December || deciambre(n)
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Days of the week - ''Sox dix de sa xiabma''
! English !! Plevian
|-
| Sunday || soldi(n)
|-
| Monday || lundi(n)
|-
| Tuesday || mardi(n)
|-
| Wednesday || mérchedi(n)
|-
| Thursday || giuadi(n)
|-
| Friday || ghiandi(n)
|-
| Saturday || satordi(n)
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Parts of the day - ''Sox partix de so di''
! English !! Plevian
|-
| day || di(n)
|-
| dawn || orora(n)
|-
| morning || mattino(n)
|-
| noon || meridi(n)
|-
| afternoon || pomeridi(n)
|-
| evening || guespra(n)
|-
| dusk || crepro(n)
|-
| night || nuapte(n)
|-
| midnight || merinuapte(n)
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Units of time - ''Sax unitatex de so tiampre''
! English !! Plevian
|-
| second || secondo(n)
|-
| minute || minuta(n)
|-
| hour || hora(n)
|-
| day || di(n)
|-
| week || xiabma(n)
|-
| month || mese(n)
|-
| season || tempestate(n)
|-
| year || anno(n)
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Time adverbs - ''Sox adverbiox temporalex''
! English !! Plevian
|-
| now || non
|-
| then || ton
|-
| recently, a short time ago || nupre(d/G), nupriox, nuperme(d/G); dudo
|-
| earlier || pre(d/G), priox, prime(d/G)
|-
| soon, shortly || muapse(d/G), muapxox, mopsesme(d/G)
|-
| later || siate(d/G), siazos, setesme(d/G)
|-
| always || siampre(d/G)
|-
| often || sepe(d/G), sepiox, sepesme(d/G)
|-
| sometimes || attiamprex
|-
| rarely || rare(d/G), rariox, rarme(d/G)
|-
| never || neconca(n)
|-
| ever || conca(n)
|-
| still, yet || gianno(n)
|-
| already || gian
|-
| today || huaddze(d/G)
|-
| tonight || huannapte(d/G)
|-
| yesterday || xiare(d/G)
|-
| last night || xiare nnuapte(n)
|-
| tomorrow || crax
|-
| tomorrow night || crax nuapte(n)
|-
| before yesterday || prexiare(d/G)
|-
| two nights ago || prexiare nnuapte(n)
|-
| after tomorrow || periandze(d/G)
|-
| this week || xe xxiabma(n)
|-
| last week || sa xiabma noghesma(n)
|-
| next week || sa xiabma guentura(n)
|-
| this year || horno(d/G)
|-
| last year || son anno noghesmo(n)
|-
| next year || son anno guenturo(n)
|}
===Colours - ''Sox colorex''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Colours - ''Sox colorex''
! English !! Plevian
|-
| white || albo, albiore, albesmo
|-
| grey || rago, raghiore, raghesmo
|-
| black || negro, negriore, negermo
|-
| red || robro, robriore, robermo
|-
| orange || arangiacio, arangiaciore, arangiacesmo
|-
| brown || badzo, badzore, badzesmo
|-
| yellow || xelgo, xelghiore, xelghesmo
|-
| green || galbo, galbiore, galbesmo
|-
| blue || guerdi, guerdzore, guerdesmo
|-
| pink || rosacio, rosaciore, rosacesmo
|-
| purple || ostrino, ostriniore, ostrinesmo
|-
| golden || flago, flaghiore, flaghesmo
|-
|}


==Example texts==
==Example texts==
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
====Modern Plevian====
Guabrix xiamnex grascon luebrox ed equox en degretaten e ggiorex. Son dotatox de razonen e cconscianza, e ddevent agre enter se seco ffratrex.
'''IPA (broad):''' /ˈɡwabriʃ ˈʃamneʃ ˈɡraskon ˈlwebroʃ ed ekwoʃ en ˌdeɡreˈtaten e ˈdʒːoreʃ ‖ son doˈtatoʃ de raˈtsonen e kːonˈstʃantsa | e ˈdːevent ˈaɡre ˈenter se ˈseko ˈfːratreʃ/
'''IPA (narrow, with lenition):''' [ˈɡʷaː.βriʃ ˈʃam.neʒ ˈɡɾaː.skon ˈlʷeː.βro.ʒ‿eˈð‿eː.xʷo.ʒ‿en ˌde.ɣɾe.ˈθaː.θe.n‿e‿ʒ.ˈʒoː.reʃ ‖ ˈson do.ˈθaː.θoʒ de ra.ˈsoː.ne.n‿e‿k.kon.ˈʃːan.tsa | e‿d.ˈdeː.ven.ˈt‿aː.ɣɾe ˈen.ter ˈseː ˈzeː.xo‿f.ˈfɾaː.θɾeʃ]
'''IPA (narrow, without lenition):''' [ˈɡʷaː.briʃ ˈʃam.neʒ ˈɡɾaː.skon ˈlʷeː.bro.ʒ‿eˈd‿eː.kʷo.ʒ‿en ˌde.ɡɾe.ˈtaː.te.n‿e‿dʒ.ˈʒoː.reʃ ‖ ˈson do.ˈtaː.toʒ de ra.ˈtsoː.ne.n‿e‿k.kon.ˈʃːan.tsa | e‿d.ˈdeː.ven.ˈt‿aː.ɡɾe ˈen.ter ˈseː ˈseː.ko‿f.ˈfɾaː.tɾeʃ]
all-PL people they_are_born free-PL and equal-PL in dignity and rights. they_are endowed of reason and conscience, and they_must act among themselves like brothers.
====Old Plevian====
Obnēs hemones loeberē et aequē in degnetāte et jōribos gnāscuntor. Dōtātē dē rātiōne et conscientiae sunt, et sēcut frātres inter sē agere dēbent.
'''IPA:''' /ˈɔbneːs ˈxɛmɔnɛs ˈloe̯bɛreː ɛt ˈae̯kʷeː ɪn ˌdɛɡnɛˈtaːte ɛt ˈjoːrɪbɔs ɡnaːˈskʊntɔr ‖ doːtaːteː deː raːtiˈoːne ɛt kɔnskiˈɛntiae̯ sʊnt | ɛt seːkʊt fraːtrɛs ˈɪntɛr seː ˈaɡɛre ˈdeːbɛnt/
==Other resources==
==Other resources==
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
 
[[Plevian/Swadesh_list|Swadesh list]]
<!-- Template area -->
<!-- Template area -->


Latest revision as of 19:38, 20 November 2024

Plevian (native: pleviano, sa dengua pleviana) is an Italic language descended from Old Latin.

Plevian
sa dengua pleviana
Pronunciation[sa ˈdeŋɡʷa pleˈvʲana; sa ˈðeŋɡʷa ɸleˈvʲana]
Created byShariifka
Early forms
Old Latin
  • Old Plevian

Introduction

Phonology

Orthography

Plevian orthography
Grapheme Environment IPA Remarks
a everywhere a
b everywhere b May be pronounced [β] in leniting environments.
c before ⟨e⟩, ⟨y⟩, or vocalic ⟨i⟩ tʃ May be pronounced [ʃ] in leniting environments.
before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, or ⟨u⟩; before a consonant; word-finally k May be pronounced [x] in leniting environments.
ch before ⟨e⟩, ⟨i⟩, or ⟨y⟩ k
ci before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨u⟩, or ⟨e⟩ tʃ May be pronounced [ʃ] in leniting environments.
otherwise tʃi
cj before a consonant; word-finally tʃ May be pronounced [ʃ] in leniting environments.
d everywhere d May be pronounced [ð] in leniting environments.
dz everywhere dz May be pronounced [z] in leniting environments.
e everywhere e
f everywhere f
g before ⟨e⟩, ⟨y⟩, or vocalic ⟨i⟩ dʒ May be pronounced [ʒ] in leniting environments.
before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, or ⟨u⟩; before a consonant; word-finally ɡ May be pronounced [ɣ] in leniting environments.
gh before ⟨e⟩, ⟨i⟩, or ⟨y⟩ ɡ
gi before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨u⟩, or ⟨e⟩ dʒ May be pronounced [ʒ] in leniting environments.
otherwise dʒi
gj before a consonant; word-finally dʒ May be pronounced [ʒ] in leniting environments.
gu before vowels ɡw May be pronounced [w] in leniting environments.
otherwise ɡu
h all χ
i before vowels j
otherwise i
j everywhere j
k in loanwords k May be pronounced [x] in leniting environments.
l everywhere l
li before vowels ʎ
otherwise li
m everywhere m
n everywhere n
ni before vowels ɲ
otherwise ni
o everywhere o
p everywhere p May be pronounced [ɸ] in leniting environments.
qu everywhere kw May be pronounced [xʷ] in leniting environments. Doubled as ⟨cqu⟩.
r everywhere r
s between vowels; before voiced consonants z The [s~z] allophony is optional in word-initial position, and tends to co-occur with stop lenition.
otherwise s The combination /stʃ/ is often pronounced [ʃː].
t everywhere t May be pronounced [θ] in leniting environments.
u before vowels w After a consonant, usually pronounced as labialization [ʷ].
otherwise u
v everywhere v
w in loanwords ɡw May be pronounced [w] between vowels.
x before vowels; before voiced consonants ʒ The [ʃ~ʒ] allophony is optional in word-initial position, and tends to co-occur with stop lenition.
otherwise ʃ
xi between vowels ʒ
before vowels otherwise ʃ
otherwise ʃi~ʒi See above for allophony.
y in loanwords before vowels j
in loanwords otherwise i
z everywhere ts May be pronounced [s] in leniting environments.

Consonants

Plevian consonant phonemes
Labial Alveolar Postalveolar/
Palatal 		Velar/
Guttural
Nasal m n (ɲ)1 (ŋ)2
Stop voiceless p t k
voiced b d ɡ
Affricate voiceless ts tʃ
voiced dz dʒ
Fricative voiceless f s ʃ χ
voiced v (z)3 (ʒ)3
Approximant j w
Lateral l (ʎ)1
Trill r

Notes:

1 [ɲ] and [ʎ] are surface realizations of underlying /nj/ and /lj/ respectively.

2 [ŋ] is an allophone of /n/ before velars.

3 [z] and [ʒ] are allophones of /s/ and /ʃ/ respectively between vowels and before voiced sounds.

4 Most consonants can be labialized and/or palatalized. However, these are considered to be sequences of consonant + /w/ or /j/ respectively.

Vowels

Plevian monophthong vowels
Front Central Back
Close i u
Mid e o
Open a

In addition to the monopthongs above, the following diphthongs are possible:

  • Rising: ia, ie, io, iu, ua, ue, uo, ui
  • Falling: ai, ei, oi, au, eu, ou

Note that the glide in rising diphthongs is usually realized as palatalization (in the case of -i-) or labialization (in the case of -u-).

Prosody

Stress

Intonation

Phonotactics

Morphophonology

Epenthetic consonants

When a word ending in a vowel is followed by a word beginning in a vowel, an epenthetic consonant is usually inserted.

In the case of nouns and adjectives, the consonant used is -n.

Third person plural verbs, while not ending in a vowel, take an epenthetic -t before vowel-initial words.

Other words can have varying epenthetic consonants (such as -n, -d, -b, -g, -t, etc.) depending on their etymology.

Examples:

  • a "to" + America > ad America
  • da "away from, out of" + America > dab America
  • femna "woman" + alta "tall" > femnan alta
  • ama "(s)he loves" + arbrex "trees" > amad arbrex
  • aman "they love" + arbrex > amant arbrex

Counter-examples:

  • de "of, from" + America > de America
  • amo "I love" + arbrex "trees" > amo arbrex

Syntactic gemination

Certain pronouns and particles cause the first consonant of a following consonant-initial word to geminate.

In most cases, these are the same words that add an epenthetic -d, -g, or -b when the following word begins in a vowel.

Examples:

  • a "to" + Canada > a cCanada
  • da "away from, out of" + Canada > da cCanada
  • ama "(s)he loves" + carne "meat" > ama ccarne

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns may be masculine or feminine.

Nouns are pluralized in -x. After a consonant, this ending becomes -ex.

Nouns ending in a vowel add an epenthetic -n when followed by a word beginning in a vowel.

Adjectives

Adjectives agree with the noun they govern in gender and number.

Adjectives whose masculine forms end in -o are feminized in -a. Otherwise, the masculine and feminine forms are identical. Adjectives ending in a vowel add an epenthetic -n when immediately followed by a vowel.

Like nouns, adjectives are pluralized in -(e)x.

Comparative and superlative

The comparative is formed with the suffix -iore(n) which replaces the adjective's final vowel. The glide -i- causes the same sound changes to labialized and coronal consonants as those experienced by Class 5 verbs.

The superlative is formed with the suffix -esmo(n)/a(n). When an adjective's stem ends in -r- or -l-, it combines with the superlative suffix to form -(e)rmo(n)/a(n) or -(e)lmo(n)/a(n) respectively (where -(e)- is added when the -r- or -l- is preceded by a consonant).

Some adjectives ending in velar consonants palatalize them before the comparative and superlative suffixes, while some maintain their pronunciation.

Additionally, some adjectives have stem changes in stressed syllables (similar to those of verbs).

Some common adjectives have irregular comparatives and superlatives.

Due to the above reasons, the citation form of adjectives is usually "base form, comparative, superlative".

Adverbs

Manner adverbs

There are two main ways of deriving manner adverbs from adjectives:

  1. Adjectives ending in -o(n)/a(n): Replace the final vowel with -e(d)
  2. Adjectives ending in -i(n), e(n), or another vowel: Replace the final vowel with -ter (with penultimate stress).
    • Assimilation applies as it does in the past participle. Expected -tt- is simplified to -t- after consonants.

Comparative and superlative

Before adding comparative and superlative suffixes, the final vowel (or, in the case of -ter adverbs, the final -er) of the adverb is removed if present.

The comparative is formed with the suffix -iox. The glide -i- causes the same sound changes to labialized and coronal consonants as those experienced by Class 5 verbs.

The superlative is formed with the suffix -esme(d). This suffix undergoes the same sound changes as the corresponding adjective suffix.

Some adverbs ending in velar consonants palatalize them before the comparative and superlative suffixes, while some maintain their pronunciation.

Additionally, some adverbs have stem changes in stressed syllables (similar to those of verbs).

Some common adverbs have irregular comparatives and superlatives.

Due to the above reasons, the citation form of adverbs is usually "base form, comparative, superlative".

Articles

Articles precede the noun they govern and agree with it in gender and number.

The definite article is so, declined as below:

Singular Plural
Masculine so(n) sox
Feminine sa(n) sax

Notes:

1 -n is added before words beginning in vowels.

The indefinite article is gueno, declined as below:

Singular Plural
Masculine guen(o)1 guenox
Feminine guen(a)2 guenax

Notes:

1 -o is added before words beginning in consonant clusters.

2 -a is dropped before words beginning in vowels.

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

Person/ Number Subject Object Clitic object Possessive
Direct Indirect Weak Strong
1S mu me me(n) me(d/G) mo(n) mexxo
2S tu te te(n) te(d/G) to(n) texxo
3SM gio gio gio(n) gio(d/G) gio(n) gioxxo
3SF gia gia gia(n) gia(d/G) gia(n) giaxxo
3R su se se(n) se(d/G) so(n) siaxxo
1P nox nox nox nox nox nuastro
2P gox gox gox gox gox guastro
3PM giox giox giox giox giox gioro
3PF giax giax giax giax giax giaro

Numerals

Essanian numerals
Cardinal Ordinal Fractional
0 zero(n) zerosmo(n), -a(n) —
1 gueno(n), guena(n) primo(n), -a(n) —
2 dúox, dúax secondo(n), -(n) semesse(n)
3 trix tiarzo(n), -a(n) triante(n)
4 quáttor quarto(n), -a(n) quadrante(n)
5 quenche quempto(n), -a(n) quemptante(n)
6 siapx siasto(n), -a(n) sestante(n)
7 siapte(n) siápmo(n), -a(n) sepmante(n)
8 guapto optago(n), -a(n) optagante(n)
9 nuaghe(n) nono(n), -a(n) nonante(n)
10 diace(n) diacmo(n), -a(n) decmante(n)
11 guence(n) guendecmo(n), -a(n) guendecmante(n)
12 duocce(n) duodiacmo(n), -a(n) duodecmante(n)
13 trecce(n) trediacmo(n), -a(n) tredecmante(n)
14 quattorce(n) quattordiacmo(n), -a(n) quattordecmante(n)
15 quince(n) quindiacmo(n), -a(n) quindecmante(n)
16 secce(n) sediacmo(n), -a(n) sedecmante(n)
17 septence(n) septendiacmo(n), -a(n) septendecmante(n)
18 optocce(n) optodiacmo(n), -a(n) optodecmante(n)
19 noghence(n) noghendiacmo(n), -a(n) noghendecmante(n)
20 guigenti guigesmo(m), -a(m) guigesmante(n)
21 guigenti-gueno(n), -a(n) guigenti-primo(n), -a(n) guigenti-guenante(n)
22 guigenti-dúox, -dúax guigenti-secondo(n), -a(n) guigenti-duante(n)
23 guigenti-trix guigenti-tiarzo(n), -a(n) guigenti-triante(n)
30 trigenta trigesmo(n), -a(n) trigesmante(n)
40 quadragenta quadragesmo(n), -a(n) quadragesmante(n)
50 quencagenta quencagesmo(n), -a(n) quencagesmante(n)
60 sepsagenta sepsagesmo(n), -a(n) sepsagesmante(n)
70 sepmagenta sepmagesmo(n), -a(n) sepmagesmante(n)
80 optagenta optagesmo(n), -a(n) optagesmante(n)
90 nonagenta nonagesmo(n), -a(n) nonagesmante(n)
100 cianto(n) centesmo(n), -a(n) centesmante(n)
200 duox-ciantox duox-centesmo(n), -a(n) duox-centesmante(n)
1000 milli millesmo(n), -a(n) millesmante(n)
2000 duox-millia duox-millesmo(n), -a(n) duox-millesmante(n)
10⁶ millione(n) milllionesmo(n), -a(n) millionesmante(n)
10⁹ milliardo(n) milliardesmo(n), -a(n) milliardesmante(n)
10¹² billione(n) billlionesmo(n), -a(n) billionesmante(n)

Verbs

Verb classes

There are five verb classes:

  1. -are verbs (class 1)
  2. -ere verbs (class 2)
  3. Non-palatalized -re verbs (class 3)
  4. Palatalized -re verbs (class 4)
  5. -ire verbs (class 5)

Present indicative

Class 1 2 3 4 5
1S -o -io -o -io -io
2S -ax -ex -ex -ix -ix
3S -a(d/G) -e(d/G) -e(d/G) -i(d/G) -i(d/G)
1P -amox -emox -mox -mox -imox
2P -atex -etex -tex -tex -itex
3P -an(t) -en(t) -on(t) -ion(t) -ion(t)

Notes:

1. Before a glide -i-, labialized consonants lose their labialization. This applies in the 1S for Class 2, 4, and 5 verbs and the 3P for Class 4 & 5 verbs. Additionally, Class 4 & 5 verbs whose stems end in coronal consonants undergo stem changes in the 1S and 3P forms:
Expected Changed to
ti z
di dz
si x
zi ci
2. Verbs whose stem end in velar stops (-c- or -g-) maintain their spelling throughout the present indicative regardless of whether that would result in a "hard" or "soft" pronunciation. On the other hand, verbs whose stem ends in -ch- or -gh- drop the -h- when they are not followed by front vowels.

Present subjunctive

The present subjunctive is formed by removing -o from the 1S present indicative and adding the following endings:

Class 1 Others
1S -e(n) -a(n)
2S -ex -ax
3S -e(d/G) -a(d/G)
1P -emox -amox
2P -etex -atex
3P -en(t) -an(t)

Class 1 verbs whose stems end in a velar stop maintain their lack of palatalization in the present subjunctive.

Imperfect indicative

The imperfect stem is formed by removing -o or (only for Class 2 verbs) -io from the 1S present indicative and adding the following endings:

Class 1 Others
1S -ava(n) -eva(n)
2S -avax -evax
3S -ava(d/G) -eva(d/G)
1P -avamox -evamox
2P -avatex -evatex
3P -avan(t) -evan(t)

Imperfect subjunctive

The imperfect subjunctive is formed by adding the following endings to the verb's infinitive:

Class All
1S -(n)
2S -x
3S -(d/G)
1P -mox
2P -tex
3P -n(t)

Future

The future is formed by adding the following endings to the imperfect stem:

Class 1 Others
1S -avo -evo
2S -avex -evex
3S -ave(d/G) -eve(d/G)
1P -ammox -emmox
2P -aftex -eftex
3P -avon(t) -evon(t)

Future perfect

The future perfect stem is formed by replacing the final -t- of the supine stem (if present) with -s- (after a consonant) or -ss- (after a vowel). If the supine stem already ends in -s-, the supine stem is used.

Then, the following endings are added:

Ending
1S -o
2S -ex
3S -e(d/G)
1P -emox
2P -etex
3P -en(t)

Perfect indicative

The perfect indicative is formed by adding the following endings to the perfect stem:

All classes
1S -e
2S -este
3S -e(d/G)
1P -mox
2P -estex
3P -ron(t)

The perfect stem is derived from the present stem in different ways depending on the verb.

  • Regular Class 1 & 5 verbs form it by removing -re from the infinitive and adding -g(h)- (always hard).
  • Regular Class 2, 3, and 4 verbs form it by adding -u- to the present stem.
  • There are many irregular verbs, especially in classes 2-4 (and sometimes 5).

Perfect subjunctive

The perfect subjunctive is formed by adding the following endings to the perfect stem:

All classes
1S -re(n)
2S -rex
3S -re(d/G)
1P -remox
2P -retex
3P -ren(t)

Pluperfect indicative

The pluperfect indicative is formed by adding the following endings to the perfect stem:

All classes
1S -ra(n)
2S -rax
3S -ra(d/G)
1P -ramox
2P -ratex
3P -ran(t)

Pluperfect subjunctive

The pluperfect subjunctive is formed by adding the following endings to the perfect stem:

All classes
1S -esse(n)
2S -essex
3S -esse(d/G)
1P -essemox
2P -essetex
3P -essen(t)

Imperative

The imperative is formed by removing -x from the corresponding second person present indicative. This applies both in the singular and plural.

Derived adjectives and nouns

The following derived adjectives and nouns exist:

Participle Formation Remarks
Present participle Formed by replacing -n(t) of the 3S present indicative with -nte(n).
Past participle Regularly formed by removing -re from the infinitive and adding -to(n) (m.)/-ta(n) (f.). Many verbs have an irregular past participle. The supine stem is formed by removing the final vowel from the past participle.
Future participle Formed by adding -uro(n) (m.)/-ura(n) (f.) to the supine stem.
Gerundive Formed by replacing -n(t) in the 3P present indicative with -ndo(n) (m.)/-nda(n) (f.) Roughly equivalent to the suffix "-able" in English. Depending on the verb, it may have active or passive meaning.
Agent noun Formed by adding -ore(n) (m.)/-(t)rice(n) (f.) to the supine stem. -(t)- is added in the feminine when it is not already present at the end of the supine stem.

Stem-changing verbs

In stem-changing verbs, the stem changes depending on whether it is stressed or unstressed.

In most cases, this involves a vowel change. The main patterns are:

  • Unstressed -e- > Stressed -ia-
  • Stressed -o- > Stressed -ua-

The above stem changes are known as "breaking".

Due to historical sound changes, there may also be consonant changes. Some examples include:

  • Addition of g- in the stressed stem.
    • This happens in both types of breaking verbs when the unstressed stem begins in a vowel. In such verbs, e- and o- become gia- and gua- respectively when stressed.
  • Delabialization of labialized consonants such as gu-, qu-, du-, etc. in the stressed stem.
    • This happens as a rule in e > ia verbs (e.g. unstressed gue- becomes stressed ghia- instead of *guia-).
    • In o > ua verbs, the two labializations are merged (e.g. unstressed guo- becomes stressed gua- and not *guua-).

Assimiliation

Infinitive

Class 3 and 4 verbs whose stems end in certain consonants assimilate the -r- of the infinitive into the final consonant. The assimilation has one of the following results depending on the stem structure:

  • If the stem ends in a single -s, -r, -l, or -n preceded by a vowel: -r- is merged with the consonant causing it to be doubled.
  • If the stem ends in -r, -l, or -n that is double or preceded by a consonant: -r- is dropped.

Note that -r- is neither dropped nor assimilated when it occurs after -s when it is doubled or occurs after a consonant.

When necessary, the end of the stem can be indicated with an apostrophe. For example:

  • When -r- merges with the following consonant: gual'le, fiar're, es'se
  • When -r- is dropped: piall'e
Past participle

In regular past participles of Class 3 & 4 verbs:

  • A voiced stop is devoiced (in both pronunciation and writing) before -t-. Voiced fricatives are also devoiced in this position, but this is not reflected in the orthography except in the case of -v-, which becomes -f-.
Finite forms

Principal parts

For the vast majority of verbs, whether regular or irregular, the full conjugation can be derived from the following four principal parts:

  • Infinitive
  • 1S present indicative
  • 1S perfect indicative
  • Singular masculine past participle

When the principal parts fail to show a stem change, additional principal parts may be added.

  • Present stem: 1S imperfect indicative
    • Comes after 1S present indicative
  • Perfect stem: 2S perfect indicative
    • Comes after 1S perfect indicative
  • Supine stem: Singular masculine future participle
    • Comes at end

In this article, these "extra" principal parts are shown in brackets.

Irregular verbs

esse "to be"

Despite being classified as a Class 3 verb, the verb esse, so, (era), fue, futo "to be" is highly irregular and therefore must be treated on its own.

Infinitive esse Present participle sonte(n)
Past participle futo(n)/futa(n) Future participle futuro(n)/futura(n)
Gerundive sondo(n)/sonda(n) Agent noun futore(n)/futrice(n)
Indicative Subjunctive Imperative
Present Imperfect Perfect Pluperfect Future Future perfect Present Imperfect Perfect Pluperfect
1S so(n) era(n) fue essa(n) ero fuaro fua(n) esse(n) fure(n) fuesse(n)
2S ex erax fueste essax erex fuarex fuax essex furex fuessex ex
3S e(t) era(d/G) fue(d/G) essa(d/G) ere(d/G) fuare(d/G) fua(d/G) esse(d/G) fure(d/G) fuesse(d/G)
1P somox eramox fumox essamox ermox fuarmox fuamox essemox furemox fuessemox
2P estex eratex fuestex essatex ertex fuartex fuatex essetex furetex fuessetex este
3P son(t) eran(t) furon(t) essan(t) eron(t) fuaren(t) fuan(t) essen(t) furen(t) fuessen(t)
Class 1
  • dare, do, diade, (dedeste), dato "to give"
  • stare, sto, stiate, (steteste), stato "to stand"
  • laguare, laguo, lague, loto "to wash"
  • giogare, giogo, gioghe, gioto "to help"
Class 2
  • flere, flio, fleghe, fleto "to cry"
  • ridere, ridio, ride, riso "to laugh"
  • guedere, guedio, guede, gueso "to see"
  • goghere, guaghio, goghe, goto "to vow, promise"
  • gere, gio, gighe, geto "to go"
  • Etc.
Class 3
  • agre, ago, ege, apto "to act, behave"
  • decre, deco, depse, depto "to say"
  • fegre, fego, fepse, fepto "to place"
  • argure, arguo, argue, arguto "to prove"
  • grascre, grasco, graghe, grato "to be born"
  • groscre, grosco, groghe, groto "to be acquainted"
  • pialle, pialo, piaple, (pepleste), polso "to beat"
  • fiarre, fiaro, (fereva), tiatre, (tetreste), trato "to carry"
  • Etc.
Class 4
  • facre, facio, fece, fapto "to do, make"
  • capre, capio, cepe, capto "to take, grasp"
  • fogre, fogio, foge, fokto "to flee"
  • Etc.
Class 5
  • parire, pario, piapre, (pepreste), parto "to make, produce"
  • sentire, sianzo, sense, senso "to smell (something)"
  • guenire, ghianio, guene, ghianto, (guenturo) "to come"
  • sancire, sancio, sampse, sampto "to respect"
  • Etc.

Compound forms

Compound forms include:

Voices
  • Passive: fire, fio, fighe, fito "to become" + past participle
  • Middle: gere, gio, gighe, geto "to go" + past participle
Tense/Aspect
  • Prospective: esse, so, (era), fue, futo "to be" + future participle
  • Completive perfect: havere, havio, havue, hafto "to have" + past participle
    • havere may be in any tense to form a corresponding anterior tense denoting a completed action.
    • This is similar to the perfect tenses, but it gives the implication that an action has been completed.
  • Continuous: esse, so, (era), fue, futo + present participle
    • Unlike in English, this can only be used for an action that is ongoing at the time referenced (as indicated by conjugation of esse).
  • Inchoative: fire, fio, fighe, fito "to become" + present participle
Others
  • Causative 1: facre, facio, fece, fapto "to do" + infinitive
    • Means "cause X to Y" or "make X Y".
  • Causative 2: facre, facio, fece, fapto "to do" + past participle
    • Means "cause X to be Y-ed" or "have X Y-ed".

Negation

Negation of verbs is accomplished with ho(d/G) or (rarely) ne. Both of these particles precede the verb.

Alternatively, negation may be accomplished by using a negative word.

Double negation is not used in formal language.

Syntax

Constituent order

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Vocabulary

Time - So Tiampre

Seasons - Sax tempestatex
English Plevian
spring guere(n)
summer estate(n)
fall optombro(n)
winter xiame(n)
Gregorian months - Sox mesex gregorianox
English Plevian
January gianguario(n)
February fevrario(n)
March marzo(n)
April aprile(n)
May magio(n)
June giunio(n)
July giulio(n); quemptili(n)
August ogosto(n); sestili(n)
September septiambre(n)
October optombre(n)
November noghiambre(n)
December deciambre(n)
Days of the week - Sox dix de sa xiabma
English Plevian
Sunday soldi(n)
Monday lundi(n)
Tuesday mardi(n)
Wednesday mérchedi(n)
Thursday giuadi(n)
Friday ghiandi(n)
Saturday satordi(n)
Parts of the day - Sox partix de so di
English Plevian
day di(n)
dawn orora(n)
morning mattino(n)
noon meridi(n)
afternoon pomeridi(n)
evening guespra(n)
dusk crepro(n)
night nuapte(n)
midnight merinuapte(n)
Units of time - Sax unitatex de so tiampre
English Plevian
second secondo(n)
minute minuta(n)
hour hora(n)
day di(n)
week xiabma(n)
month mese(n)
season tempestate(n)
year anno(n)
Time adverbs - Sox adverbiox temporalex
English Plevian
now non
then ton
recently, a short time ago nupre(d/G), nupriox, nuperme(d/G); dudo
earlier pre(d/G), priox, prime(d/G)
soon, shortly muapse(d/G), muapxox, mopsesme(d/G)
later siate(d/G), siazos, setesme(d/G)
always siampre(d/G)
often sepe(d/G), sepiox, sepesme(d/G)
sometimes attiamprex
rarely rare(d/G), rariox, rarme(d/G)
never neconca(n)
ever conca(n)
still, yet gianno(n)
already gian
today huaddze(d/G)
tonight huannapte(d/G)
yesterday xiare(d/G)
last night xiare nnuapte(n)
tomorrow crax
tomorrow night crax nuapte(n)
before yesterday prexiare(d/G)
two nights ago prexiare nnuapte(n)
after tomorrow periandze(d/G)
this week xe xxiabma(n)
last week sa xiabma noghesma(n)
next week sa xiabma guentura(n)
this year horno(d/G)
last year son anno noghesmo(n)
next year son anno guenturo(n)

Colours - Sox colorex

Colours - Sox colorex
English Plevian
white albo, albiore, albesmo
grey rago, raghiore, raghesmo
black negro, negriore, negermo
red robro, robriore, robermo
orange arangiacio, arangiaciore, arangiacesmo
brown badzo, badzore, badzesmo
yellow xelgo, xelghiore, xelghesmo
green galbo, galbiore, galbesmo
blue guerdi, guerdzore, guerdesmo
pink rosacio, rosaciore, rosacesmo
purple ostrino, ostriniore, ostrinesmo
golden flago, flaghiore, flaghesmo

Example texts

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)

Modern Plevian

Guabrix xiamnex grascon luebrox ed equox en degretaten e ggiorex. Son dotatox de razonen e cconscianza, e ddevent agre enter se seco ffratrex.

IPA (broad): /ˈɡwabriʃ ˈʃamneʃ ˈɡraskon ˈlwebroʃ ed ekwoʃ en ˌdeɡreˈtaten e ˈdʒːoreʃ ‖ son doˈtatoʃ de raˈtsonen e kːonˈstʃantsa | e ˈdːevent ˈaɡre ˈenter se ˈseko ˈfːratreʃ/

IPA (narrow, with lenition): [ˈɡʷaː.βriʃ ˈʃam.neʒ ˈɡɾaː.skon ˈlʷeː.βro.ʒ‿eˈð‿eː.xʷo.ʒ‿en ˌde.ɣɾe.ˈθaː.θe.n‿e‿ʒ.ˈʒoː.reʃ ‖ ˈson do.ˈθaː.θoʒ de ra.ˈsoː.ne.n‿e‿k.kon.ˈʃːan.tsa | e‿d.ˈdeː.ven.ˈt‿aː.ɣɾe ˈen.ter ˈseː ˈzeː.xo‿f.ˈfɾaː.θɾeʃ]

IPA (narrow, without lenition): [ˈɡʷaː.briʃ ˈʃam.neʒ ˈɡɾaː.skon ˈlʷeː.bro.ʒ‿eˈd‿eː.kʷo.ʒ‿en ˌde.ɡɾe.ˈtaː.te.n‿e‿dʒ.ˈʒoː.reʃ ‖ ˈson do.ˈtaː.toʒ de ra.ˈtsoː.ne.n‿e‿k.kon.ˈʃːan.tsa | e‿d.ˈdeː.ven.ˈt‿aː.ɡɾe ˈen.ter ˈseː ˈseː.ko‿f.ˈfɾaː.tɾeʃ]

all-PL people they_are_born free-PL and equal-PL in dignity and rights. they_are endowed of reason and conscience, and they_must act among themselves like brothers.

Old Plevian

Obnēs hemones loeberē et aequē in degnetāte et jōribos gnāscuntor. Dōtātē dē rātiōne et conscientiae sunt, et sēcut frātres inter sē agere dēbent.

IPA: /ˈɔbneːs ˈxɛmɔnɛs ˈloe̯bɛreː ɛt ˈae̯kʷeː ɪn ˌdɛɡnɛˈtaːte ɛt ˈjoːrɪbɔs ɡnaːˈskʊntɔr ‖ doːtaːteː deː raːtiˈoːne ɛt kɔnskiˈɛntiae̯ sʊnt | ɛt seːkʊt fraːtrɛs ˈɪntɛr seː ˈaɡɛre ˈdeːbɛnt/

Other resources

Swadesh list

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