Aryan: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 01:01, 22 November 2024

Aryan (Pre-Expansion: *Airáh₀, pronounced /əi̯ˈrəʔ/; Post-Expansion: *Āryā́, pronounced /aːˈri̯aː/) is an ab interiori language of Proto-Indo-Anatolian.

Aryan
*airáh₀
Pronunciation	[əi̯ˈrəʔ]
Created by	Veno
Date	8000-6000 BP
Setting	Caucasus Mountains
Native speakers	- (2024)
Language family	Pangaean Code Aryan
Early form	Transitional Dialect
Writing system	Latin
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Introduction

[...]
The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek).

Transitional Tables

From the Codes to Aryan

	Aryan
p	p^ht^h / p^h / p^hk^h; p^hkʷ^h
t	t^hk^h; t^hkʷ^h / t^h / t^hp^h
k	k^hp^h / k^h; kʷ / k^ht^h
b	bd / b / bg; bgʷ
d	dg; dgʷ / d / db
g	gb / g, *gʷ / gd
pʼ	pʼtʼ / pʼ; p / pʼkʼ; *pʼkʷʼ
tʼ	tʼkʷʼ / tʼ, t / *tʼpʼ
kʼ	kʼpʼ / kʼ; k; *kʷʼ / kʼtʼ
ɓ	b^hd^h / b^h / b^hg^h; b^hgʷ^h
ɗ	d^hg^h; d^hgʷ^h / d^h / d^hb^h
ɠ	g^hb^h / g^h; gʷ^h / g^hd^h

From Aryan to Indo-Anatolian Languages

	Sanskrit	Avestan	O.C.S.	Lithuanian	Albanian	Armenian	Hittite	Tocharian	Greek	Latin	Goidelic	Gothic
>*p	p; pʰ	p; f	p	p	p	h; w	p; pp	p	p / pt	p	∅	f; β
>*t				x x
>*k		x x
>*ḱ		x x

p pt p ∅ f; b [β] [C 6] f; v, f[C 2]

thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...

Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants
PIE	Indo-Iranian		Balto-Slavic		Alb.	Arm.	Anatol.	Toch.	Greek		Italic	Celtic		Germanic
	Sanskrit	Avestan	O.C.S.	Lith.			Hitt.		Greek		Latin	Old Irish		Gothic	English
	Sanskrit	Avestan	O.C.S.	Lith.			Hitt.		normal	C+[j] ^{[C 1]}	Latin	normal	-C- ^{[C 2]} ^{[C 1]}	Gothic	English
*p	p; ph [pʰ] ^{[C 3]}	p; f ^{[C 4]}	p			h; w ^{[C 5]}	p, pp	p		pt	p	∅		f; b [β] ^{[C 6]}	f; v, f^{[C 2]}
*t	t; th [t̪ʰ] ^{[C 3]}	t; θ^{[C 4]}	t			tʿ [tʰ]	t, tt; z [ts] ^{[C 7]}	t; c [c] ^{[C 7]}	t	s; tt/ss^{[C 5]}	t	t	th [θ]	þ [θ]; d [ð]; ^{[C 6]}	th; d; ^{[C 6]}
*ḱ	ś [ɕ]	s		š [ʃ]	th [θ]; k^{[C 8]}	s	k, kk	k; ś [ɕ]^{[C 8]}	k		c [k]	c [k]	ch [x]	h; g [ɣ] ^{[C 6]}	h; ∅;^{[C 2]} y ^{[C 6]}
*k	k; c [t͡ɕ]; ^{[C 7]} kh [kʰ] ^{[C 3]}	k; c [tʃ]; ^{[C 7]} x^{[C 4]}	k; č [tʃ]; ^{[C 7]} c [ts]^{[C 9]}	k	k; q [c]^{[C 9]}	kʿ [kʰ]	k, kk		k		c [k]			h; g [ɣ] ^{[C 6]}	h; ∅;^{[C 2]} y ^{[C 6]}
*kʷ	k; c [t͡ɕ]; ^{[C 7]} kh [kʰ] ^{[C 3]}	k; c [tʃ]; ^{[C 7]} x^{[C 4]}	k; č [tʃ]; ^{[C 7]} c [ts]^{[C 9]}	k	k; s; ^{[C 7]} q [c]^{[C 9]}	kʿ [kʰ]	ku, kku		p; t; ^{[C 7]} k^{[C 10]}		qu [kʷ]; c [k] ^{[C 11]}			ƕ [ʍ]; gw, w ^{[C 6]}	wh; w ^{[C 6]}
*b	b; bh ^{[C 3]}	b; β ^{[C 12]}	b			p			b	pt	b	b [b]	-[β]-	p
*d	d; dh ^{[C 3]}	d; δ ^{[C 12]}	d		d; dh [ð]^{[C 2]}	t		ts; ś [ɕ] ^{[C 7]}	d	z [zd] > [z]	d	d [d]	-[ð]-	t
*ǵ	j [d͡ʑ]; h [ɦ] ^{[C 3]}	z		ž [ʒ]	dh [ð]; g^{[C 8]}	c [ts]	k	k; ś [ɕ]^{[C 8]}	g		g	g [ɡ]	-[ɣ]-	k	c / k; ch^{[C 9]}
*g	g; j [d͡ʑ]; ^{[C 7]} gh; ^{[C 3]} h [ɦ] ^{[C 3]}	g; j [dʒ]; ^{[C 7]} γ ^{[C 12]}	g; ž [ʒ]; ^{[C 7]} dz^{[C 9]}	g	g	k	k		g		g	g [ɡ]	-[ɣ]-	k	c / k; ch^{[C 9]}
*gʷ	g; j [d͡ʑ]; ^{[C 7]} gh; ^{[C 3]} h [ɦ] ^{[C 3]}	g; j [dʒ]; ^{[C 7]} γ ^{[C 12]}	g; ž [ʒ]; ^{[C 7]} dz^{[C 9]}	g	g; z; ^{[C 7]} gj [ɟ]^{[C 9]}	k	ku		b; d; ^{[C 7]} g^{[C 10]}		u [w > v]; gu [ɡʷ] ^{[C 13]}	b [b]	-[β]-	q [kʷ]	qu
*pʰ	bh [bʱ]	b; β ^{[C 12]}	b			b; w^{[C 2]}	p		ph [pʰ]	pt	f;^{[C 14]} b	b [b]	-[β]-	b [b]; b [β];^{[C 2]} f ^{[C 15]}	b; v / f^{[C 16]}
*tʰ	dh [dʱ]	d; δ ^{[C 12]}	d				t	t; c [c] ^{[C 7]}	th [tʰ]	tt/ss	f;^{[C 14]} d; b ^{[C 17]}	d [d]	-[ð]-	d; d [ð];^{[C 2]} þ ^{[C 15]}	d
*ǵʰ	h [ɦ]	z		ž [ʒ]	dh [ð]; d^{[C 8]}	j [dz]; z^{[C 2]}	k	k; ś [ɕ] ^{[C 7]}	kh [kʰ]		h; h / g^{[C 8]}	g [ɡ]	-[ɣ]-	g; g [ɣ];^{[C 2]} g [x] ^{[C 15]}	g; y / w^{[C 16]}
*gʰ	gh [ɡʱ]; h [ɦ] ^{[C 7]}	g; j [dʒ]; ^{[C 7]} γ ^{[C 12]}	g; ž [ʒ]; ^{[C 7]} dz^{[C 9]}	g	g	g; ǰ [dʒ] ^{[C 7]}	k		kh [kʰ]		h; h / g^{[C 8]}			g; g [ɣ];^{[C 2]} g [x] ^{[C 15]}	g; y / w^{[C 16]}
*gʷʰ	gh [ɡʱ]; h [ɦ] ^{[C 7]}	g; j [dʒ]; ^{[C 7]} γ ^{[C 12]}	g; ž [ʒ]; ^{[C 7]} dz^{[C 9]}	g	g; z; ^{[C 7]} gj [ɟ]^{[C 9]}	g; ǰ [dʒ] ^{[C 7]}	ku		ph [pʰ]; th [tʰ]; ^{[C 7]} kh [kʰ]^{[C 10]}		f;^{[C 14]} g / u [w];^{[C 2]} gu [ɡʷ] ^{[C 13]}			g; b;^{[C 14]} w;^{[C 2]} gw ^{[C 13]}	g; b;^{[C 14]} w^{[C 2]}
*s	s	h [h, x]	s		sh [ʃ]; gj [ɟ];^{[C 18]} h^{[C 2]}	h; ∅^{[C 2]}	š [s]	s; ṣ [ʂ]	h;^{[C 14]} s;^{[C 19]}^{[C 15]}/ ∅;^{[C 2]} [¯] ^{[C 20]}	i	s; r^{[C 2]}	s ʃ	-[h]-	s; z ^{[C 6]}	s; r ^{[C 6]}
*s	ṣ [ʂ]^{[C 21]}	š [ʃ]^{[C 21]}	x [x]^{[C 21]}	š [ʃ]^{[C 21]}	sh [ʃ]; gj [ɟ];^{[C 18]} h^{[C 2]}	h; ∅^{[C 2]}	š [s]	s; ṣ [ʂ]	h;^{[C 14]} s;^{[C 19]}^{[C 15]}/ ∅;^{[C 2]} [¯] ^{[C 20]}	i	s; r^{[C 2]}	s ʃ	-[h]-	s; z ^{[C 6]}	s; r ^{[C 6]}
*m	m									in	m	m [m]	-[w̃]-	m
*-m ^{[C 15]}	m		˛ [˜]	n		∅	n	n		--	m [˜]	n		∅
*n	n		n; ˛ [˜] ^{[C 15]}	n				n; ñ [ɲ]	n	in	n
*l	r (dial. l)	r	l		l; ll [ɫ]^{[C 2]}	l / ɫ [ɫ > ɣ]	l			il	l
*r	r/l^{[C 22]}	r			r [ɾ]; rr [r]^{[C 2]}	r				ir	r
*y	y [j]		j [j]		gj [ɟ]; ∅	∅	y [j]		z [zd] > [z] / h; ∅ ^{[C 2]}	?i	i [j]; ∅ ^{[C 2]}	∅		j	y
*w	v [ʋ]	v [w]	v	v [ʋ]	v	g / w	w		w > h / ∅	i	u [w > v]	f	-∅-	w
PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Alb.	Arm.	Hitt.	Toch.	Greek	Greek+/j/	Latin	Old Irish		Gothic	English

Notes for table 1:

^ ^a ^b A capital C stands for consonant in this table
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t Between vowels
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Before an original h₂.
^ ^a ^b ^c Before a consonant or original laryngeal.
^ ^a ^b After a vowel.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Following an unstressed vowel (Verner's law).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u Before a (PIE) front vowel (*i, *e).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Before a sonorant.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.
^ ^a ^b ^c Before or after a (PIE) u
^ Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel (*u, *o).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f In Younger Avestan, after a vowel.
^ ^a ^b ^c After n.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f At the beginning of a word
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f At the end of a word.
^ ^a ^b Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)
^ After u, r or before r, l.
^ Before a stressed vowel
^ Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)
^ Before or after a resonant (r, l, m, n).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d After r, u, k, i (Ruki sound law).
^ rare

Consonant clusters

Proto-Indo-European also had numerous consonant clusters, such as *st, *ḱs. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):

Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters
PIE	Indo-Iranian		Balto-Slavic		Alb.	Arm.	Anatol.	Toch.	Greek		Italic	Celtic	Germanic
	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.			Hitt.		Greek		Latin	Old Irish	Gothic	English
	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.			Hitt.		normal	C+[j]	Latin	Old Irish	Gothic	English
*sr	sr	r	str	sr	rr [r]	(a)r	š(ša)r ʃʃr		rh	n/a	fr-, -br-	sr	str	str
*tw	tv	θβ	tv	tv	t	kʿ [kʰ]	ttu, ddu		s-, -ss-	n/a	p?	t	þw	thw
*dʰw	dhv	ðβ	dv	dv	d	?	tu, du				f	d	dw	dw
*dw	dv	ðβ	dv	dv	d	(e)rk	tu, du				b	d	tw	tw
*tl			sl	kl, sl					tl		kl	tl
*dl	ll
*dn	nn, ṇṇ
*ḱw	śv	sp	sv	šv	s	sk, š				n/a	qu [kʷ]	cu [kʷ]	Template:Transl [xʷ]	wh
*ǵʰw	hv		zv	žv	z
*ǵw	jv		zv	žv	z								q [kʷ]	qu [kw]
*sw	sv	xuu [xʷ]	sv	sv	v, d^{[CC 1]}	kʿ [kʰ]	normal dev.		h	n/a	su [sw]	s	sw	sw
*sp	sp	sp ^{[CC 2]}	sp		f	sp ^{[CC 2]} / pʿ [pʰ]	normal dev.		sp ^{[CC 2]}	?	sp	f	sp ^{[CC 3]}
*sbʰ		spʰ
*sd	d; ḷ^{[CC 4]} > ḍ, ḍḍ	zd	zd	zd		st					d	-t- [d]	st	st
*sdʰ	dh; ḷh^{[CC 4]} > ḍh, ḍḍh	zd	zd	zd					sth			-t- [d]	zd	d
*st	st; ṣṭ^{[CC 4]}	st ^{[CC 2]}	st		sht [ʃt]	st ^{[CC 2]}	normal dev.		st ^{[CC 2]}	s; tt/ss^{[CC 5]}	st		st ^{[CC 3]}
*sḱ	ch [t͡ɕʰ]; cch^{[CC 5]}	s?	sk	š?	h	?? č`; c`^{[CC 5]}	normal dev.		sk; ^{[CC 2]} kh [kʰ];^{[CC 6]} skh [skʰ] ^{[CC 7]}		sc [sk]	sc [sk]	sk ^{[CC 3]}	sh [ʃ]
*sk	sk, {śc, ch}^{[CC 8]}	sk, sč ^{[CC 2]}	normal dev.		?	sk ^{[CC 2]}	normal dev.		sk; ^{[CC 2]} kh [kʰ];^{[CC 6]} skh [skʰ] ^{[CC 7]}		sc [sk]		sk ^{[CC 3]}
*skʷ	sk, {śc, ch}^{[CC 8]}	sk, sč ^{[CC 2]}	normal dev.		?	sk ^{[CC 2]}	normal dev.		norm.		squ [skʷ]		sq ^{[CC 3]}
*t+t [tst]	tt; tth ^{[CC 9]}	st; sθ?^{[CC 10]}	st		s	s?	zt, zzašt, zzazz [tst]	ss?	st		ss		ss / st
*sǵ	jj
*sgʰ	jj^{[CC 8]}
*dt	tt	st						st	st		s		ss	ss [s]
*ddʰ	ddʰ	zd									d	t
*dʰt	ddʰ	zd, st		st					st
*pt	pt	ft	t?	pt	t				pt		pt	cht [xt]	ft ^{[CC 3]}
*ḱt	ṣṭ [ʂʈ]	št [ʃt]	st	št [ʃt]					kt		ct [kt]		ht ^{[CC 3]}	ght [t] ^{[CC 3]}
*kt	kt	xt	t?	kt					kt		ct [kt]
*kʷt	kt	xt	t?	kt					pt		ct [kt]
*ps	ps								ps		ps	s, ss	fs	ps
*ts	ts
*ḱs	kṣ	š			sh [ʃ]				ks		x [ks]		hs	x [ks]
*ks	kṣ^{[CC 4]}	xš^{[CC 4]}						(ks)	ks		x [ks]		hs
*kʷs	kṣ^{[CC 4]}	xš^{[CC 4]}					kʷs		ps		x [ks]
*gs	kṣ
*gʷs	kṣ
*ǵʰs	kṣ	ž								ks
*gʰs	kṣ
*gʷʰs	kṣ								ps
*tḱ	kṣ	š			k				kt		s
*tk	kṣ	xš							kt
*dʰǵʰ	kṣ	z		ž			tk	tk/k	khth
*dʰgʰ	kṣ						tk
*dʰgʷʰ	kṣ	γž					kts		phth		s
PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Alb.	Arm.	Hitt.	Toch.	Greek	Greek+/j/	Latin	Old Irish	Gothic	English

-->

Orthography

Trad. PIE	Laryng. PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Arm.	Alb.	Toch.	Hitt.	Greek	Latin^{[V 1]}	Proto-Celtic	Gothic^{[V 2]}	Old English^{[V 1]}
Trad. PIE	Laryng. PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Arm.	Alb.	Toch.	Hitt.	Greek	Latin^{[V 1]}	Proto-Celtic	Gothic^{[V 2]}	normal	umlauted^{[V 3]}
*e	e, h₁e	a		e			je, ie, e, i; ja^{[V 4]}	ä	e, ʔe, i	e			i; aí [ɛ]^{[V 5]}	e; eo^{[V 6]}	i; ie^{[V 6]}
*a	(a^{[V 7]}), h₂e			o	a	a	ha, a	ā	ha, a	a			a	æ; a;^{[V 8]} ea^{[V 6]}	e; ie^{[V 6]}
*o	*h₃e					o, a	a	a, e	a	o
*o	*o	a; ā^{[V 9]}				o, a		a, e	a	o
*ə^{[V 10]}	*h₁^{[V 10]}	i	i, ∅	∅		a, ∅		ā	∅	e	a		a, ∅
	*h₂^{[V 10]}								ḫ	a
	*h₃^{[V 10]}								∅	o
*-	*h₁-^{[V 11]}	∅				e (a?)	∅		a, ∅	e (o)	∅
	*h₂-^{[V 11]}					a			ḫa	a
	*h₃-^{[V 11]}					a			a, ha	o
*ē	ē, eh₁	ā		ě	ė	i	o, ua	a/e?; ā?^{[V 12]}	ē, e, i	ē		ī	ē	ǣ
*ā	(ā^{[V 7]}), eh₂			a	o [oː]	a	o, ua	a/o?	a, ah	ā > ē^{[V 13]}	ā	ā	ō		ē
*ō	ō, eh₃			a	uo	u	e	a/ā?; ū?^{[V 12]}	a, ā	ō		ā; ū^{[V 12]}	ō		ē
*i	*i	i		ь	i	i	i; e^{[V 14]}	ä	i, ī	i			i; aí [ɛ]^{[V 5]}	i
*ī	*ih₁	ī		i	y [iː]	i	i	i		ī	ī		ei [iː]	ī
	*ih₂					i or ^(j)a?^{[V 15]}		yā		ī or ^(j)ā?^{[V 15]}
	*ih₃					i or ^(j)a?^{[V 15]}		yā		ī or ^(j)ō?^{[V 15]}
*ei	ei, h₁ei	ai > ē	ai > ōi, āi > aē^{[V 9]}		ei; ie^{[V 16]}	i		e	ē	ei	ī	ē
*oi	oi, h₃ei			ě	ai; ie^{[V 16]}	e	e, ai		ē, ai	oi	ū	oi	ái	ā	ǣ
*ai	(ai^{[V 7]}), h₂ei			ě	ai; ie^{[V 16]}	e	e, ai		ē, ai	ai	ae	ai	ái	ā	ǣ
*ēi	*ēi	āi > ai; ā^{[V 12]}	āi; ā(i)^{[V 12]}	i			i		ē	ēi	ī?		ei [iː]	ī
*ōi	ōi (oei)			y; u^{[V 12]}	ai; ui^{[V 12]}		e, ai		ai	ōi	ō	u^{[V 12]}	ái	ā	ǣ
*āi	*eh₂ei			ě			e, ai		ai	āi > ēi^{[V 13]}	ae		ái	ā	ǣ
*u	*u	u		ъ	u	u	u; y^{[V 17]}	ä	u	u	u	u; o^{[V 18]}	u; aú [ɔ]^{[V 5]}	u; o^{[V 19]}	y
*ū	*uh₁	ū		y	ū	u	y; i^{[V 12]}	u		ū	ū				ȳ
	*uh₂					u or ^(w)a?^{[V 15]}		wā		ū or ^(w)ā?^{[V 15]}
	*uh₃					u or ^(w)a?^{[V 15]}		wā		ū or ^(w)ō?^{[V 15]}
*eu	eu, h₁eu	au > ō	ə̄u; ao^{[V 9]}	ju	iau	oy	e	u		eu	ū	ou	iu	ēo	īe
*ou	ou,h₃eu			u	au	oy	a	o, au		ou	ū		áu	ēa
*au	(au^{[V 7]}), h₂eu			u	au	aw	a	o, au		au	au		áu	ēa
*ēu	*ēu	āu > au	āu	u	iau		e				ū?		iu	ēo
*ōu	*ōu	āu > au	āu				a		au	ō			áu	ēa
*m̥	*m̥	a		ę	im̃; um̃^{[V 20]}	am	a	äm	a, un	a	em	em, am	um	um	ym
*m̥̅	*mh₁	ā			ìm; ùm^{[V 20]}	ama		mā		mē	mā
	*mh₂									mā > mē^{[V 13]}
	*mh₃									mō
*m̥m	*m̥m	am		ьm/ъm	im; um^{[V 20]}	am				am	em	am
*n̥	*n̥	a		ę	iñ; uñ^{[V 20]}	an		än	an	a	en	en, an	un	un	yn
*n̥̄	*nh₁	ā			ìn; ùn^{[V 20]}	ana		nā		nē	nā
	*nh₂									nā > nē ^{[V 13]}
	*nh₃									nō
*n̥n	*n̥n	an		ьn/ъn	iñ; uñ^{[V 20]}	an				an	en	an
*l̥	*l̥	r̥	ərə	lь/lъ	il̃; ul̃^{[V 20]}	al	il, li; ul, lu	äl	al	la	ol	li;^{[V 21]} al	ul	ul; ol^{[V 19]}	yl
*l̥̄	*lh₁	īr; ūr^{[V 22]}	arə		ìl; ùl^{[V 20]}	ala	al	lā		lē	lā
	*lh₂									lā > lē^{[V 13]}
	*lh₃									lō
*l̥l	*l̥l	ir; ur^{[V 22]}	ar	ьl/ъl	il; ul^{[V 20]}	al, la				al	el	al
*r̥	*r̥	r̥	ərə	rь/rъ	ir̃; ur̃^{[V 20]}	ar	ir, ri; ur, ru	är	ar, ur	ra	or	ri;^{[V 21]} ar	aúr [ɔr]	ur; or^{[V 19]}	yr
*r̥̄	*rh₁	īr; ūr^{[V 22]}	arə		ìr; ùr^{[V 20]}	ara	ra	rā		rē	rā
	*rh₂									rā > rē^{[V 13]}
	*rh₃									rō
*r̥r	*r̥r	ir; ur^{[V 22]}	ar	ьr/ъr	ir; ur^{[V 20]}	ar				ar	ar	ar
Trad. PIE	Laryng. PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Arm.	Alb.	Toch.	Hitt.	Greek	Latin^{[V 1]}	Proto-Celtic	Gothic^{[V 2]}	normal	umlauted^{[V 3]}
Trad. PIE	Laryng. PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Arm.	Alb.	Toch.	Hitt.	Greek	Latin^{[V 1]}	Proto-Celtic	Gothic^{[V 2]}	Old English^{[V 1]}

Phonology

Sounds

Consonants

Aryan is reconstructed as having 41 consonants, with an assumption made that it would have maintained the 33 non-click main consonants of the Pangaean Code in some form while adding a labialized series of velars. Later, sounds would be lost in Proto-Indo-European, et cetera.

		Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar		Pharyngeal	Glottal
Nasal	Voiceless	*m̥	*n̥
Nasal	Voiced	*m	*n
Plosive	Voiceless	*p	*t		*k	*kʷ		*ʔ
	Voiced	*b	*d		*g	*gʷ
	Aspirated-	*p^h	*t^h		*k^h	*kʷ^h
	Aspirated+	*b^h	*d^h		*g^h	*gʷ^h
	Ejective	*p’	*t’		*k’	*kʷ’
Fricative	Voiceless		*s		*x	(*xʷ)	*ħ	*h
Fricative	Voiced		*z		*ɣ	(*ɣʷ)	*ʕ	*ɦ
Vibrant	Voiceless		*r̥
Vibrant	Voiced		*r
Lateral	Voiceless		*l̥
Lateral	Voiced		*l
Approximant	Voiceless			*j̊		*ẘ
Approximant	Voiced			*j		*w

Vowels

Pitch Accent

Meta-Segmentals

X

Supra-Segmentals

X

Taxology

Desinencies

Affixes

Roots

Clitics

X

Semantics

Phememes

Phones

Morphemes

Phonemes

Tagmemes

Semes

Taxemes

Sememes

Prosodemes

Glossemes

Noemes

Oidemes

Morphology

gʷaináh0
gʷaināsyas
gʷaināsay, *gʷaināmas

Lesson 1

German:

dieser Mensch
dies-er	Mensch
DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE	person
"this"	"person"
this person

Russian:

этот человек
эт-от	человек
DEITIC-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE	person.NOMINATIVE
"this"	"person"
this person

Latin:

iste homo
iste	homo
DEITIC.PROXIMAL .NOMINATIVE	person.NOMINATIVE
"that"	"person"
that person

Greek:

οὗτος ἄνθρωπος
οὗτ-ος	ἄνθρωπ-ος
DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE	person-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE
"this"	"person"
this person

Aryan:

*aestad dʰgʰā́m
*aes-tad	*dʰgʰā́m
MASCULINE.3PERSON-DEITIC.3PERSON.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE	soil(adjective).SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE
"this"	"person"
this person

The above samples follow the term *tad instead of *sa, as the former is used to refer to third person in general. *sa *tad <

h0e * eah0 *as *ats
- pʰirás > pʰā́r = *dʰgʰūmás > *gʰā́mar, *gʰā́man
- pʰerós > *phṓr dʰ

aes, eah₀, ad, sa [animated distal], tad [inanimated distal], aestad, eātad, atad

Lesson 2

German:

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Plural
Nominative	-er^[1]^[2] -∅^[3],-e^[4]	-e^[1]^[4]^[5], -ie^[2], -∅^[3]	-es^[1], -as^[2], -∅^[3], -e^[4]	-e^[1]^[3]^[6], -ie^[2], -en^[4]^[5], -er^[7]
Genitive	-es^[2]^[3]^[6]^[7], -en^[1]^[4]	-er^[1]^[2]^[3], -en^[4]	-es^[2]^[3], -en^[1]^[4]	-er^[1]^[2]^[3], -en^[4]
Dative	-em^[1]^[2]^[3], -en^[4], -e^[6]^[7]	-er^[1]^[2]^[3], -en^[4]	-em^[1]^[2]^[3], -en^[4]	-en^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[6]^[7]
Accusative	-en^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]	-e^[1]^[3]^[4], -ie^[2]	-es^[1]^[1], -as^[2], -e^[4]	-e^[1]^[3], -ie^[2], -en^[4]

^1 Declension of adjectives without articles; ^2 Declension of definite articles; ^3 Declension of indefinite articles; ^4 Declension of adjectives with articles; ^5 Declension of regular feminine nouns; ^6 Declension of regular masculine nouns; ^7 Declension of regular neuter nouns.

Russian:

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Plural
Nominative	-от^[1], -ый^[2], -ин^[3], -∅/-ь^[7]^[9]	-а/-я^[1]^[4]^[5], -ая^[2], -ина^[3], -ь^[9]	-о^[1], -ое^[2], -ино^[3], -о/-е^[8], -мя^[9]	-и/ы^[1]^[4]^[5]^[7], -ые^[2], -ины^[3], -а/-я^[8], -и/-мена^[9]
Genitive	-ого^[1]^[2], -иного^[3], -а/-я^[7], -и^[9]	-ой^[1]^[2], -иной^[3], -и/ы^[4]^[5]^[6]^[9]	-ого^[1]^[2], -иного^[3], -а/-я^[8], -мени^[9]	-их^[1], -ых^[2], -иных^[3], -∅/-ь^[4]^[5], -ов/-ей^[6]^[7], ∅-/-(е)й^[8], -ей/-мён(-мян)^[9]
Dative	-ому^[1]^[2], -иному^[3], -у/-ю^[7], -и^[9]	-ой^[1]^[2], -иной^[3], -е^[4]^[5], -и^[9]	-ому^[1]^[2], -иному^[3], -у/-ю^[8], -мени^[9]	-им^[1], -ым^[2], -иным^[3], -ам/-ям^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8], -ям/-менам^[9]
Accusative.A	-ого^[1]^[2], -иного^[3], -а/-я^[7], -ь^[9]	-ту^[1], -ую^[2], -ину^[3], -у^[4]^[5]^[6], -ь^[9]	-о^[1], -ое^[2], -ино^[3], -о/-е^[8], -мя^[9]	-их^[1], -ых^[2], -иных^[3], -∅/ь^[4]^[5]^[6], -ов/-ей^[7], -а/-я^[8], -и/-мена^[9]
Accusative.I	-от^[1], -ый^[2], -ин^[3], -∅/-ь^[7]	-ту^[1], -ую^[2], -ину^[3], -у^[4]^[5]^[6]	-о^[1], -ое^[2], -ино^[3], -о/-е^[8]	-и/-ы^[1]^[7], -ые^[2], -ины^[3], -∅/-ь^[4]^[5]^[6], ∅-/-(е)й^[8], -ь/-мена^[9]
Instrumental	-им^[1], -ым^[2], -иным^[3], -ом/-ем^[7], -ью^[9]	-ой/-ою//-ей^[1]^[2]^[4]^[5]^[6], -иной/-иною^[3], -ю^[6], -ью^[9]	-им^[1], -ым^[2], -иным^[3], -ом/-ем^[8], -менем^[9]	-ими^[1], -ыми^[2], -иными^[3], -ами/-ями^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8], -ями(ьми)/-менами^[9]
Prepositional	-ом^[1]^[2], -ином^[3], -е^[7], -и^[9]	-ой^[1]^[2], -иной^[3], -е^[4]^[5]^[6], -и^[9]	-ом^[1]^[2], -ином^[3], -е^[8], -мени^[9]	-их^[1], -ых^[2], -иных^[3], -ах/-ях^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8], -ях/-менах^[9]

^1 Declension of correlatives; ^2 Declension of non-possessive adjectives; ^3 Declension of possessive adjectives; ^4 Declension of animated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and vowel; ^5 Declension of animated feminine nouns ending in a hard consonant and vowel or inanimated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and vowel; ^6 Declension of inanimated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and no vowel; ^7 Declension of animated masculine nouns ending in no vowel; ^8 Declension of neuter nouns; ^9 Declension of nouns ending in hard consonant and no vowel.

	LATIN DECLENSION
	Singular			Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nominative	-e/-us^[1], -us, -is, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs	-a^[1], -is, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs	-ud, -um^[1], -e, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs	-ī^[1], -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-ae^[1], -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-a^[1], -ia, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs
Genitive	-īus^[1], -ī, -is, -ūs, -(i)ēī	-īus^[1], -ae, -ūs, -(i)ēī	-īus^[1], -ī, -is, -ūs, -(i)ēī	-ōrum^[1], -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum	-ārum^[1], -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum	-ōrum^[1], -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum
Dative	-ī^[1], -ō, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī	-ī^[1], -ae, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī	-ī^[1]^[3], -ō, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī	-īs^[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs^[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs^[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus
Accusative	-um^[1], -em, -um/-ū, -(i)em	-am^[1], -em, -um/-ū, -(i)em	-ud, -um^[1], -e, -um/-ū, -(i)em	-ōs^[1], -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-ās^[1], -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-a^[1], -ia, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs
Ablative	-ō^[1]^[2], -ī, -ū, -(i)ē	-ā^[1], -ī, -ū, -(i)ē	-ō^[1], -ī, -ū, -(i)ē	-īs^[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs^[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs^[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus
Vocative	-e^[1], -is	-a^[1], -is	-ud, -um^[1], -e	-ī^[1], -ēs	-ae^[1], -ēs,	-a^[1], -ia

^1 Declension of correlatives and regular nouns.

	GREEK DECLENSION
	Singular			Dual			Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nominative	-ος^[1], -ας/-ης, -(ε)ς, -ων	-η/α^[1], -(ε)ς, -ων	-ον^[1]	-ω^[1], -ε, -ονε	-α^[1], -ε, -ονε	-ω^[1]	-οι^[1], -ες, -ονες	-αι^[1], -ες	-α
Genitive	-ου^[1], -ος/-ως, -ονος	-ης/-ας^[1], -ος/-ως, -ονος	-ου^[1]	-οιν^[1]	-αιν^[1], -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν^[1], -ονοιν	-ων^[1], -ονων	-ων^[1], -ονων	-ων^[1]
Dative	-ῳ^[1], -ι, -ονι	-ῃ^[1], -ι, -ονι	-ῳ^[1]	-οιν^[1], -ονοιν	-αιν^[1], -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν^[1]	-οις^[1], -ας/-ς/-νς, -οσι	-αις^[1], -οσι	-οις^[1]
Accusative	-ον^[1], -α, -ονα	-ην^[1], -ονα	-ον^[1]	-ω^[1]	-α^[1]	-ω^[1]	-ους^[1], -ονας	-ας^[1], -ονας	-α^[1]
Vocative	-ε^[1], -(ε)ς, -ον	-η^[1], -(ε)ς, -ον	-ον^[1]	-ω^[1], -ε, -ονε	-α^[1], -ε, -ονε	-ω^[1]	-οι^[1], -ες, -ονες	-αι^[1], -ες, -ονες	-α^[1]

^1 Declension of correlatives and regular nouns.

	ARYAN DECLENSION
	Singular			Dual			Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nominative	*-as	*-ah₀	*-am	*-ā	*-āh₀	*-ā	*-ayn	*-ah₀in	*-a
Genitive	*-asyas	*-āsyas	-ου^[1]	-οιν^[1]	-αιν^[1], -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν^[1], -ονοιν	-ων^[1], -ονων	-ων^[1], -ονων	-ων^[1]
Dative	-ῳ^[1], -ι, -ονι	-ῃ^[1], -ι, -ονι	-ῳ^[1]	-οιν^[1], -ονοιν	-αιν^[1], -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν^[1]	-οις^[1], -ας/-ς/-νς, -οσι	-αις^[1], -οσι	-οις^[1]
Accusative	-ον^[1], -α, -ονα	-ην^[1], -ονα	-ον^[1]	-ω^[1]	-α^[1]	-ω^[1]	-ους^[1], -ονας	-ας^[1], -ονας	-α^[1]
Vocative	-ε^[1], -(ε)ς, -ον	-η^[1], -(ε)ς, -ον	-ον^[1]	-ω^[1], -ε, -ονε	-α^[1], -ε, -ονε	-ω^[1]	-οι^[1], -ες, -ονες	-αι^[1], -ες, -ονες	-α^[1]

diese schöne Kone эта красивая жена ista pulchra uxor

eātad kaláh0 gʷaînah0

Lesson 3

*gaínōm, *gígnmi "I generate" *pūhāṓm, *píbmi "I drink" *wehdḗyōm, *wḗydmi "I see"

*pʰair- "bearing" [n/v] (Latin ferō, Greek φέρω < *pʰaírōm, *pʰíprmi) > *pʰaíras [bare noun], *pʰ∅rás "bearer" [adjective-noun] (Latin fūr, Greek φώρ "thief"), *pʰáras [result-noun] (Greek φόρος "tribute")

*daim- "building" [n/v] (Greek δέμω < *daímōm, *dídmmi) > *daímas [bare noun], *d∅más "building" [adjective-noun] (Greek δῶ "house"), *dámas "house" [result-noun] (Latin domus, Greek δόμος "house")

*paid- "stepping" [n/v] (*paídōm, *pípdmi) > *paídas [bare noun], *p∅dás "foot" [adjective-noun] (Latin pes, Greek πούς "foot"), *pádas "step" [result-noun]

*kʰpʰain- "expelling" [n/v] (Latin de-fendo "I expell from") > *kʰpʰaínas [bare noun], *kʰpʰ∅nás "murderer" [adjective-noun], *kʰpʰánas "murder" [result-noun] (Greek φόνος "murder")

*h₁ed- "eating" [n/v] (German esse, Russian ем, Latin edō, Greek ἔδω < *h₁édōm, *yédmi) > *h₁édas [bare noun], *yedás "eater" [adjective-noun], *h₁ádas [result-noun]

In Aryan, personal enclitics are positioned after the first word of a proposition (Wackernagel's Law)

the verb either starts or ends the clause... tendence to follow SOV

the finite verb loses accent in an independent clause, except when in first position (always has accent in dependent clause)
absolute construction
subject is ommitted

na pʰaírīt mai
pʰaírīt mai na?

h₅ígōm, mayás, mai

_(negation=subject/int.pronoun/accented verb)-_()-_(unaccented verb)

The most comprehensive summary available on PIE morphosyntax was written by Matthias Fritz in Indo-European Linguistics (Michael Meier-Brügger, 2003), pp. 238-276.

Winfred Philipp Lehmann’s Proto-Indo-European Syntax (1974)

morphological cylce (Hock and Joseph, 1996) Szemerényi 1957: 119; Kuryłowicz 1964: 233; Rasmussen 1999: Meier-Brügger

-ōm/mi -āṓm/-mā

pʰaír-

-ōm / *-mi (perfective)

-āṓm / *-āmi (perfective)

í (animated nouns) ì (inanimate nouns) *neuter nouns and vocatives have recessive accent Aryan has a complex system of accent loss

As Greek neuter nouns possess recessive accent (especially the monosyllabic ones, which when accented, carry a circunflex)

paid- ... *p∅dás

p∅dás > páds > póds

p∅dás > *póds > pēs, πούς
p∅dasyás > *pedés > pedis, ποδός

/ə/ > */e/ when pretonic or tonic polysyllabic [exception: o-derivation]
/ə/ > */o/ when postonic or tonic monosyllabic (*pʰ∅rás > *pʰárs >*pʰórs > *pʰṓr) [exception: o-derivation] *monosyllabic words without pithc accept /e/ instead (*swa > *swe)
/əi̯/ > */e/, */aː/ when result of zero-grade (*gain- >*g∅n-tás > *gnaitás > *gnātós, as in Latin gnātus and Greek -γνητός)
/ai̯/ > */ai̯/

pʰrás

laryngeals turn into vowels and vice-versa

mai > *meh1

Syntax

Ich dachte, dass ich der Einzige war, der darüber nachdachte Я думал я один кто об этом подумал...

Prosody

Sample text

References

Behaghel, Otto (1932), Deutsche Syntax
Benveniste, Émile (1935), Les Origines de la Formation des Noms en Indo-Européen
Collinge, N. E. (1985), The Laws of Indo-European
Jespersen , Otto (1924), The Philosophy Of Grammar
Priscianus (6th Century), Institutiones Grammaticae
Sütterlin, Ludwig (1908), Die Lehre von der Lautbildung
Szemerényi, Oswald (1970), Einführung in die vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft
Sommerstein, Alan (1973), Sound Pattern of Ancient Greek
Thomasus Erfordiensis (13th Century), Tractatus de Modis Significandi seu Grammatica Speculativa
Wackernagel, Jakob (1892), Über ein Gesetz der indogermanischen Worstellung

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^ 3

[consonants-1] A capital C stands for consonant in this table

[VXV-2] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t Between vowels

[P+H-3] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Before an original h₂.

[CH-4] Before a consonant or original laryngeal.

[VCV-5] After a vowel.

[Verner-6] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Following an unstressed vowel (Verner's law).

[Cie-7] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u Before a (PIE) front vowel (*i, *e).

[XSon-8] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Before a sonorant.

[Xie-9] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.

[Xu-10] Before or after a (PIE) u

[11] Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel (*u, *o).

[YAv-12] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f In Younger Avestan, after a vowel.

[ngw-13] After n.

[#X-14] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f At the beginning of a word

[final-15] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f At the end of a word.

[VXVR-16] Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)

[17] After u, r or before r, l.

[X’V-18] Before a stressed vowel

[PCP-19] Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)

[20] Before or after a resonant (r, l, m, n).

[Ruki-21] After r, u, k, i (Ruki sound law).

[rare-22] rare

[55] 3

[C 1]

[C 2]

[C 3]

[C 4]

[C 5]

[C 6]

[C 7]

[C 8]

[C 9]

[C 10]

[C 11]

[C 12]

[C 13]

[C 14]

[C 15]

[C 16]

[C 17]

[C 18]

[C 19]

[C 20]

[C 21]

[C 22]

[CC 1]

[CC 2]

[CC 3]

[CC 4]

[CC 5]

[CC 6]

[CC 7]

[CC 8]

[CC 9]

[CC 10]

[V 1]

[V 2]

[V 3]

[V 4]

[V 5]

[V 6]

[V 7]

[V 8]

[V 9]

[V 10]

[V 11]

[V 12]

[V 13]

[V 14]

[V 15]

[V 16]

[V 17]

[V 18]

[V 19]

[V 20]

[V 21]

[V 22]

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[1]

	Aryan
p	p^ht^h / p^h / p^hk^h; p^hkʷ^h
t	t^hk^h; t^hkʷ^h / t^h / t^hp^h
k	k^hp^h / k^h; kʷ / k^ht^h
b	bd / b / bg; bgʷ
d	dg; dgʷ / d / db
g	gb / g, *gʷ / gd
pʼ	pʼtʼ / pʼ; p / pʼkʼ; *pʼkʷʼ
tʼ	tʼkʷʼ / tʼ, t / *tʼpʼ
kʼ	kʼpʼ / kʼ; k; *kʷʼ / kʼtʼ
ɓ	b^hd^h / b^h / b^hg^h; b^hgʷ^h
ɗ	d^hg^h; d^hgʷ^h / d^h / d^hb^h
ɠ	g^hb^h / g^h; gʷ^h / g^hd^h