Aryan: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 22:27, 3 December 2024

Aryan (Pre-Expansion: *Airáh₀, pronounced /əi̯ˈrəʔ/; Post-Expansion: *Āryā́, pronounced /aːˈri̯aː/) is an ab interiori language of Proto-Indo-Anatolian.

Aryan
*airáh₀
Pronunciation	[əi̯ˈrəʔ]
Created by	Veno
Date	12000-10000 BP
Setting	Caucasus Mountains
Native speakers	- (2024)
Language family	Pangaean Code Aryan
Early form	Transitional Dialect
Writing system	Latin
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History

Development from Paleolithic Codes

The history of Aryan taken into account starts with the transition from Atomism to Double Articulation. [...] by the dialects of the Upper Paleolithic, mostly regarding the Pangaean Code as its ultimate source, next to the influence of the Diluvian and Hyperborean Codes. Although the actor responsible for this transition is a matter of debate even within the experiment, the loss of archaic features is assumed to coincide with the End of the Last Ice Age. At that time (roughly 12000 years Before Present), the loss of strict adherence to the primordial grammar might have allowed sound changes to take place, as seen below.

Weak (plosive) stops become aspirated/murmured preceding a laryngeal consonant, as strong (ejective/implosive) stops gain plosive qualities in the same position.

Weak Voiceless Stop before laryngeal	Weak Voiced Stop before laryngeal	Strong Voiceless Stop before laryngeal	Strong Voiced Stop before laryngeal
/kH/→/k^h/	/kʼH/→/k/	/gH/→/g^ɦ/	/ɠH/→/g/
/pH/→/p^h/	/pʼH/→/p/	/bH/→/b^ɦ/	/ɓH/→/b/
/tH/→/t^h/	/tʼH/→/t/	/dH/→/d^ɦ/	/ɗH/→/d/

The production of aspirated/murmured series contaminates the regular sounds, whose qualities of WEAK and STRONG are rearranged to accomodate Aspiration/Breathy Voice instead of Ejection/Implosion.

Weak Voiceless Stop	Weak Voiced Stop	Strong Voiceless Stop	Strong Voiced Stop
/k/→/k/	/g/→/g/	/kʼ/→/k^h/	/ɠ/→/g^ɦ/
/p/→/p/	/b/→/b/	/pʼ/→/p^h/	/ɓ/→/b^ɦ/
/t/→/t/	/d/→/d/	/tʼ/→/t^h/	/ɗ/→/d^ɦ/

Relative articulated sounds when stops transform into Diluvian consonant clusters following former examples of aspiration/breathy voice.

Retracted before Laryngeal	Retracted	Advanced before Laryngeal	Advanced
/k̠H/→/k^hp^h/	/k̠/→/kp/	/k̟H/→/k^ht^h/	/k̟/→/kt/
/p̠H/→/p^ht^h/	/p̠/→/pt/	/p̟H/→/p^hk^h/	/p̟/→/pk/
/t̠H/→/t^hk^h/	/t̠/→/tk/	/t̟H/→/t^hp^h/	/t̟/→/tp/
/g̠H/→/g^ɦb^ɦ/	/g̠/→/gb/	/g̟H/→/g^ɦd^ɦ/	/g̟/→/gd/
/b̠H/→/b^ɦd^ɦ/	/b̠/→/bd/	/b̟H/→/b^ɦg^ɦ/	/b̟/→/bg/
/d̠H/→/d^ɦg^ɦ/	/d̠/→/dg/	/d̟H/→/d^ɦb^ɦ/	/d̟/→/db/
/k̠ʼH/→/kp/	/k̠ʼ/→/k^hp^h/	/k̟ʼH/→/kt/	/k̟ʼ/→/k^ht^h/
/p̠ʼH/→/pt/	/p̠ʼ/→/p^ht^h/	/p̟ʼH/→/pk/	/p̟ʼ/→/p^hk^h/
/t̠ʼH/→/tk/	/t̠ʼ/→/t^hk^h/	/t̟ʼH/→/tp/	/t̟ʼ/→/t^hp^h/
/ɠ̠H/→/gb/	/ɠ̠/→/g^ɦb^ɦ/	/ɠ̟H/→/gd/	/ɠ̟/→/g^ɦd^ɦ/
/ɓ̠H/→/bd/	/ɓ̠/→/b^ɦd^ɦ/	/ɓ̟H/→/bg/	/ɓ̟/→/b^ɦg^ɦ/
/ɗ̠H/→/dg/	/ɗ̠/→/d^ɦg^ɦ/	/ɗ̟H/→/db/	/ɗ̟/→/d^ɦb^ɦ/

Sonorants, contrary to the stop series, remain conserved when onset; however, they collapse as voiced codas.

Voiceless Sonorant(I)	Voiced Sonorant(I)	Voiceless Sonorant(II)	Voiced Sonorant(II)
/j̥/→/j̥/~/j/	/j/→/j/	/w̥/→/w̥/~/w/	/w/→/w/
/n̥/→/n̥/~/n/	/n/→/n/	/m̥/→/m̥/~/m/	/m/→/m/
/l̥/→/l̥/~/l/	/l/→/l/	/r̥/→/r̥/~/r/	/r/→/r/

The positive and negative forms of the sonorants still follow a Diluvian paradigm.

Retracted Voiceless Sonorant	Retracted Voiced Sonorant	Advanced Voiceless Sonorant	Advanced Voiced Sonorant
/j̠̊/→/j̥/~/j/	/j̠/→/j/	/j̟̊/→/j̥/~/j/	/j̟/→/j/
/n̠̊/→/kn/	/n̠/→/kn	/n̟̊/→/pn/	/n̊/→/pn/
/l̠̊/→/l̥/~/l/	/l̠/→/l/	/l̟̊/→/l̥/~/l/	/l̟/→/l/
/ẘ̠/→/w̥/~/w/	/w̠/→/w/	/ẘ̟/→/w̥/~/w/	/w̟/→/w/
/m̠̊/→/dm/	/m̠/→/dm/	/m̟̊/→/gm/	/m̟/→/gm/
/r̠̊/→/r̥/~/r/	/r̠/→/r/	/r̟̊/→/r̥/~/r/	/r̟/→/r/

Within the turbulents, clicks are exchanged by ...; laryngeals ...

p̠hṵh > *pʰtʰūymás ( *pʰtʰūh1-más) > fumus heħʘ̪ > h1eh2dʷ [nominative *séh2dʷ (=**h1éh2dʷ-as)] > *sweh2dʷ- > suavis there can only be one laryngeal in a root... except when former clicks.

*meh2dʷ (=**h1eh2dʷ-más) > *médʰu [*mélid, a variation]

dʷ- > *b-~bʰ-, -dʷ > -d dʲ- > *s~*sw-, -dʲ > -di

h₂oh₂dʲ-, *h₂óh₂dʲam "hatred"

? > *ak "sharp" borrowing

dʲairgʰ > *swergʰ... "be ill"

sour < *sūrós (*sweh2-rós) < *dʲāyrás (=*dʲeh2-rás)

	Aryan
p	p^ht^h / p^h / p^hk^h; p^hkʷ^h
t	t^hk^h; t^hkʷ^h / t^h / t^hp^h
k	k^hp^h / k^h; kʷ / k^ht^h
b	bd / b / bg; bgʷ
d	dg; dgʷ / d / db
g	gb / g, *gʷ / gd
pʼ	pʼtʼ / pʼ; p / pʼkʼ; *pʼkʷʼ
tʼ	tʼkʷʼ / tʼ, t / *tʼpʼ
kʼ	kʼpʼ / kʼ; k; *kʷʼ / kʼtʼ
ɓ	b^hd^h / b^h / b^hg^h; b^hgʷ^h
ɗ	d^hg^h; d^hgʷ^h / d^h / d^hb^h
ɠ	g^hb^h / g^h; gʷ^h / g^hd^h

Development into Indo-Anatolian Languages

[...]
The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek).

What marks a Transitional Dialect:

the presence of mobile roots

/ə/ > */e/ when pretonic or tonic polysyllabic [exception: o-derivation]
/ə/ > */o/ when postonic or tonic monosyllabic (*pʰ∅rás > *pʰárs >*pʰórs > *pʰṓr) [exception: o-derivation] *monosyllabic words without pithc accept /e/ instead (*swa > *swe)
/əi̯/ > */e/, */aː/ when result of zero-grade (*gain- >*g∅n-tás > *gnaitás > *gnātós, as in Latin gnātus and Greek -γνητός)
/ai̯/ > */ai̯/
kʰpʰ-
kp- > *kʷʰ-
kn- > *sn-

an original click as onset inverts the laryngeals: ǁheħp > tɬeh1p> seh1p an original click as coda preserves both laryngeals: heħʘ̪ > *h1eh2dʷ > sweh2d həħǁ > *h1ah2t͡ɬ > *sent

When an <e> is introduced in adjectives, the accent falls n̠ʕih > *knaiás > *sénos "old" compare

sādú > *swādús "sweet"
sādú méh2dʷ
swādús médʰu~mélid

Primordial elements transitioned into particles in Aryan. That is: Aryan roots could be changed back then. Those were the mobile roots. For example: *dʷ survived as PIE *-id, which was a particle used to indicate comestibles.

pʰrás

laryngeals turn into vowels and vice-versa

mai > *meh1

	Sanskrit	Avestan	O.C.S.	Lithuanian	Albanian	Armenian	Hittite	Tocharian	Greek	Latin	Goidelic	Gothic
>*p	p; pʰ	p; f	p	p	p	h; w	p; pp	p	p / pt	p	∅	f; β
>*t				x x
>*k		x x
>*ḱ		x x

p pt p ∅ f; b [β] [C 6] f; v, f[C 2]

thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...

Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants
PIE	Indo-Iranian		Balto-Slavic		Alb.	Arm.	Anatol.	Toch.	Greek		Italic	Celtic		Germanic
	Sanskrit	Avestan	O.C.S.	Lith.			Hitt.		Greek		Latin	Old Irish		Gothic	English
	Sanskrit	Avestan	O.C.S.	Lith.			Hitt.		normal	C+[j] ^{[C 1]}	Latin	normal	-C- ^{[C 2]} ^{[C 1]}	Gothic	English
*p	p; ph [pʰ] ^{[C 3]}	p; f ^{[C 4]}	p			h; w ^{[C 5]}	p, pp	p		pt	p	∅		f; b [β] ^{[C 6]}	f; v, f^{[C 2]}
*t	t; th [t̪ʰ] ^{[C 3]}	t; θ^{[C 4]}	t			tʿ [tʰ]	t, tt; z [ts] ^{[C 7]}	t; c [c] ^{[C 7]}	t	s; tt/ss^{[C 5]}	t	t	th [θ]	þ [θ]; d [ð]; ^{[C 6]}	th; d; ^{[C 6]}
*ḱ	ś [ɕ]	s		š [ʃ]	th [θ]; k^{[C 8]}	s	k, kk	k; ś [ɕ]^{[C 8]}	k		c [k]	c [k]	ch [x]	h; g [ɣ] ^{[C 6]}	h; ∅;^{[C 2]} y ^{[C 6]}
*k	k; c [t͡ɕ]; ^{[C 7]} kh [kʰ] ^{[C 3]}	k; c [tʃ]; ^{[C 7]} x^{[C 4]}	k; č [tʃ]; ^{[C 7]} c [ts]^{[C 9]}	k	k; q [c]^{[C 9]}	kʿ [kʰ]	k, kk		k		c [k]			h; g [ɣ] ^{[C 6]}	h; ∅;^{[C 2]} y ^{[C 6]}
*kʷ	k; c [t͡ɕ]; ^{[C 7]} kh [kʰ] ^{[C 3]}	k; c [tʃ]; ^{[C 7]} x^{[C 4]}	k; č [tʃ]; ^{[C 7]} c [ts]^{[C 9]}	k	k; s; ^{[C 7]} q [c]^{[C 9]}	kʿ [kʰ]	ku, kku		p; t; ^{[C 7]} k^{[C 10]}		qu [kʷ]; c [k] ^{[C 11]}			ƕ [ʍ]; gw, w ^{[C 6]}	wh; w ^{[C 6]}
*b	b; bh ^{[C 3]}	b; β ^{[C 12]}	b			p			b	pt	b	b [b]	-[β]-	p
*d	d; dh ^{[C 3]}	d; δ ^{[C 12]}	d		d; dh [ð]^{[C 2]}	t		ts; ś [ɕ] ^{[C 7]}	d	z [zd] > [z]	d	d [d]	-[ð]-	t
*ǵ	j [d͡ʑ]; h [ɦ] ^{[C 3]}	z		ž [ʒ]	dh [ð]; g^{[C 8]}	c [ts]	k	k; ś [ɕ]^{[C 8]}	g		g	g [ɡ]	-[ɣ]-	k	c / k; ch^{[C 9]}
*g	g; j [d͡ʑ]; ^{[C 7]} gh; ^{[C 3]} h [ɦ] ^{[C 3]}	g; j [dʒ]; ^{[C 7]} γ ^{[C 12]}	g; ž [ʒ]; ^{[C 7]} dz^{[C 9]}	g	g	k	k		g		g	g [ɡ]	-[ɣ]-	k	c / k; ch^{[C 9]}
*gʷ	g; j [d͡ʑ]; ^{[C 7]} gh; ^{[C 3]} h [ɦ] ^{[C 3]}	g; j [dʒ]; ^{[C 7]} γ ^{[C 12]}	g; ž [ʒ]; ^{[C 7]} dz^{[C 9]}	g	g; z; ^{[C 7]} gj [ɟ]^{[C 9]}	k	ku		b; d; ^{[C 7]} g^{[C 10]}		u [w > v]; gu [ɡʷ] ^{[C 13]}	b [b]	-[β]-	q [kʷ]	qu
*pʰ	bh [bʱ]	b; β ^{[C 12]}	b			b; w^{[C 2]}	p		ph [pʰ]	pt	f;^{[C 14]} b	b [b]	-[β]-	b [b]; b [β];^{[C 2]} f ^{[C 15]}	b; v / f^{[C 16]}
*tʰ	dh [dʱ]	d; δ ^{[C 12]}	d				t	t; c [c] ^{[C 7]}	th [tʰ]	tt/ss	f;^{[C 14]} d; b ^{[C 17]}	d [d]	-[ð]-	d; d [ð];^{[C 2]} þ ^{[C 15]}	d
*ǵʰ	h [ɦ]	z		ž [ʒ]	dh [ð]; d^{[C 8]}	j [dz]; z^{[C 2]}	k	k; ś [ɕ] ^{[C 7]}	kh [kʰ]		h; h / g^{[C 8]}	g [ɡ]	-[ɣ]-	g; g [ɣ];^{[C 2]} g [x] ^{[C 15]}	g; y / w^{[C 16]}
*gʰ	gh [ɡʱ]; h [ɦ] ^{[C 7]}	g; j [dʒ]; ^{[C 7]} γ ^{[C 12]}	g; ž [ʒ]; ^{[C 7]} dz^{[C 9]}	g	g	g; ǰ [dʒ] ^{[C 7]}	k		kh [kʰ]		h; h / g^{[C 8]}			g; g [ɣ];^{[C 2]} g [x] ^{[C 15]}	g; y / w^{[C 16]}
*gʷʰ	gh [ɡʱ]; h [ɦ] ^{[C 7]}	g; j [dʒ]; ^{[C 7]} γ ^{[C 12]}	g; ž [ʒ]; ^{[C 7]} dz^{[C 9]}	g	g; z; ^{[C 7]} gj [ɟ]^{[C 9]}	g; ǰ [dʒ] ^{[C 7]}	ku		ph [pʰ]; th [tʰ]; ^{[C 7]} kh [kʰ]^{[C 10]}		f;^{[C 14]} g / u [w];^{[C 2]} gu [ɡʷ] ^{[C 13]}			g; b;^{[C 14]} w;^{[C 2]} gw ^{[C 13]}	g; b;^{[C 14]} w^{[C 2]}
*s	s	h [h, x]	s		sh [ʃ]; gj [ɟ];^{[C 18]} h^{[C 2]}	h; ∅^{[C 2]}	š [s]	s; ṣ [ʂ]	h;^{[C 14]} s;^{[C 19]}^{[C 15]}/ ∅;^{[C 2]} [¯] ^{[C 20]}	i	s; r^{[C 2]}	s ʃ	-[h]-	s; z ^{[C 6]}	s; r ^{[C 6]}
*s	ṣ [ʂ]^{[C 21]}	š [ʃ]^{[C 21]}	x [x]^{[C 21]}	š [ʃ]^{[C 21]}	sh [ʃ]; gj [ɟ];^{[C 18]} h^{[C 2]}	h; ∅^{[C 2]}	š [s]	s; ṣ [ʂ]	h;^{[C 14]} s;^{[C 19]}^{[C 15]}/ ∅;^{[C 2]} [¯] ^{[C 20]}	i	s; r^{[C 2]}	s ʃ	-[h]-	s; z ^{[C 6]}	s; r ^{[C 6]}
*m	m									in	m	m [m]	-[w̃]-	m
*-m ^{[C 15]}	m		˛ [˜]	n		∅	n	n		--	m [˜]	n		∅
*n	n		n; ˛ [˜] ^{[C 15]}	n				n; ñ [ɲ]	n	in	n
*l	r (dial. l)	r	l		l; ll [ɫ]^{[C 2]}	l / ɫ [ɫ > ɣ]	l			il	l
*r	r/l^{[C 22]}	r			r [ɾ]; rr [r]^{[C 2]}	r				ir	r
*y	y [j]		j [j]		gj [ɟ]; ∅	∅	y [j]		z [zd] > [z] / h; ∅ ^{[C 2]}	?i	i [j]; ∅ ^{[C 2]}	∅		j	y
*w	v [ʋ]	v [w]	v	v [ʋ]	v	g / w	w		w > h / ∅	i	u [w > v]	f	-∅-	w
PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Alb.	Arm.	Hitt.	Toch.	Greek	Greek+/j/	Latin	Old Irish		Gothic	English

Notes for table 1:

^ ^a ^b A capital C stands for consonant in this table
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t Between vowels
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Before an original h₂.
^ ^a ^b ^c Before a consonant or original laryngeal.
^ ^a ^b After a vowel.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Following an unstressed vowel (Verner's law).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u Before a (PIE) front vowel (*i, *e).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Before a sonorant.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.
^ ^a ^b ^c Before or after a (PIE) u
^ Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel (*u, *o).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f In Younger Avestan, after a vowel.
^ ^a ^b ^c After n.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f At the beginning of a word
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f At the end of a word.
^ ^a ^b Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)
^ After u, r or before r, l.
^ Before a stressed vowel
^ Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)
^ Before or after a resonant (r, l, m, n).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d After r, u, k, i (Ruki sound law).
^ rare

Consonant clusters

Proto-Indo-European also had numerous consonant clusters, such as *st, *ḱs. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):

Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters
PIE	Indo-Iranian		Balto-Slavic		Alb.	Arm.	Anatol.	Toch.	Greek		Italic	Celtic	Germanic
	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.			Hitt.		Greek		Latin	Old Irish	Gothic	English
	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.			Hitt.		normal	C+[j]	Latin	Old Irish	Gothic	English
*sr	sr	r	str	sr	rr [r]	(a)r	š(ša)r ʃʃr		rh	n/a	fr-, -br-	sr	str	str
*tw	tv	θβ	tv	tv	t	kʿ [kʰ]	ttu, ddu		s-, -ss-	n/a	p?	t	þw	thw
*dʰw	dhv	ðβ	dv	dv	d	?	tu, du				f	d	dw	dw
*dw	dv	ðβ	dv	dv	d	(e)rk	tu, du				b	d	tw	tw
*tl			sl	kl, sl					tl		kl	tl
*dl	ll
*dn	nn, ṇṇ
*ḱw	śv	sp	sv	šv	s	sk, š				n/a	qu [kʷ]	cu [kʷ]	Template:Transl [xʷ]	wh
*ǵʰw	hv		zv	žv	z
*ǵw	jv		zv	žv	z								q [kʷ]	qu [kw]
*sw	sv	xuu [xʷ]	sv	sv	v, d^{[CC 1]}	kʿ [kʰ]	normal dev.		h	n/a	su [sw]	s	sw	sw
*sp	sp	sp ^{[CC 2]}	sp		f	sp ^{[CC 2]} / pʿ [pʰ]	normal dev.		sp ^{[CC 2]}	?	sp	f	sp ^{[CC 3]}
*sbʰ		spʰ
*sd	d; ḷ^{[CC 4]} > ḍ, ḍḍ	zd	zd	zd		st					d	-t- [d]	st	st
*sdʰ	dh; ḷh^{[CC 4]} > ḍh, ḍḍh	zd	zd	zd					sth			-t- [d]	zd	d
*st	st; ṣṭ^{[CC 4]}	st ^{[CC 2]}	st		sht [ʃt]	st ^{[CC 2]}	normal dev.		st ^{[CC 2]}	s; tt/ss^{[CC 5]}	st		st ^{[CC 3]}
*sḱ	ch [t͡ɕʰ]; cch^{[CC 5]}	s?	sk	š?	h	?? č`; c`^{[CC 5]}	normal dev.		sk; ^{[CC 2]} kh [kʰ];^{[CC 6]} skh [skʰ] ^{[CC 7]}		sc [sk]	sc [sk]	sk ^{[CC 3]}	sh [ʃ]
*sk	sk, {śc, ch}^{[CC 8]}	sk, sč ^{[CC 2]}	normal dev.		?	sk ^{[CC 2]}	normal dev.		sk; ^{[CC 2]} kh [kʰ];^{[CC 6]} skh [skʰ] ^{[CC 7]}		sc [sk]		sk ^{[CC 3]}
*skʷ	sk, {śc, ch}^{[CC 8]}	sk, sč ^{[CC 2]}	normal dev.		?	sk ^{[CC 2]}	normal dev.		norm.		squ [skʷ]		sq ^{[CC 3]}
*t+t [tst]	tt; tth ^{[CC 9]}	st; sθ?^{[CC 10]}	st		s	s?	zt, zzašt, zzazz [tst]	ss?	st		ss		ss / st
*sǵ	jj
*sgʰ	jj^{[CC 8]}
*dt	tt	st						st	st		s		ss	ss [s]
*ddʰ	ddʰ	zd									d	t
*dʰt	ddʰ	zd, st		st					st
*pt	pt	ft	t?	pt	t				pt		pt	cht [xt]	ft ^{[CC 3]}
*ḱt	ṣṭ [ʂʈ]	št [ʃt]	st	št [ʃt]					kt		ct [kt]		ht ^{[CC 3]}	ght [t] ^{[CC 3]}
*kt	kt	xt	t?	kt					kt		ct [kt]
*kʷt	kt	xt	t?	kt					pt		ct [kt]
*ps	ps								ps		ps	s, ss	fs	ps
*ts	ts
*ḱs	kṣ	š			sh [ʃ]				ks		x [ks]		hs	x [ks]
*ks	kṣ^{[CC 4]}	xš^{[CC 4]}						(ks)	ks		x [ks]		hs
*kʷs	kṣ^{[CC 4]}	xš^{[CC 4]}					kʷs		ps		x [ks]
*gs	kṣ
*gʷs	kṣ
*ǵʰs	kṣ	ž								ks
*gʰs	kṣ
*gʷʰs	kṣ								ps
*tḱ	kṣ	š			k				kt		s
*tk	kṣ	xš							kt
*dʰǵʰ	kṣ	z		ž			tk	tk/k	khth
*dʰgʰ	kṣ						tk
*dʰgʷʰ	kṣ	γž					kts		phth		s
PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Alb.	Arm.	Hitt.	Toch.	Greek	Greek+/j/	Latin	Old Irish	Gothic	English

-->

Orthography

Trad. PIE	Laryng. PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Arm.	Alb.	Toch.	Hitt.	Greek	Latin^{[V 1]}	Proto-Celtic	Gothic^{[V 2]}	Old English^{[V 1]}
Trad. PIE	Laryng. PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Arm.	Alb.	Toch.	Hitt.	Greek	Latin^{[V 1]}	Proto-Celtic	Gothic^{[V 2]}	normal	umlauted^{[V 3]}
*e	e, h₁e	a		e			je, ie, e, i; ja^{[V 4]}	ä	e, ʔe, i	e			i; aí [ɛ]^{[V 5]}	e; eo^{[V 6]}	i; ie^{[V 6]}
*a	(a^{[V 7]}), h₂e			o	a	a	ha, a	ā	ha, a	a			a	æ; a;^{[V 8]} ea^{[V 6]}	e; ie^{[V 6]}
*o	*h₃e					o, a	a	a, e	a	o
*o	*o	a; ā^{[V 9]}				o, a		a, e	a	o
*ə^{[V 10]}	*h₁^{[V 10]}	i	i, ∅	∅		a, ∅		ā	∅	e	a		a, ∅
	*h₂^{[V 10]}								ḫ	a
	*h₃^{[V 10]}								∅	o
*-	*h₁-^{[V 11]}	∅				e (a?)	∅		a, ∅	e (o)	∅
	*h₂-^{[V 11]}					a			ḫa	a
	*h₃-^{[V 11]}					a			a, ha	o
*ē	ē, eh₁	ā		ě	ė	i	o, ua	a/e?; ā?^{[V 12]}	ē, e, i	ē		ī	ē	ǣ
*ā	(ā^{[V 7]}), eh₂			a	o [oː]	a	o, ua	a/o?	a, ah	ā > ē^{[V 13]}	ā	ā	ō		ē
*ō	ō, eh₃			a	uo	u	e	a/ā?; ū?^{[V 12]}	a, ā	ō		ā; ū^{[V 12]}	ō		ē
*i	*i	i		ь	i	i	i; e^{[V 14]}	ä	i, ī	i			i; aí [ɛ]^{[V 5]}	i
*ī	*ih₁	ī		i	y [iː]	i	i	i		ī	ī		ei [iː]	ī
	*ih₂					i or ^(j)a?^{[V 15]}		yā		ī or ^(j)ā?^{[V 15]}
	*ih₃					i or ^(j)a?^{[V 15]}		yā		ī or ^(j)ō?^{[V 15]}
*ei	ei, h₁ei	ai > ē	ai > ōi, āi > aē^{[V 9]}		ei; ie^{[V 16]}	i		e	ē	ei	ī	ē
*oi	oi, h₃ei			ě	ai; ie^{[V 16]}	e	e, ai		ē, ai	oi	ū	oi	ái	ā	ǣ
*ai	(ai^{[V 7]}), h₂ei			ě	ai; ie^{[V 16]}	e	e, ai		ē, ai	ai	ae	ai	ái	ā	ǣ
*ēi	*ēi	āi > ai; ā^{[V 12]}	āi; ā(i)^{[V 12]}	i			i		ē	ēi	ī?		ei [iː]	ī
*ōi	ōi (oei)			y; u^{[V 12]}	ai; ui^{[V 12]}		e, ai		ai	ōi	ō	u^{[V 12]}	ái	ā	ǣ
*āi	*eh₂ei			ě			e, ai		ai	āi > ēi^{[V 13]}	ae		ái	ā	ǣ
*u	*u	u		ъ	u	u	u; y^{[V 17]}	ä	u	u	u	u; o^{[V 18]}	u; aú [ɔ]^{[V 5]}	u; o^{[V 19]}	y
*ū	*uh₁	ū		y	ū	u	y; i^{[V 12]}	u		ū	ū				ȳ
	*uh₂					u or ^(w)a?^{[V 15]}		wā		ū or ^(w)ā?^{[V 15]}
	*uh₃					u or ^(w)a?^{[V 15]}		wā		ū or ^(w)ō?^{[V 15]}
*eu	eu, h₁eu	au > ō	ə̄u; ao^{[V 9]}	ju	iau	oy	e	u		eu	ū	ou	iu	ēo	īe
*ou	ou,h₃eu			u	au	oy	a	o, au		ou	ū		áu	ēa
*au	(au^{[V 7]}), h₂eu			u	au	aw	a	o, au		au	au		áu	ēa
*ēu	*ēu	āu > au	āu	u	iau		e				ū?		iu	ēo
*ōu	*ōu	āu > au	āu				a		au	ō			áu	ēa
*m̥	*m̥	a		ę	im̃; um̃^{[V 20]}	am	a	äm	a, un	a	em	em, am	um	um	ym
*m̥̅	*mh₁	ā			ìm; ùm^{[V 20]}	ama		mā		mē	mā
	*mh₂									mā > mē^{[V 13]}
	*mh₃									mō
*m̥m	*m̥m	am		ьm/ъm	im; um^{[V 20]}	am				am	em	am
*n̥	*n̥	a		ę	iñ; uñ^{[V 20]}	an		än	an	a	en	en, an	un	un	yn
*n̥̄	*nh₁	ā			ìn; ùn^{[V 20]}	ana		nā		nē	nā
	*nh₂									nā > nē ^{[V 13]}
	*nh₃									nō
*n̥n	*n̥n	an		ьn/ъn	iñ; uñ^{[V 20]}	an				an	en	an
*l̥	*l̥	r̥	ərə	lь/lъ	il̃; ul̃^{[V 20]}	al	il, li; ul, lu	äl	al	la	ol	li;^{[V 21]} al	ul	ul; ol^{[V 19]}	yl
*l̥̄	*lh₁	īr; ūr^{[V 22]}	arə		ìl; ùl^{[V 20]}	ala	al	lā		lē	lā
	*lh₂									lā > lē^{[V 13]}
	*lh₃									lō
*l̥l	*l̥l	ir; ur^{[V 22]}	ar	ьl/ъl	il; ul^{[V 20]}	al, la				al	el	al
*r̥	*r̥	r̥	ərə	rь/rъ	ir̃; ur̃^{[V 20]}	ar	ir, ri; ur, ru	är	ar, ur	ra	or	ri;^{[V 21]} ar	aúr [ɔr]	ur; or^{[V 19]}	yr
*r̥̄	*rh₁	īr; ūr^{[V 22]}	arə		ìr; ùr^{[V 20]}	ara	ra	rā		rē	rā
	*rh₂									rā > rē^{[V 13]}
	*rh₃									rō
*r̥r	*r̥r	ir; ur^{[V 22]}	ar	ьr/ъr	ir; ur^{[V 20]}	ar				ar	ar	ar
Trad. PIE	Laryng. PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Arm.	Alb.	Toch.	Hitt.	Greek	Latin^{[V 1]}	Proto-Celtic	Gothic^{[V 2]}	normal	umlauted^{[V 3]}
Trad. PIE	Laryng. PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Arm.	Alb.	Toch.	Hitt.	Greek	Latin^{[V 1]}	Proto-Celtic	Gothic^{[V 2]}	Old English^{[V 1]}

Historical and Geographical Distribution

Intersegmentals

Consonants

Aryan is reconstructed as having 36 consonants, with an assumption made that it would have maintained the inventory of the Pangaean Code in some form.

		Labial	Alveolar			Palatal	Velar	Pharyngeal	Glottal
Nasal	Voiceless	*m̥	*n̥
Nasal	Voiced	*m	*n
Plosive	Voiceless	*p	*t				*k		*ʔ
	Voiced	*b	*d	*dʲ	*dʷ		*g
	Aspirated-	*p^h	*t^h				*k^h
	Aspirated+	*b^h	*d^h				*g^h
Fricative	Voiceless		*s				*x	*ħ	*h
Fricative	Voiced		*z				*ɣ	*ʕ	*ɦ
Vibrant	Voiceless		*r̥
Vibrant	Voiced		*r
Lateral	Voiceless		*l̥	*t͡ɬ
Lateral	Voiced		*l
Approximant	Voiceless					*j̊	*ẘ
Approximant	Voiced					*j	*w

Vowels

Pitch Accent

Morphology

Affixes

gʷaináh0
gʷaināsyas
gʷaināsay, *gʷaināmas

Mobile and Static Roots

pʰair < mobile root *pʰ "bearing" + static root *ai "person" + insertion of epenthetic *r, as the static root does not carry laryngeals

Clitics

Phememes

Foundations

Lessons

Lesson 1

German:

dieser Mensch
dies-er	Mensch
DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE	person
"this"	"person"
this person

Russian:

этот человек
эт-от	человек
DEITIC-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE	person.NOMINATIVE
"this"	"person"
this person

Latin:

iste homo
iste	homo
DEITIC.PROXIMAL .NOMINATIVE	person.NOMINATIVE
"that"	"person"
that person

Greek:

οὗτος ἄνθρωπος
οὗτ-ος	ἄνθρωπ-ος
DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE	person-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE
"this"	"person"
this person

Aryan:

*aestad dʰgʰūmás
*aes-tad	*dʰgʰūmás
MASCULINE.3PERSON-DEITIC.3PERSON.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE	soil(adjective).SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE
"this"	"person"
this person

The above samples follow the term *tad instead of *sa, as the former is used to refer to third person in general. *sa *tad <

h0e * eah0 *as *ats
- pʰirás > pʰā́r = *dʰgʰūmás > *gʰā́mar, *gʰā́man
- pʰerós > *phṓr dʰ

aes, eah₀, ad, sa [animated distal], tad [inanimated distal], aestad, eātad, atad

Lesson 2

German:

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Plural
Nominative	-er^[1]^[2] -∅^[3],-e^[4]	-e^[1]^[4]^[5], -ie^[2], -∅^[3]	-es^[1], -as^[2], -∅^[3], -e^[4]	-e^[1]^[3]^[6], -ie^[2], -en^[4]^[5], -er^[7]
Genitive	-es^[2]^[3]^[6]^[7], -en^[1]^[4]	-er^[1]^[2]^[3], -en^[4]	-es^[2]^[3], -en^[1]^[4]	-er^[1]^[2]^[3], -en^[4]
Dative	-em^[1]^[2]^[3], -en^[4], -e^[6]^[7]	-er^[1]^[2]^[3], -en^[4]	-em^[1]^[2]^[3], -en^[4]	-en^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[6]^[7]
Accusative	-en^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]	-e^[1]^[3]^[4], -ie^[2]	-es^[1]^[1], -as^[2], -e^[4]	-e^[1]^[3], -ie^[2], -en^[4]

^1 Declension of adjectives without articles; ^2 Declension of definite articles; ^3 Declension of indefinite articles; ^4 Declension of adjectives with articles; ^5 Declension of regular feminine nouns; ^6 Declension of regular masculine nouns; ^7 Declension of regular neuter nouns.

Russian:

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Plural
Nominative	-от^[1], -ый^[2], -ин^[3], -∅/-ь^[7]^[9]	-а/-я^[1]^[4]^[5], -ая^[2], -ина^[3], -ь^[9]	-о^[1], -ое^[2], -ино^[3], -о/-е^[8], -мя^[9]	-и/ы^[1]^[4]^[5]^[7], -ые^[2], -ины^[3], -а/-я^[8], -и/-мена^[9]
Genitive	-ого^[1]^[2], -иного^[3], -а/-я^[7], -и^[9]	-ой^[1]^[2], -иной^[3], -и/ы^[4]^[5]^[6]^[9]	-ого^[1]^[2], -иного^[3], -а/-я^[8], -мени^[9]	-их^[1], -ых^[2], -иных^[3], -∅/-ь^[4]^[5], -ов/-ей^[6]^[7], ∅-/-(е)й^[8], -ей/-мён(-мян)^[9]
Dative	-ому^[1]^[2], -иному^[3], -у/-ю^[7], -и^[9]	-ой^[1]^[2], -иной^[3], -е^[4]^[5], -и^[9]	-ому^[1]^[2], -иному^[3], -у/-ю^[8], -мени^[9]	-им^[1], -ым^[2], -иным^[3], -ам/-ям^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8], -ям/-менам^[9]
Accusative.A	-ого^[1]^[2], -иного^[3], -а/-я^[7], -ь^[9]	-ту^[1], -ую^[2], -ину^[3], -у^[4]^[5]^[6], -ь^[9]	-о^[1], -ое^[2], -ино^[3], -о/-е^[8], -мя^[9]	-их^[1], -ых^[2], -иных^[3], -∅/ь^[4]^[5]^[6], -ов/-ей^[7], -а/-я^[8], -и/-мена^[9]
Accusative.I	-от^[1], -ый^[2], -ин^[3], -∅/-ь^[7]	-ту^[1], -ую^[2], -ину^[3], -у^[4]^[5]^[6]	-о^[1], -ое^[2], -ино^[3], -о/-е^[8]	-и/-ы^[1]^[7], -ые^[2], -ины^[3], -∅/-ь^[4]^[5]^[6], ∅-/-(е)й^[8], -ь/-мена^[9]
Instrumental	-им^[1], -ым^[2], -иным^[3], -ом/-ем^[7], -ью^[9]	-ой/-ою//-ей^[1]^[2]^[4]^[5]^[6], -иной/-иною^[3], -ю^[6], -ью^[9]	-им^[1], -ым^[2], -иным^[3], -ом/-ем^[8], -менем^[9]	-ими^[1], -ыми^[2], -иными^[3], -ами/-ями^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8], -ями(ьми)/-менами^[9]
Prepositional	-ом^[1]^[2], -ином^[3], -е^[7], -и^[9]	-ой^[1]^[2], -иной^[3], -е^[4]^[5]^[6], -и^[9]	-ом^[1]^[2], -ином^[3], -е^[8], -мени^[9]	-их^[1], -ых^[2], -иных^[3], -ах/-ях^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8], -ях/-менах^[9]

^1 Declension of correlatives; ^2 Declension of non-possessive adjectives; ^3 Declension of possessive adjectives; ^4 Declension of animated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and vowel; ^5 Declension of animated feminine nouns ending in a hard consonant and vowel or inanimated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and vowel; ^6 Declension of inanimated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and no vowel; ^7 Declension of animated masculine nouns ending in no vowel; ^8 Declension of neuter nouns; ^9 Declension of nouns ending in hard consonant and no vowel.

	LATIN DECLENSION
	Singular			Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nominative	-e/-us^[1], -us, -is, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs	-a^[1], -is, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs	-ud, -um^[1], -e, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs	-ī^[1], -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-ae^[1], -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-a^[1], -ia, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs
Genitive	-īus^[1], -ī, -is, -ūs, -(i)ēī	-īus^[1], -ae, -ūs, -(i)ēī	-īus^[1], -ī, -is, -ūs, -(i)ēī	-ōrum^[1], -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum	-ārum^[1], -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum	-ōrum^[1], -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum
Dative	-ī^[1], -ō, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī	-ī^[1], -ae, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī	-ī^[1]^[3], -ō, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī	-īs^[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs^[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs^[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus
Accusative	-um^[1], -em, -um/-ū, -(i)em	-am^[1], -em, -um/-ū, -(i)em	-ud, -um^[1], -e, -um/-ū, -(i)em	-ōs^[1], -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-ās^[1], -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-a^[1], -ia, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs
Ablative	-ō^[1]^[2], -ī, -ū, -(i)ē	-ā^[1], -ī, -ū, -(i)ē	-ō^[1], -ī, -ū, -(i)ē	-īs^[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs^[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs^[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus
Vocative	-e^[1], -is	-a^[1], -is	-ud, -um^[1], -e	-ī^[1], -ēs	-ae^[1], -ēs,	-a^[1], -ia

^1 Declension of correlatives and regular nouns.

	GREEK DECLENSION
	Singular			Dual			Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nominative	-ος^[1], -ας/-ης, -(ε)ς, -ων	-η/α^[1], -(ε)ς, -ων	-ον^[1]	-ω^[1], -ε, -ονε	-α^[1], -ε, -ονε	-ω^[1]	-οι^[1], -ες, -ονες	-αι^[1], -ες	-α
Genitive	-ου^[1], -ος/-ως, -ονος	-ης/-ας^[1], -ος/-ως, -ονος	-ου^[1]	-οιν^[1]	-αιν^[1], -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν^[1], -ονοιν	-ων^[1], -ονων	-ων^[1], -ονων	-ων^[1]
Dative	-ῳ^[1], -ι, -ονι	-ῃ^[1], -ι, -ονι	-ῳ^[1]	-οιν^[1], -ονοιν	-αιν^[1], -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν^[1]	-οις^[1], -ας/-ς/-νς, -οσι	-αις^[1], -οσι	-οις^[1]
Accusative	-ον^[1], -α, -ονα	-ην^[1], -ονα	-ον^[1]	-ω^[1]	-α^[1]	-ω^[1]	-ους^[1], -ονας	-ας^[1], -ονας	-α^[1]
Vocative	-ε^[1], -(ε)ς, -ον	-η^[1], -(ε)ς, -ον	-ον^[1]	-ω^[1], -ε, -ονε	-α^[1], -ε, -ονε	-ω^[1]	-οι^[1], -ες, -ονες	-αι^[1], -ες, -ονες	-α^[1]

^1 Declension of correlatives and regular nouns.

	ARYAN DECLENSION
	Singular			Dual			Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nominative	*-as	*-ah₀	*-am	*-ā	*-āh₀	*-ā	*-ayn	*-ah₀in	*-a
Genitive	*-asyas	*-āsyas	-ου^[1]	-οιν^[1]	-αιν^[1], -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν^[1], -ονοιν	-ων^[1], -ονων	-ων^[1], -ονων	-ων^[1]
Dative	-ῳ^[1], -ι, -ονι	-ῃ^[1], -ι, -ονι	-ῳ^[1]	-οιν^[1], -ονοιν	-αιν^[1], -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν^[1]	-οις^[1], -ας/-ς/-νς, -οσι	-αις^[1], -οσι	-οις^[1]
Accusative	-ον^[1], -α, -ονα	-ην^[1], -ονα	-ον^[1]	-ω^[1]	-α^[1]	-ω^[1]	-ους^[1], -ονας	-ας^[1], -ονας	-α^[1]
Vocative	-ε^[1], -(ε)ς, -ον	-η^[1], -(ε)ς, -ον	-ον^[1]	-ω^[1], -ε, -ονε	-α^[1], -ε, -ονε	-ω^[1]	-οι^[1], -ες, -ονες	-αι^[1], -ες, -ονες	-α^[1]

diese schöne Kone эта красивая жена ista pulchra uxor

eātad kaláh0 gʷaînah0

Lesson 3

*gaínōm, *gígnmi "I generate" *pūhāṓm, *píbmi "I drink" *wehdḗyōm, *wḗydmi "I see"

gánas > γόνος "offspring"

Initial clusters in the Nominative will give way to /ə/

ptā́r (A)> *patḗr (PIE)
páh5man > *póh5mn̥ > πῶμα "slid"

[*peh5] "feed, protect"

*pʰair- "bearing" [n/v] (Latin ferō, Greek φέρω < *pʰaírōm, *pʰíprmi) > *pʰaíras [bare noun], *pʰ∅rás "bearer" [adjective-noun] (Latin fūr, Greek φώρ "thief"), *pʰáras [result-noun] (Greek φόρος "tribute")

*daim- "building" [n/v] (Greek δέμω < *daímōm, *dídmmi) > *daímas [bare noun], *d∅más "building" [adjective-noun] (Greek δῶ "house"), *dámas "house" [result-noun] (Latin domus, Greek δόμος "house")

*paid- "stepping" [n/v] (*paídōm, *pípdmi) > *paídas [bare noun], *p∅dás "foot" [adjective-noun] (Latin pes, Greek πούς "foot"), *pádas "step" [result-noun]

*kpain- "killing" [n/v] (Proto-Indo-European *kʷʰen, Latin de-fendo "I expell from") > *kpaínas [bare noun], *kp∅nás "murderer" [adjective-noun], *kpánas "murder" [result-noun] (Greek φόνος "murder")

*h₁ed- "eating" [n/v] (German esse, Russian ем, Latin edō, Greek ἔδω < *h₁édōm, *yédmi) > *h₁édas [bare noun], *yedás "eater" [adjective-noun], *h₁ádas [result-noun]

In Aryan, personal enclitics are positioned after the first word of a proposition (Wackernagel's Law)

the verb either starts or ends the clause... tendence to follow SOV

the finite verb loses accent in an independent clause, except when in first position (always has accent in dependent clause)
absolute construction
subject is ommitted

na pʰaírīt mai
pʰaírīt mai na?

h₅ígōm, mayás, mai

_(negation=subject/int.pronoun/accented verb)-_()-_(unaccented verb)

The most comprehensive summary available on PIE morphosyntax was written by Matthias Fritz in Indo-European Linguistics (Michael Meier-Brügger, 2003), pp. 238-276.

Winfred Philipp Lehmann’s Proto-Indo-European Syntax (1974)

morphological cylce (Hock and Joseph, 1996) Szemerényi 1957: 119; Kuryłowicz 1964: 233; Rasmussen 1999: Meier-Brügger

-ōm/mi -āṓm/-mā

pʰaír-

-ōm / *-mi (perfective)

-āṓm / *-āmi (perfective)

í (animated nouns) ì (inanimate nouns) *neuter nouns and vocatives have recessive accent Aryan has a complex system of accent loss

As Greek neuter nouns possess recessive accent (especially the monosyllabic ones, which when accented, carry a circunflex)

paid- ... *p∅dás

p∅dás > páds > póds

p∅dás > *póds > pēs, πούς
p∅dasyás > *pedés > pedis, ποδός

Syntax

Ich dachte, dass ich der Einzige war, der darüber nachdachte Я думал я один кто об этом подумал...

Prosody

Sample text

References

Behaghel, Otto (1932), Deutsche Syntax
Benveniste, Émile (1935), Les Origines de la Formation des Noms en Indo-Européen
Collinge, N. E. (1985), The Laws of Indo-European
Jespersen , Otto (1924), The Philosophy Of Grammar
Priscianus (6th Century), Institutiones Grammaticae
Sütterlin, Ludwig (1908), Die Lehre von der Lautbildung
Szemerényi, Oswald (1970), Einführung in die vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft
Sommerstein, Alan (1973), Sound Pattern of Ancient Greek
Thomasus Erfordiensis (13th Century), Tractatus de Modis Significandi seu Grammatica Speculativa
Wackernagel, Jakob (1892), Über ein Gesetz der indogermanischen Worstellung

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^ 3

[consonants-1] A capital C stands for consonant in this table

[VXV-2] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t Between vowels

[P+H-3] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Before an original h₂.

[CH-4] Before a consonant or original laryngeal.

[VCV-5] After a vowel.

[Verner-6] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Following an unstressed vowel (Verner's law).

[Cie-7] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u Before a (PIE) front vowel (*i, *e).

[XSon-8] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Before a sonorant.

[Xie-9] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.

[Xu-10] Before or after a (PIE) u

[11] Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel (*u, *o).

[YAv-12] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f In Younger Avestan, after a vowel.

[ngw-13] After n.

[#X-14] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f At the beginning of a word

[final-15] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f At the end of a word.

[VXVR-16] Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)

[17] After u, r or before r, l.

[X’V-18] Before a stressed vowel

[PCP-19] Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)

[20] Before or after a resonant (r, l, m, n).

[Ruki-21] After r, u, k, i (Ruki sound law).

[rare-22] rare

[55] 3

[C 1]

[C 2]

[C 3]

[C 4]

[C 5]

[C 6]

[C 7]

[C 8]

[C 9]

[C 10]

[C 11]

[C 12]

[C 13]

[C 14]

[C 15]

[C 16]

[C 17]

[C 18]

[C 19]

[C 20]

[C 21]

[C 22]

[CC 1]

[CC 2]

[CC 3]

[CC 4]

[CC 5]

[CC 6]

[CC 7]

[CC 8]

[CC 9]

[CC 10]

[V 1]

[V 2]

[V 3]

[V 4]

[V 5]

[V 6]

[V 7]

[V 8]

[V 9]

[V 10]

[V 11]

[V 12]

[V 13]

[V 14]

[V 15]

[V 16]

[V 17]

[V 18]

[V 19]

[V 20]

[V 21]

[V 22]

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[1]

	Aryan
p	p^ht^h / p^h / p^hk^h; p^hkʷ^h
t	t^hk^h; t^hkʷ^h / t^h / t^hp^h
k	k^hp^h / k^h; kʷ / k^ht^h
b	bd / b / bg; bgʷ
d	dg; dgʷ / d / db
g	gb / g, *gʷ / gd
pʼ	pʼtʼ / pʼ; p / pʼkʼ; *pʼkʷʼ
tʼ	tʼkʷʼ / tʼ, t / *tʼpʼ
kʼ	kʼpʼ / kʼ; k; *kʷʼ / kʼtʼ
ɓ	b^hd^h / b^h / b^hg^h; b^hgʷ^h
ɗ	d^hg^h; d^hgʷ^h / d^h / d^hb^h
ɠ	g^hb^h / g^h; gʷ^h / g^hd^h

Aryan: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 22:27, 3 December 2024

Contents

History

Development from Paleolithic Codes

Development into Indo-Anatolian Languages

Consonant clusters

Orthography

Historical and Geographical Distribution

Intersegmentals

Consonants

Vowels

Pitch Accent

Morphology

Affixes

Mobile and Static Roots

Clitics

Phememes

Foundations

Lessons

Lesson 1

Lesson 2

Lesson 3

Syntax

Prosody

Sample text

References

Navigation menu

Aryan: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 22:27, 3 December 2024

History

Development from Paleolithic Codes

Development into Indo-Anatolian Languages

Consonant clusters

Orthography

Historical and Geographical Distribution

Intersegmentals

Consonants

Vowels

Pitch Accent

Morphology

Affixes

Mobile and Static Roots

Clitics

Phememes

Foundations

Lessons

Lesson 1

Lesson 2

Lesson 3

Syntax

Prosody

Sample text

References

Navigation menu

Search