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{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|name = Proto-Rugic
|name = Proto-Rugic
|nativename = *þiudiskaz
|nativename = *þaudiskaz
|pronunciation = ˈθɪuðiskɑz
|pronunciation = ˈθɑuðiskɑz
|creator = [[User:Shariifka|Shariifka]]
|creator = [[User:Shariifka|Shariifka]]
|region = Europe
|region = Europe
Line 36: Line 36:


The Balto-Slavic base of Proto-Rugic (known as Pre-Proto-Rugic, or PPR for short) had the following features:
The Balto-Slavic base of Proto-Rugic (known as Pre-Proto-Rugic, or PPR for short) had the following features:
*PPR lack the ''*eu'' to *''jau'' sound change that affected all known Balto-Slavic languages. Alternatively, if this sound change did happen, it was reversed.
*PPR lacked the ''*eu'' to *''jau'' sound change that affected all known Balto-Slavic languages. Alternatively, if this sound change did happen, it was reversed.
<!--
<!--
*PPR lacked the merger of Proto-Italic /θ, xʷ, f/ that occurred in all attested Italic languages. Instead, each of these merged with its voiced counterpart, as did /x/.  
*PPR lacked the merger of Proto-Italic /θ, xʷ, f/ that occurred in all attested Italic languages. Instead, each of these merged with its voiced counterpart, as did /x/.  
Line 132: Line 132:
| *wilh'''ai'''
| *wilh'''ai'''
| *wilh'''ōu'''
| *wilh'''ōu'''
| *wilh'''aisu'''
| *wilh'''aizu'''
| *jūk'''ai'''
| *jūk'''ai'''
| *jūk'''ōu'''
| *jūk'''ōu'''
| *jūk'''aisu'''
| *jūk'''aizu'''
|}
|}


====''ō''-stems====
There was a rare class of ''a''-stems with contractions (from earlier stems ending in ''aj'') known as ''ā''-stems.<!--, ''ê''-stems, and ''ô'' stems (e.g. ''hrôz'')-->. They decline as below:
Usually feminine (but sometimes masculine).
 
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| *þeudō ''f.'' "people"
! !! colspan="3"| *pāz ''m.'' "battle" || colspan="3"| *twą̄ ''n.'' "pair"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *þeud'''ō'''
| *p'''āz'''
| rowspan="3"| *þeud'''ōi'''
| rowspan="3"| *p'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *þeud'''ōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *p'''āi'''
| rowspan="3"| *tw'''ą̄'''
| rowspan="3"| *tw'''āi'''
| rowspan="3"| *tw'''ô'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
| *p'''ai'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *þeud'''ǭ'''
| *p'''ą̄'''
| *þeud'''ōnz'''
| *p'''ônz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *þeud'''ōz'''
| *p'''ô'''
| *þeud'''ōu'''
| *p'''ôu'''
| *þeud'''ǭ'''
| *p'''ǫ̂'''
| *tw'''ô'''
| *tw'''ôu'''
| *tw'''ǫ̂'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *þeud'''ōi'''
| *p'''ôi'''
| *þeud'''ōmō'''
| *p'''āmō'''
| *þeud'''ōmaz'''
| *p'''āmaz'''
| *tw'''ôi'''
| *tw'''āmō'''
| *tw'''āmaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *þeud'''ǭ'''
| *p'''āi'''
| *þeud'''ōmō'''
| *p'''āmō'''
| *þeud'''ōmīz'''
| *p'''ôiz'''
| *tw'''āi'''
| *tw'''āmō'''
| *tw'''ôiz'''
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| *þeud'''ōi'''
| *p'''āi'''
| *þeud'''ōu'''  
| *p'''ôu'''
| *þeud'''ōsu'''
| *p'''āizu'''
| *tw'''āi'''
| *tw'''ôu'''
| *tw'''āizu'''
|}
|}


Additionally, there was a rare subclass of ''ō''-stem nouns known as ''ī/jō''-stems. These nouns took the ending *''-ī'' in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations took the regular ''ō''-stem endings preceded by *''-(i)j-'' (according to Siever's Law).
====''ō''-stems====
 
Feminine.
====''i''-stems====
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *minþiz ''f.'' "mind" || colspan="2"| *mari ''n.'' "sea"
! !! colspan="3"| *þaudō ''f.'' "people"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *minþ'''iz'''
| rowspan="2"| *þaud'''ō'''
| rowspan="2"| *minþ'''ēz'''
| rowspan="3"| *þaud'''ōi'''
| rowspan="3"| *mar'''i'''
| rowspan="2"| *þaud'''ōz'''
| rowspan="3"| *mar'''jō'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *minþ'''į'''
| *þaud'''ǭ'''
| *minþ'''inz'''
| *þaud'''ōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *minþ'''īz'''
| *þaud'''ōz'''
| *minþ'''ijǭ'''
| *þaud'''ōu'''
| *mar'''īz'''
| *þaud'''ǭ'''
| *mar'''jǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *minþ'''ī'''
| *þaud'''ōi'''
| *minþ'''ibiz'''
| *þaud'''ōmō'''
| *mar'''ī'''
| *þaud'''ōmaz'''
| *mar'''ibiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *minþ'''ī'''
| *þaud'''ǭ'''
| *minþ'''ibaz'''
| *þaud'''ōmō'''
| *mar'''ī'''
| *þaud'''ōmīz'''
| *mar'''ibaz'''
|-
|-
! Locative
| *þaud'''ōi'''
| *þaud'''ōu'''
| *þaud'''ōzu'''
|}
|}


'''Note:''' The genitive plural and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative plural are subject to [[w:Siever's_law|Siever's law]].
Additionally, there was a rare subclass of ''ō''-stem nouns known as ''ī/jō''-stems. These nouns took the ending *''-ī'' in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations took the regular ''ō''-stem endings preceded by *''-(i)j-'' (according to Siever's Law).
 
There were also contracted ''ō''-stems known as ''ô''-stems. They were declined by replacing the ''-ō-'' in endings with ''-ô-'' (and ''-ǭ'' with ''-ǫ̂''). For example, ''*skwô'' "needle (botany)".


====''u''-stems====
====''ē''-stems====
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
Feminine.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *farþuz ''m.'' "port" || colspan="2"| *harnu ''n.'' "horn"
! !! colspan="3"| *demē ''f.'' "earth"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *farþ'''uz'''
| rowspan="2"| *dem'''ē'''
| rowspan="2"| *farþ'''awiz'''
| rowspan="3"| *dem'''ēi'''
| rowspan="3"| *harn'''u'''
| rowspan="2"| *dem'''ēz'''
| rowspan="3"| *harn'''uwō'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *farþ'''ų'''
| *dem'''ǭ'''
| *farþ'''unz'''
| *dem'''ēnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *farþ'''auz'''
| *dem'''ēz'''
| *farþ'''uwǭ'''
| *dem'''ēu'''
| *harn'''auz'''
| *dem'''ǭ'''
| *harn'''uwǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *farþ'''awī'''
| *dem'''ēi'''
| *farþ'''ubiz'''
| *dem'''ēmō'''
| *harn'''awī'''
| *dem'''ēmaz'''
| *harn'''ubiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *farþ'''ū'''
| *dem'''ǭ'''
| *farþ'''ubaz'''
| *dem'''ēmō'''
| *harn'''ū'''
| *dem'''ēmīz'''
| *harn'''ubaz'''
|-
|-
! Locative
| *dem'''ēi'''
| *dem'''ēu'''
| *dem'''ēzu'''
|}
|}


====''an''-stems====
====''i''-stems====
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *gamǭ ''m.'' "man" || colspan="2"| *ardijō ''m./f.'' "skilled person" || colspan="2"| *namǭ ''n.'' "name" || colspan="2"| *ankwǭ ''n.'' "fat, grease"
! !! colspan="3"| *ankliz ''f.'' "coal" || colspan="3"| *mari ''n.'' "sea"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *gam'''ǭ'''
| *ankl'''iz'''
| rowspan="2"| *gam'''aniz'''
| rowspan="3"| *ankl'''ī'''
| rowspan="2"| *ard'''ijǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *ankl'''īz'''
| rowspan="2"| *ard'''īniz'''
| rowspan="3"| *mar'''i'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="3"| *mar'''ī'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''nō'''
| rowspan="3"| *mar'''ī'''
| rowspan="3"| *ankw'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="3"| *ankw'''anō'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
| *ankl'''ī'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *gam'''anį'''
| *ankl'''į'''
| *gam'''aninz'''
| *ankl'''inz'''
| *ard'''īnį'''
| *ard'''īninz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *gam'''aniz'''
| *ankl'''īz'''
| *gam'''anǭ'''
| *ankl'''ijau'''
| *ard'''īniz'''
| *ankl'''ijǭ'''
| *ard'''īnǭ'''
| *mar'''īz'''
| *nam'''niz'''
| *mar'''jau'''
| *nam'''nǭ'''
| *mar'''jǭ'''
| *ankw'''aniz'''
| *ankw'''anǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *gam'''anī'''
| *ankl'''ī'''
| *gam'''ambiz'''
| *ankl'''imō'''
| *ard'''īnī'''
| *ankl'''imaz'''
| *ard'''īmbiz'''
| *mar'''ī'''
| *nam'''nī'''
| *mar'''imō'''
| *nam'''nibiz'''
| *mar'''imaz'''
| *ankw'''anī'''
| *ankw'''ambiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *gam'''ani'''
| *ankl'''imi'''
| *gam'''ambaz'''
| *ankl'''imō'''
| *ard'''īni'''
| *ankl'''imīz'''
| *ard'''īmbaz'''
| *mar'''imi'''
| *nam'''ni'''
| *mar'''imō'''
| *nam'''nibaz'''
| *mar'''imīz'''
| *ankw'''ani'''
|-
| *ankw'''ambiz'''
! Locative
| *ankl'''ēi'''
| *ankl'''ijau'''
| *ankl'''izu'''
| *mar'''ēi'''
| *mar'''jau'''
| *mar'''izu'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


'''Note:'''  
'''Note:''' The genitive/locative dual and genutive plural are subject to [[w:Siever's_law|Siever's law]].
#As shown in the case of *''namǭ'', the expected *''-an-'' in endings was reduced to *''-n-'' in some nouns. In some other nouns, it was instead replaced with *''-in-''. <!--Generally, neuter nouns ending in *''-mô'' follow the former pattern, while other neuter nouns follow the latter pattern.-->
 
#''*ardijǭ'' is an example of a heavy ''j''-suffixed ''an''-stem, where expected **''-ijan/ijin-'' was contracted to *''-īn-''. Similarly, in light ''j''-suffixed ''an''-stems, expected **''-jan/jin-'' was contracted to *''-in-''.
====''u''-stems====
#Some ''an''-stems had an irregular nominative singular ending (or, in the case of neuter nouns, nominative-vocative-accusative singular ending). An example of this is neuter ''r/n''-stems, which had a nominative-vocative-accusative in *''-ar''.<!--
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
#''an''-stems whose nominative singular ended in *''-ijǭ'' or ''-jǭ'' had *''-īn-'' and *''-in-'' respectively instead of expected **''-ijan-'' or **''-jan-''.-->
 
====''ōn''-stems====
Masculine or feminine (usually feminine).
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *fihtijǭ ''f.'' "the act of combing"
! !! colspan="3"| *sūnuz ''f.'' "son" || colspan="3"| *metu ''n.'' "honey"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *fihtij'''ǭ'''
| *sūn'''uz'''
| rowspan="2"| *fihtij'''ōniz'''
| rowspan="3"| *sūn'''ū'''
| rowspan="2"| *sūn'''awiz'''
| rowspan="3"| *met'''u'''
| rowspan="3"| *met'''ū'''
| rowspan="3"| *met'''ū'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
| *sūn'''au'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *fihtij'''ōnį'''
| *sūn'''ų'''
| *fihtij'''ōninz'''
| *sūn'''unz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *fihtij'''ōniz'''
| *sūn'''auz'''
| *fihtij'''ōnǭ'''
| *sūn'''awau'''
| *sūn'''awǭ'''
| *met'''auz'''
| *met'''awau'''
| *met'''awǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *fihtij'''ōnī'''
| *sūn'''awī'''
| *fihtij'''ōmbiz'''
| *sūn'''umō'''
| *sūn'''umaz'''
| *met'''awī'''
| *met'''umō'''
| *met'''umaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *fihtij'''ōni'''
| *sūn'''umi'''
| *fihtij'''ōmbaz'''
| *sūn'''umō'''
| *sūn'''umīz'''
| *met'''umi'''
| *met'''umō'''
| *met'''umīz'''
|-
! Locative
| *sūn'''awī'''
| *sūn'''awau'''
| *sūn'''uzu'''
| *met'''awī'''
| *met'''awau'''
| *met'''uzu'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
====''īn''-stems====
 
Feminine.
====''n''-stems====
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *sirį̄ ''f.'' "sequence, week"
! !! colspan="3"| *hamô ''m.'' "stone" !! colspan="3"| *immô ''n.'' "name"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *sir'''į̄'''
| rowspan="2"| *ham'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *sir'''īniz'''
| rowspan="3"| *ham'''inī'''
| rowspan="2"| *ham'''iniz'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''ô'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''inī'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''inō'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *sir'''īnį'''
| *ham'''inį'''
| *sir'''īninz'''
| *ham'''ininz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *sir'''īniz'''
| *ham'''iniz'''
| *sir'''īnǭ'''
| *ham'''inau'''
|-
| *ham'''inǭ'''
| *imm'''iniz'''
| *imm'''inau'''
| *imm'''inǭ'''
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *sir'''īnī'''
| *ham'''inī'''
| *sir'''īmbiz'''
| *ham'''immō'''
| *ham'''immaz'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''immō'''
| *imm'''immaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *sir'''īni'''
| *ham'''immi'''
| *sir'''īmbaz'''
| *ham'''immō'''
| *ham'''immīz'''
| *imm'''immi'''
| *imm'''immō'''
| *imm'''immīz'''
|-
! Locative
| *ham'''inī'''
| *ham'''inau'''
| *ham'''inzu'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''inau'''
| *imm'''inzu'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
'''Note:'''
<!--
#As shown in the case of *''namǭ'', the expected *''-an-'' in endings was reduced to *''-n-'' in some nouns. In some other nouns, it was instead replaced with *''-in-''. <!--Generally, neuter nouns ending in *''-mô'' follow the former pattern, while other neuter nouns follow the latter pattern.-->
#In heavy ''j''-suffixed ''n''-stems, expected **''-ijin-'' was contracted to *''-īn-''. Similarly, in light ''j''-suffixed ''n''-stems, expected **''-jin-'' was contracted to *''-in-''.
<!--
#Some ''an''-stems had an irregular nominative singular ending (or, in the case of neuter nouns, nominative-vocative-accusative singular ending). An example of this is neuter ''r/n''-stems, which had a nominative-vocative-accusative in *''-ar''.<!--
#''an''-stems whose nominative singular ended in *''-ijǭ'' or ''-jǭ'' had *''-īn-'' and *''-in-'' respectively instead of expected **''-ijan-'' or **''-jan-''.-->


====''r''-stems====
<!--====''ōn''-stems====
Masculine or feminine.
Masculine or feminine (usually feminine).
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *mōþēr ''f.'' "mother" || colspan="2"| *hanþōr ''m.'' "singer"
! !! colspan="2"| *fihtijǭ ''f.'' "the act of combing"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *mōþ'''ēr'''
| rowspan="2"| *fihtij'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōþ'''riz'''
| rowspan="2"| *fihtij'''ōniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *hanþ'''ōr'''
| rowspan="2"| *hanþ'''riz'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *mōþ'''rį'''
| *fihtij'''ōnį'''
| *mōþ'''rinz'''
| *fihtij'''ōninz'''
| *hanþ'''rį'''
| *hanþ'''rinz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *mōþ'''riz'''
| *fihtij'''ōniz'''
| *mōþ'''rǭ'''
| *fihtij'''ōnǭ'''
| *hanþ'''riz'''
| *hanþ'''rǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *mōþ'''rī'''
| *fihtij'''ōnī'''
| *mōþ'''ribiz'''
| *fihtij'''ōmbiz'''
| *hanþ'''rī'''
| *hanþ'''ribiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *mōþ'''ri'''
| *fihtij'''ōni'''
| *mōþ'''ribaz'''
| *fihtij'''ōmbaz'''
| *hanþ'''ri'''
| *hanþ'''ribaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}-->
'''Note:''' The nominative singular ended in either *''-ēr'' or *''-ōr''. Otherwise, the vowel *''-ē-'' or *''-ō-'' was dropped (as shown above) or, in the case of some nouns, shortened to *''-e-'' or *''-a-'' respectively.
 
====''z''-stems====
<!--====''īn''-stems====
Any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
Feminine.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *amōz ''m.'' "love" !! colspan="2"| *þimfaz ''n.'' "time"
! !! colspan="2"| *sirį̄ ''f.'' "sequence, week"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *am'''ōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *sir'''į̄'''
| rowspan="2"| *am'''aziz'''
| rowspan="2"| *sir'''īniz'''
| rowspan="3"| *þimf'''az'''
| rowspan="3"| *þimf'''izō'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *am'''azį'''
| *sir'''īnį'''
| *am'''azinz'''
| *sir'''īninz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *am'''aziz'''
| *sir'''īniz'''
| *am'''azǭ'''
| *sir'''īnǭ'''
| *þimf'''iziz'''
| *þimf'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *am'''azī'''
| *sir'''īnī'''
| *am'''azibiz'''
| *sir'''īmbiz'''
| *þimf'''izī'''
| *þimf'''izibiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *am'''azi'''
| *sir'''īni'''
| *am'''azibaz'''
| *sir'''īmbaz'''
| *þimf'''izi'''
| *þimf'''izibaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}-->
<!--
 
====''r/n''-stems====
====''r''-stems====
Masculine and feminine were declined the same. <!--Declension patterns are shown below:-->
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *jehar ''n.'' "liver"
! !! colspan="3"| *prōþê ''m.'' "brother"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="3"| *jeh'''ar'''
| *prōþ'''ê'''
| rowspan="3"| *jih'''inō'''
| rowspan="3"| *prōþ'''rī'''
| rowspan="2"| *prōþ'''riz'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
| *prōþ'''er'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *prōþ'''rį'''
| *prōþ'''rinz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *jih'''iniz'''
| *prōþ'''riz'''
| *jih'''inǭ'''
| *prōþ'''rau'''
| *prōþ'''rǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *jih'''inī'''
| *prōþ'''rī'''
| rowspan="2"| *jih'''imbiz'''
| *prōþ'''rimō'''
| *prōþ'''rimaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *jih'''ini'''
| *prōþ'''rimi'''
| *prōþ'''rimō'''
| *prōþ'''rimīz'''
|-
|-
|}-->
! Locative
 
| *prōþ'''rī'''
====Consonant stems====
| *prōþ'''rau'''
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
| *prōþ'''rizu'''
! !! colspan="2"| *feþs ''m.'' "foot" || colspan="2"| *hafud ''n.'' "head"
|-
|-
! Nominative
|}
| rowspan="2"| *feþ'''s'''
<!--
| rowspan="2"| *fiþ'''iz'''
'''Note:'''
| rowspan="3"| *hafud
<!--
| rowspan="3"| *hafud'''ō'''
#As shown in the case of *''namǭ'', the expected *''-an-'' in endings was reduced to *''-n-'' in some nouns. In some other nouns, it was instead replaced with *''-in-''. <!--Generally, neuter nouns ending in *''-mô'' follow the former pattern, while other neuter nouns follow the latter pattern.
#In heavy ''j''-suffixed ''n''-stems, expected **''-ijin-'' was contracted to *''-īn-''. Similarly, in light ''j''-suffixed ''n''-stems, expected **''-jin-'' was contracted to *''-in-''.
<!--
#Some ''an''-stems had an irregular nominative singular ending (or, in the case of neuter nouns, nominative-vocative-accusative singular ending). An example of this is neuter ''r/n''-stems, which had a nominative-vocative-accusative in *''-ar''.<!--
#''an''-stems whose nominative singular ended in *''-ijǭ'' or ''-jǭ'' had *''-īn-'' and *''-in-'' respectively instead of expected **''-ijan-'' or **''-jan-''.-->
<!--
Masculine or feminine.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *mōþēr ''f.'' "mother" || colspan="2"| *hanþōr ''m.'' "singer"
|-
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *mōþ'''ēr'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōþ'''riz'''
| rowspan="2"| *hanþ'''ōr'''
| rowspan="2"| *hanþ'''riz'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *fiþ'''į'''
| *mōþ'''rį'''
| *fiþ'''inz'''
| *mōþ'''rinz'''
| *hanþ'''rį'''
| *hanþ'''rinz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *fiþ'''iz'''
| *mōþ'''riz'''
| *feþ'''ǭ'''
| *mōþ'''rǭ'''
| *hafud'''iz'''
| *hanþ'''riz'''
| *hafud'''ǭ'''
| *hanþ'''rǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *fiþ'''ī'''
| *mōþ'''rī'''
| *fiþ'''ibiz'''
| *mōþ'''ribiz'''
| *hafud'''ī'''
| *hanþ'''rī'''
| *hafud'''ibiz'''
| *hanþ'''ribiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *fiþ'''i'''
| *mōþ'''ri'''
| *fiþ'''ibaz
| *mōþ'''ribaz'''
| *hafud'''i'''
| *hanþ'''ri'''
| *hafud'''ibaz'''
| *hanþ'''ribaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
'''Note:''' The nominative singular ended in either *''-ēr'' or *''-ōr''. Otherwise, the vowel *''-ē-'' or *''-ō-'' was dropped (as shown above) or, in the case of some nouns, shortened to *''-e-'' or *''-a-'' respectively.-->


'''Note:''' The usual ending for the masculine/feminine nominative-vocative singular was *''-s'' (after unvoiced consonants) or *''-z'' (after voiced consonants)<!-- (which often led to minor stem changes)-->, and in the neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular there was usually no suffix. However, there were many nouns that were irregular in those forms.
====''z''-stems====
 
Neuter.
===Adjectives===
Most adjectives could be declined strong or weak. The class of an adjective was determined by its strong conjugation. The weak conjugation was originally derived from a combination of the adjective with a following emphatic particle (akin to Latin ''enim'') that was reanalyzed as an ''n''-stem ending.
<!--
'''Note:''' Like with ''ō''-stem nouns, the strong feminine genitive (both singular and plural) had alternative ''*s'' and ''*z'' forms (i.e. ''*-ōs'' or ''*-ōz'' in the singular, and ''*-ōsą'' or ''*-ōzą''). Only the ''*s'' forms are shown below for brevity. The ''*z'' forms can be derived simply by replacing the ''*s'' in the endings with ''*z''.-->
====''a/ō''-stem adjectives====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! colspan="7"| *twenaz "good"
! !! colspan="3"| *nepaz ''n.'' "cloud"
|-
|-
! colspan="7"| Strong
! Nominative
| rowspan="3"| *nep'''az'''
| rowspan="3"| *nip'''izī'''
| rowspan="3"| *nip'''izō'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! Vocative
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! Accusative
|-
! Nominative/<br />Vocative
| *twen'''az'''
| *twen'''ai'''
| *twen'''ō'''
| *twen'''ōi'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''ą, -at'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''ō'''
|-
! Accusative
| *twen'''an'''
| *twen'''anz'''
| *twen'''ǭ'''
| *twen'''ōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *twen'''as'''
| *nip'''iziz'''
| *twen'''ōsą''', *twen'''azjōsą'''
| *nip'''izau'''
| *twen'''ōz''', *twen'''azjōz'''
| *nip'''izǭ'''
| *twen'''ōsą''', *twen'''azjōsą'''
| *twen'''as''', *twen'''azjas'''
| *twen'''ōsą''', *twen'''azjōsą'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *twen'''ammai'''
| *nip'''izī'''
| *twen'''abiz'''
| *nip'''immō'''
| *twen'''ōz'''
| *nip'''immaz'''
| *twen'''ōbiz'''
| *twen'''ammai'''
| *twen'''abiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *twen'''ô'''
| *nip'''immi'''
| *twen'''abaz'''
| *nip'''immō'''
| *twen'''ô'''
| *nip'''immīz'''
| *twen'''ōbaz'''
| *twen'''ô'''
| *twen'''abaz'''
|-
|-
! colspan="7"| Weak
! Locative
| *nip'''izi'''
| *nip'''izau'''
| *nip'''issu'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|}
<!--
====''r/n''-stems====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *jehar ''n.'' "liver"
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! Nominative
| rowspan="3"| *jeh'''ar'''
| rowspan="3"| *jih'''inō'''
|-
|-
! Nominative/<br />Vocative
! Vocative
| *twen'''ǭ'''
| *twen'''aniz'''
| *twen'''ǭ'''
| *twen'''ōniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''anō'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *twen'''anį'''
| *twen'''aninz'''
| *twen'''ōnį'''
| *twen'''ōniz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *twen'''aniz'''
| *jih'''iniz'''
| *twen'''anǭ'''
| *jih'''inǭ'''
| *twen'''ōniz'''
| *twen'''ōnǭ'''
| *twen'''aniz'''
| *twen'''anǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *twen'''anī'''
| *jih'''inī'''
| *twen'''ambiz'''
| rowspan="2"| *jih'''imbiz'''
| *twen'''ōnī'''
| *twen'''ōmbiz'''
| *twen'''anī'''
| *twen'''ambiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *twen'''ani'''
| *jih'''ini'''
| *twen'''ambaz'''
| *twen'''ōni'''
| *twen'''ōmbaz'''
| *twen'''ani'''
| *twen'''ambaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}-->


====''ja/jō''-stem adjectives====
====Consonant stems====
These were a sub-type of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with a *''-j-'' or *''-ij-'' (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and were declined as such. However, in the weak forms, expected **''-ija-'' became *''-ī-'' and **''-ja-'' became *''-i-''.
Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
 
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
====''i''-stem adjectives====
! !! colspan="3"| *ahmô ''m.'' "stone" !! colspan="3"| *immô ''n.'' "name"
These were declined identically to ''ja/jō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-iz'' and *''-į/it'' respectively instead of the expected **''-(i)jaz'' and **''-(i)ją/(i)jat''. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular could take the ending *''-in'' as an alternative to expected *''-(i)jan''.
|-
 
! Nominative
The weak forms were identical to those of ''ja/jō''-stems.
| rowspan="2"| *ahm'''ô'''
 
| rowspan="3"| *ahm'''inī'''
====Consonant-stem adjectives====
| rowspan="2"| *ahm'''iniz'''
These were declined identically to ''a/ō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-s/z'' and *''—'' respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **''-az'' and **''-ą/at''.
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''ô'''
 
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''inī'''
The weak forms were identical to those of ''a/ō''-stems.
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''inō'''
 
===Pronouns===
<!--
'''Note:''' As with adjectives, only the ''*s'' forms of the strong feminine genitive are given where applicable. The ''*z'' forms can be derived from these simply by replacing ''*s'' in the endings.-->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
Nouns
Adjectives
Verbs
Adverbs
Particles
Derivational morphology -->
====First person, second person, and reflexive pronouns====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! !! colspan="2"| First person !! colspan="2"| Second person !! rowspan="2"| Reflexive
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! Vocative
|-
! Nominative
| *ekō, *ikō
| rowspan="2"| *nōs, *nōz
| *þū
| rowspan="2"| *wōs, *wōz
| —
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *mē
| *ahm'''inį'''
| *þē
| *ahm'''ininz'''
| *sē
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *mīz
| *ahm'''iniz'''
| *nasterą
| *ahm'''inau'''
| *þīz
| *ahm'''inǭ'''
| *wasterą
| *imm'''iniz'''
| *sīz
| *imm'''inau'''
| *imm'''inǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *migī
| *ahm'''inī'''
| *nōbiz
| *ahm'''immō'''
| *þibī
| *ahm'''immaz'''
| *wōbiz
| *imm'''inī'''
| *sibī
| *imm'''immō'''
| *imm'''immaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *met, *mit
| *ahm'''immi'''
| *nōbaz
| *ahm'''immō'''
| *þet, *þit
| *ahm'''immīz'''
| *wōbaz
| *imm'''immi'''
| *set, *sit
| *imm'''immō'''
| *imm'''immīz'''
|-
|-
! Possessive adj.
! Locative
| *mijaz
| *ahm'''inī'''
| *nasteraz
| *ahm'''inau'''
| *þawaz
| *ahm'''inzu'''
| *wasteraz
| *imm'''inī'''
| *sawaz
| *imm'''inau'''
| *imm'''inzu'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
 
<!--
'''Notes:'''
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
#When two forms are given, the first was the stressed form and the second was the unstressed form.
! !! colspan="2"| *feþs ''m.'' "foot" || colspan="2"| *hafud ''n.'' "head"
#Possessive adjectives were always strong.
 
====3rd person pronoun====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *feþ'''s'''
| rowspan="2"| *fiþ'''iz'''
| rowspan="3"| *hafud
| rowspan="3"| *hafud'''ō'''
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Vocative
| *iz
| *ijai
| *ijō
| *ijōi
| rowspan="2"| *it
| rowspan="2"| *ijō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *in
| *fiþ'''į'''
| *ijanz
| *fiþ'''inz'''
| *ijǭ
| *ijōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| <!--*es, -->*izjas
| *fiþ'''iz'''
| <!--*ijōsą, -->*izjōsą
| *feþ'''ǭ'''
| <!--*ijōz, -->*izjōz
| *hafud'''iz'''
| <!--*ijōsą, -->*izjōsą
| *hafud'''ǭ'''
| <!--*es, -->*izjas
| <!--*ijōsą, -->*izjōsą
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *immai
| *fiþ'''ī'''
| *izjaiz, *izjabiz
| *fiþ'''ibiz'''
| *izjōi
| *hafud'''ī'''
| *izjōiz, *izjōbiz
| *hafud'''ibiz'''
| *immai
| *izjaiz, izjabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *izjō
| *fiþ'''i'''
| *izjaiz, *izjabaz
| *fiþ'''ibaz
| *izjô
| *hafud'''i'''
| *izjōiz, *izjōbiz
| *hafud'''ibaz'''
| *izjō
| *izjaiz, *izjabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}-->
<!-- consider changing instrumental to *izô (with oblique stem renalyzed as iz) and genitive plural to sth based on eisom perhaps???-->
 
'''Note:''' The usual ending for the masculine/feminine nominative-vocative singular was *''-s'' (after unvoiced consonants) or *''-z'' (after voiced consonants)<!-- (which often led to minor stem changes)-->, and in the neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular there was usually no suffix. However, there were many nouns that were irregular in those forms.


====Reflexive/Intensive pronoun====
===Adjectives===
Most adjectives could be declined strong or weak. The class of an adjective was determined by its strong conjugation.<!-- The weak conjugation was originally derived from a combination of the adjective with a following emphatic particle (akin to Latin ''enim'') that was reanalyzed as an ''n''-stem ending.-->
<!--
'''Note:''' Like with ''ō''-stem nouns, the strong feminine genitive (both singular and plural) had alternative ''*s'' and ''*z'' forms (i.e. ''*-ōs'' or ''*-ōz'' in the singular, and ''*-ōsą'' or ''*-ōzą''). Only the ''*s'' forms are shown below for brevity. The ''*z'' forms can be derived simply by replacing the ''*s'' in the endings with ''*z''.-->
====''a/ō''-stem adjectives====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! colspan="7"| Strong
|+ Declension of ''mōlaz'' "small"
! colspan="10"| Strong
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *safsaz
| *mōl'''az'''
| *safsai
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ō'''
| *safsō
| *mōl'''ai'''
| *safsōi
| *mōl'''ō'''
| rowspan="2"| *safsą, *safsat
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōi'''
| rowspan="2"| *safsō
| *mōl'''ōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''(a)'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ō'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *safsan
| *mōl'''an'''
| *safsanz
| *mōl'''ōnz'''
| *safsǭ
| *mōl'''ǭ'''
| *safsōnz
| *mōl'''ōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *mōl'''as'''
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *mōl'''āu'''
| *safsōz, *safsazjōz
| *mōl'''aizǭ'''
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *mōl'''azjōz'''
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *mōl'''ōu'''
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *mōl'''ōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''as'''
| *mōl'''āu'''
| *mōl'''aizǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *safsammai
| *mōl'''ammai'''
| *safsabiz
| *mōl'''aimō'''
| *safsōi
| *mōl'''aimaz'''
| *safsōbiz
| *mōl'''azjōi'''
| *safsammai
| *mōl'''ōmō'''
| *safsabiz
| *mōl'''ōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ammai'''
| *mōl'''aimō'''
| *mōl'''aimaz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *mōl'''ammi'''
| *mōl'''aimō'''
| *mōl'''aimīz'''
| *mōl'''ǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ammi'''
| *mōl'''aimō'''
| *mōl'''aimīz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Locative
| *safsō
| *mōl'''ammi'''
| *safsabaz
| *mōl'''āu'''
| *safsô
| *mōl'''aizu'''
| *safsōbaz
| *mōl'''ōi'''
| *safsō
| *mōl'''ōu'''
| *safsabaz
| *mōl'''ōzu'''
| *mōl'''ammi'''
| *mōl'''āu'''
| *mōl'''aizu'''
|-
|-
! colspan="7"| Weak
! colspan="10"| Weak
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *safsǭ
| *mōl'''aziz'''
| *safsaniz
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| *safsǭ
| *mōl'''aiz'''
| *safsōniz
| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *safsǭ
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| rowspan="2"| *safsanō
| *mōl'''ōzōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *safsanį
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *safsaninz
| *mōl'''aninz'''
| *safsōnį
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *safsōniz
| *mōl'''ōnōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *safsaniz
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *safsanǭ
| *mōl'''awjau'''
| *safsōniz
| *mōl'''anizǭ'''
| *safsōnǭ
| *mōl'''ōzizōz'''
| *safsaniz
| *mōl'''awjōu'''
| *safsanǭ
| *mōl'''ōnōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''anizǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
| *mōl'''ōzōi'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ōzōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ōzōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
|-
! Locative
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''awjau'''
| *mōl'''anizu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzu'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''awjau'''
| *mōl'''anizu'''
|-
|-
! Dative
<!--
| *safsanī
! colspan="10"| Weak
| *safsambiz
| *safsōnī
| *safsōmbiz
| *safsanī
| *safsambiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
| *safsani
| *safsambaz
| *safsōni
| *safsōmbaz
| *safsani
| *safsambaz
|-
|-
|}
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
 
====Neutral demonstrative====
 
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! Nominative
|-
| *mōl'''aniz'''
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''anī'''
| *saz
| *mōl'''aniz'''
| *sai
| *mōl'''ōnjō'''
| *sō
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnjōi'''
| *sōi
| *mōl'''ōnjōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *sat
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ani'''
| rowspan="2"| *sō
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''anī'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnō'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *san
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *sanz
| *mōl'''aninz'''
| *sǭ
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *sōnz
| *mōl'''ōnjōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *sas, *sazjas
| *mōl'''aniz'''
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *mōl'''anjōu'''
| *sōz, *sazjōz
| *mōl'''anjǭ'''
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *mōl'''ōnjōz'''
| *sas, *sazjas
| *mōl'''ōnjōu'''
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *mōl'''aniz'''
| *mōl'''anjōu'''
| *mōl'''anǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *sammai
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *sabiz
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *sōi
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
| *sōbiz
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *sammai
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *sabiz
| *mōl'''ōnōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *sō
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *sabaz
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *sô
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
| *sōbaz
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *sō
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *sabaz
| *mōl'''ōnōmīz'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
|-
|-
|}
! Locative
 
| *mōl'''anai'''
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzu'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
|-
<!--
! colspan="10"| Weak
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *þaz
| *mōl'''anaz'''
| *þai
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| *þō
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *þōi
| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| rowspan="2"| *þat
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| rowspan="2"| *þō
| *mōl'''ōnōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''aną'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''anai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnō'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *þan
| *mōl'''aną'''
| *þanz
| *mōl'''anōnz'''
| *þǭ
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *þōnz
| *mōl'''ōnōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *þas, *þazjas
| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *þōz, *þazjōz
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *mōl'''ōnōz'''
| *þas, *þazjas
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *þammai
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *þabiz
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *þōi
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
| *þōbiz
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *þammai
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *þabiz
| *mōl'''ōnōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmīz'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
|-
! Locative
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzu'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
<!--
| *þō
! colspan="9"| Weak
| *þabaz
| *þô
| *þōbaz
| *þō
| *þabaz
|-
|-
|}
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
 
 
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *izaz
| *mōl'''az anaz'''
| *izai
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *izō
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *izōi
| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| rowspan="2"| *izat
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| rowspan="2"| *izō
| *mōl'''ōz anōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ą aną'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ō anō'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *izan
| *mōl'''ą aną'''
| *izanz
| *mōl'''ōnz anōnz'''
| *izǭ
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *izōnz
| *mōl'''ōnz anōnz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōz anōz'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *mōl'''amaz anamaz'''
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *mōl'''ōmō anōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōmaz anōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *mōl'''amaz anamaz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *mōl'''ōiz anōiz'''
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōmō anōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōmīz anōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *mōl'''ōiz anōiz'''
|-
! Locative
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''aizu anaizu'''
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''ōzu anōzu'''
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''aizu anaizu'''
|-
<!--
! colspan="10"| Weak
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *mōl'''aziz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| *mōl'''aiz'''
| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
|-
! Accusative
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *mōl'''ōninz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *izas, *izazjas
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *izōz, *izazjōz
| *mōl'''ōnizǭ'''
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *mōl'''ōzizjōz'''
| *izas, *izazjas
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *mōl'''ōnjōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnizǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *izammai
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *izabiz
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *izōi
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
| *izōbiz
| *mōl'''ōjjizjōi'''
| *izammai
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *izabiz
| *mōl'''ōzōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *izō
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *izabaz
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *izô
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
| *izōbaz
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *izō
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *izabaz
| *mōl'''ōzōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
|-
! Locative
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''azizu'''
| *mōl'''ōjjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōzōzu'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''azizu'''
|-
<!--
! colspan="9"| Weak
|-
|-
|}
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
 
====Near demonstrative====
 
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *istaz
| *mōl'''azjaz'''
| *istai
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| *istō
| *mōl'''āi'''
| *istōi
| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *istat
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| rowspan="2"| *istō
| *mōl'''ōzjōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *istan
| *mōl'''anją'''
| *istanz
| *mōl'''ōzjōnz'''
| *istǭ
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *istōnz
| *mōl'''ōzjōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *istas, *istazjas
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *istōz, *istazjōz
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *mōl'''ōzjazjōz'''
| *istas, *istazjas
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *mōl'''ōnjōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''azjas'''
| *mōl'''āwjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
| *mōl'''ōjjazjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōmômō'''
| *mōl'''ōmazjōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Instrumental
| *istammai
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *istabiz
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *istōi
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
| *istōbiz
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *istammai
| *mōl'''ōmôimō'''
| *istabiz
| *mōl'''ōmīzjōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Locative
| *istō
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *istabaz
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *istô
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
| *istōbaz
| *mōl'''ōjjōi'''
| *istō
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *istabaz
| *mōl'''ōzwōzu'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
|-
|-
-->
|}
|}


{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
====''ja/jō''-stem adjectives====
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
These were a sub-type of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with a *''-j-'' or *''-ij-'' (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and were declined as such. <!--However, in the weak forms, expected **''-ija-'' became *''-ī-'' and **''-ja-'' became *''-i-''.-->
|-
 
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
====''ā/ô''-stem adjectives====
These were a subset of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with lengthened endings. They arose by contraction from adjectives whose stems originally ended in ''-aj-'', after the loss of intervocalic ''-j-''.
 
<!--====''i''-stem adjectives====
These were declined identically to ''ja/jō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-iz'' and *''-į/it'' respectively instead of the expected **''-(i)jaz'' and **''-(i)ją/(i)jat''. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular could take the ending *''-in'' as an alternative to expected *''-(i)jan''.
-
The weak forms were identical to those of ''ja/jō''-stems.-->
 
<!--====Consonant-stem adjectives====
These were declined identically to ''a/ō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-s/z'' and *''—'' respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **''-az'' and **''-ą/at''.
-
The weak forms were identical to those of ''a/ō''-stems.-->
 
===Pronouns===
<!--
'''Note:''' As with adjectives, only the ''*s'' forms of the strong feminine genitive are given where applicable. The ''*z'' forms can be derived from these simply by replacing ''*s'' in the endings.-->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
Nouns
Adjectives
Verbs
Adverbs
Particles
Derivational morphology -->
====First person, second person, and reflexive pronouns====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! !! colspan="3"| First person !! colspan="3"| Second person !! rowspan="2"| Reflexive
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *gehaz
| *ēzų
| *gehai
| *wet; *wit
| *gehō
| *mez; *miz
| *gehōi
| *þū; *þu
| rowspan="2"| *gehat
| *jūt; *jut
| rowspan="2"| *gehō
| *jūz; *juz
| —
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *gehan
| *mēn; *miz
| *gehanz
| *nō
| *gehǭ
| *nōz
| *gehōnz
| *þēn; *þiz
| *wō
| *wōz
| *sēn; *siz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *mīniz; *mī
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *nōu
| *gegōz, *gegazjōz
| *nōzǭ
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *þīwiz; *þī
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *wōu
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *wōzǭ
| *sīwiz; *sī
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *gegammai
| *mīnī; *mī
| *gegabiz
| *nōmō
| *gegōi
| *nōmaz
| *gegōbiz
| *þīwī; *þī
| *gegammai
| *wōmō
| *gegabiz
| *wōmaz
| *sīwī; *sī
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *gegō
| *mīnimi
| *gegabaz
| *nōmō
| *gegô
| *nōmīz
| *gegōbaz
| *þīwimi
| *gegō
| *wōmō
| *gegabaz
| *wōmīz
| *sīwimi
|-
! Locative
| *mīnī
| *nōu
| *nōzu
| *þīwī
| *wōu
| *wōzu
| *sīwī
|-
! Possessive adj.
| *mīnaz
| *nōwaz
| *nōzijaz
| *þīwaz
| *wōwaz
| *wōzijaz
| *sīwaz
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Far demonstrative====
'''Notes:'''
#When two forms are given, the first was the stressed form and the second was the unstressed form.
#Possessive adjectives were always strong.
 
====Other pronouns====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *allaz
| *þaz
| *allai
| rowspan="2"| *þō
| *allō
| *þai
| *allōi
| *þō
| rowspan="2"| *allat
| rowspan="2"| *þōi
| rowspan="2"| *allō
| *þōz
| rowspan="2"| *þa
| rowspan="2"| *þai
| rowspan="2"| *þō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *allan
| *þan
| *allanz
| *þōnz
| *allǭ
| *þǭ
| *allōnz
| *þōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *allas, *allazjas
| *þas
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *þāu
| *allōz, *allazjōz
| *þaizǭ
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *þazjōz
| *allas, *allazjas
| *þōu
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *þōzǭ
| *þas
| *þāu
| *þaizǭ
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *allammai
| *þammai
| *allabiz
| *þaimō
| *allōi
| *þaimaz
| *allōbiz
| *þazjōi
| *allammai
| *þōmō
| *allabiz
| *þōmaz
| *þammai
| *þaimō
| *þaimaz
|-
! Instrumental
| *þammi
| *þaimō
| *þaimīz
| *þǭ
| *þōmō
| *þōmīz
| *þammi
| *þaimō
| *þaimīz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Locative
| *allō
| *þammi
| *allabaz
| *þāu
| *allô
| *þaizu
| *allōbaz
| *þōi
| *allō
| *þōu
| *allabaz
| *þōzu
| *þammi
| *þāu
| *þaizu
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Interrogative pronouns====
*''*hwai'' "what, who"
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *hwai
| *siz
| *hwēz
| rowspan="2"| *sī
| *hwōi
| *sīz
| *hwēz
| *sī
| rowspan="2"| *hwat
| rowspan="2"| *sijōi
| rowspan="2"| *hwō
| *sijōz
| rowspan="2"| *si
| rowspan="2"| *sī
| rowspan="2"| *sī
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *hwan
| *sin
| *hwanz
| *sinz
| *hwǭ
| *sijǭ
| *hwōnz
| *sijōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *hwas, *hwazjas
| *ses
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *sijau
| *hwōz, *hwazjōz
| *sezǭ
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *sizjōz
| *hwas, *hwazjas
| *sijōu
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *sijōzǭ
| *ses
| *sijau
| *sezǭ
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *hwammai
| *simmai
| *hwabiz
| *sīmō
| *hwōi
| *sīmaz
| *hwōbiz
| *sizjōi
| *hwammai
| *sijōmō
| *hwabiz
| *sijōmaz
| *simmai
| *sīmō
| *sīmaz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *hwō, *hwī
| *simmi
| *hwabaz
| *sīmō
| *hwô, *hwī
| *sīmīz
| *hwōbaz
| *sijǭ
| *hwō, *hwī
| *sijōmō
| *hwabaz
| *sijōmīz
| *simmi
| *sīmō
| *sīmīz
|-
! Locative
| *simmi
| *sijau
| *sīzu
| *sijōi
| *sijōu
| *sijōzu
| *simmi
| *sijau
| *sīzu
|-
|-
|}
|}
*''*hwaþeraz'' "which, what (of two)"
 
====Reflexive/Intensive pronoun====
<!--
<!--
*''*hwōliz'' "which, what (of many)"
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
*''*hwīnþaz'' "how much, how many"
! colspan="7"| Strong
*''*hwidagjaz'' "what kind of, what sort of"
|-
*Undeclined adverbial interrogative pronouns:
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
**''*hwaþ'' "to what extent; how"
|-
**''*hwan'' "when"
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
**''*hwadī'' "where"
|-
**''*hwant'' "from where"-->
! Nominative
 
| *safsaz
====Other pronouns====
| *safsai
<!--
| *safsō
*''*þōliz'' "such, like that"
| *safsōi
*''*þanþaz'' "that much, that many"
| rowspan="2"| *safsą, *safsat
*''*sadagjaz'' "such kind of, such sort of"
| rowspan="2"| *safsō
*''*aljaz'' "other, else"
|-
*''*allaz'' "all"
! Accusative
*Undeclined adverbial pronouns:
| *safsan
**''*þaþ'' "to that extent"
| *safsanz
**''*iþ'' "such, thus"
| *safsǭ
**''*þan'' "then"
| *safsōnz
**''*idī'' "there"
**''*istadī, *gegadī'' "here"
**''*int'' "from there"
**''*istant, *gegant'' "from here"
**''*aljadī'' "elsewhere"-->
 
===Adverbs===
====Derived manner adverbs====
The most common adverb-forming suffixes are ''*-ē'' and ''*-ō''.
 
===Numerals===
<!--
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Adverbial !! Multiplier
|-
|-
! 1
! Genitive
| *ainaz
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *frīsimaz, *framaz
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *semēlą
| *safsōz, *safsazjōz
| *simflaz, *singilaz
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
|-
| *safsas, *safsazjas
! 2
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *twō
| *alþeraz
| *twis
| *twiflaz
|-
|-
! 3
! Dative
| *þrēz
| *safsammai
| *þriþjǭ
| *safsabiz
| *þris
| *safsōi
| *þriflaz
| *safsōbiz
| *safsammai
| *safsabiz
|-
|-
! 4
! Instrumental
| *hwettwōr
| *safsō
| *hwetwarþǭ
| *safsabaz
| *hwitris
| *safsô
| *hwitriflaz
| *safsōbaz
| *safsō
| *safsabaz
|-
|-
! 5
! colspan="7"| Weak
| *hwinhw
| *hwinhtǭ
| *hwinhwis
| *hwinhwiflaz
|-
|-
! 6
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
| *sehs
| *sehstǭ
| *sehsis
| *sehsiflaz
|-
|-
! 7
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
| *siftį
| *siftimǭ
| *siftis
| *siftiflaz
|-
|-
! 8
! Nominative
| *ahtō
| *safsǭ
| *ahtōwǭ
| *safsaniz
| *ahtis
| *safsǭ
| *ahtōflaz
| *safsōniz
| rowspan="2"| *safsǭ
| rowspan="2"| *safsanō
|-
|-
! 9
! Accusative
| *nawį
| *safsanį
| *naunǭ
| *safsaninz
| *nawis
| *safsōnį
| *nawiflaz
| *safsōniz
|-
|-
! 10
! Genitive
| *tihį
| *safsaniz
| *tihimǭ
| *safsanǭ
| *tihis
| *safsōniz
| *tihiflaz
| *safsōnǭ
| *safsaniz
| *safsanǭ
|-
|-
! 11
! Dative
| *ainatigį
| *safsanī
| *ainatihimǭ
| *safsambiz
|
| *safsōnī
|
| *safsōmbiz
| *safsanī
| *safsambiz
|-
|-
! 12
! Instrumental
| *twatigį
| *safsani
| *twatihimǭ
| *safsambaz
|
| *safsōni
|
| *safsōmbaz
| *safsani
| *safsambaz
|-
|-
! 13
|}-->
| *þritigį
 
| *þritihimǭ
====Neutral demonstrative====
|
<!--
|
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
! 14
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
| *hwettwōrtigį
| *hwettwōrtihimǭ
|
|
|-
|-
! 15
! Nominative
| *hwinhtigį
| *saz
| *hwinhtihimǭ
| *sai
|
| *sō
|
| *sōi
| rowspan="2"| *sat
| rowspan="2"| *sō
|-
|-
! 16
! Accusative
| *sehstigį
| *san
| *sehstihimǭ
| *sanz
|
| *sǭ
|
| *sōnz
|-
|-
! 17
! Genitive
| *siftintigį
| *sas, *sazjas
| *siftintihimǭ
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
|
| *sōz, *sazjōz
|
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *sas, *sazjas
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
|-
|-
! 18
! Dative
| *ahtōtigį
| *sammai
| *ahtōtihimǭ
| *sabiz
|
| *sōi
|
| *sōbiz
|-
| *sammai
! 19
| *sabiz
| *nawintigį
| *nawintijimǭ
|
|
|-
|-
! 20
! Instrumental
| *wīginþī
| *sō
| *wīginsǭ
| *sabaz
|
| *sô
|
| *sōbaz
| *sō
| *sabaz
|-
|-
! 30
|}
| *þrīginþō
 
| *þrīginsǭ
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
|
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|
|-
|-
! 40
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
| *hwetrōginþō
| *hwetrōginsǭ
|
|
|-
|-
! 50
! Nominative
| *hwinhwōginþō
| *þaz
| *hwinhwōginsǭ
| *þai
|
| *þō
|
| *þōi
| rowspan="2"| *þat
| rowspan="2"| *þō
|-
|-
! 60
! Accusative
| *sehsōginþō
| *þan
| *sehsōginsǭ
| *þanz
|
| *þǭ
|
| *þōnz
|-
|-
! 70
! Genitive
| *seftumōginþō
| *þas, *þazjas
| *seftumōginsǭ
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
|
| *þōz, *þazjōz
|
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *þas, *þazjas
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
|-
|-
! 80
! Dative
| *ahtōginþō
| *þammai
| *ahtōginsǭ
| *þabiz
|
| *þōi
|
| *þōbiz
| *þammai
| *þabiz
|-
|-
! 90
! Instrumental
| *naunōginþō
| *þō
| *naunōginsǭ
| *þabaz
|
| *þô
|
| *þōbaz
| *þō
| *þabaz
|-
|-
! 100
|}
| *hinþą
 
| *hinsǭ
 
|
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
|
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
! 1000
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
| *smīgillī
| *smīgillidǭ
|
|
|-
|-
|}-->
! Nominative
 
| *izaz
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
| *izai
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal
| *izō
| *izōi
| rowspan="2"| *izat
| rowspan="2"| *izō
|-
|-
! 1
! Accusative
| *ainaz
| *izan
| *frīsimaz<!--or *frīsmaz-->, *framaz
| *izanz
| *izǭ
| *izōnz
|-
|-
! 2
! Genitive
| *twō
| *izas, *izazjas
| *alþeraz
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *izōz, *izazjōz
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *izas, *izazjas
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
|-
|-
! 3
! Dative
| *þrēz
| *izammai
| *þriþjǭ
| *izabiz
| *izōi
| *izōbiz
| *izammai
| *izabiz
|-
|-
! 4
! Instrumental
| *hwettwōr
| *izō
| *hwadurþǭ<!-- or *hwetwarþǭ-->
| *izabaz
| *izô
| *izōbaz
| *izō
| *izabaz
|-
|-
! 5
|}-->
| *hwinhw
 
| *hwinhtǭ
====Near demonstrative====
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
! 6
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
| *sehs
| *sehstǭ
|-
|-
! 7
! Nominative
| *siftį
| *istaz
| *siftumǭ
| *istai
| *istō
| *istōi
| rowspan="2"| *istat
| rowspan="2"| *istō
|-
|-
! 8
! Accusative
| *ahtō
| *istan
| *ahtōwǭ
| *istanz
| *istǭ
| *istōnz
|-
|-
! 9
! Genitive
| *nawį
| *istas, *istazjas
| *naunǭ
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *istōz, *istazjōz
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *istas, *istazjas
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
|-
|-
! 10
! Dative
| *tihį
| *istammai
| *tehumǭ
| *istabiz
| *istōi
| *istōbiz
| *istammai
| *istabiz
|-
|-
! 11
! Instrumental
| *ainatigį
| *istō
| *ainatehumǭ
| *istabaz
| *istô
| *istōbaz
| *istō
| *istabaz
|-
|-
! 12
|}
| *twatigį
 
| *twatehumǭ
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
! 13
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
| *þritigį
| *þritehumǭ
|-
|-
! 14
! Nominative
| *hwettwōrtigį
| *gehaz
| *hwettwōrtehumǭ
| *gehai
| *gehō
| *gehōi
| rowspan="2"| *gehat
| rowspan="2"| *gehō
|-
|-
! 15
! Accusative
| *hwinhtigį
| *gehan
| *hwinhtehumǭ
| *gehanz
| *gehǭ
| *gehōnz
|-
|-
! 16
! Genitive
| *sehstigį
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *sehstehumǭ
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *gegōz, *gegazjōz
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
|-
|-
! 17
! Dative
| *siftintigį
| *gegammai
| *siftintehumǭ
| *gegabiz
|-
| *gegōi
! 18
| *gegōbiz
| *ahtōtigį
| *gegammai
| *ahtōtehumǭ
| *gegabiz
|-
|-
! 19
! Instrumental
| *nawintigį
| *gegō
| *nawintehumǭ
| *gegabaz
| *gegô
| *gegōbaz
| *gegō
| *gegabaz
|-
|-
! 20
|}-->
| *twīginþī
 
| *twīginsimǭ
====Far demonstrative====
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
! 30
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
| *þrīginþō
| *þrīginsimǭ
|-
|-
! 40
! Nominative
| *hwetrōginþō
| *allaz
| *hwetrōginsimǭ
| *allai
|-
| *allō
! 50
| *allōi
| *hwinhwōginþō
| rowspan="2"| *allat
| *hwinhwōginsimǭ
| rowspan="2"| *allō
|-
|-
! 60
! Accusative
| *sehsōginþō
| *allan
| *sehsōginsimǭ
| *allanz
| *allǭ
| *allōnz
|-
|-
! 70
! Genitive
| *seftumōginþō
| *allas, *allazjas
| *seftumōginsimǭ
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *allōz, *allazjōz
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *allas, *allazjas
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
|-
|-
! 80
! Dative
| *ahtōginþō
| *allammai
| *ahtōginsimǭ
| *allabiz
|-
| *allōi
! 90
| *allōbiz
| *naunōginþō
| *allammai
| *naunōginsimǭ
| *allabiz
|-
|-
! 100
! Instrumental
| *hinþą
| *allō
| *hinsimǭ
| *allabaz
|-
| *allô
! 1000
| *allōbaz
| *smīgillī <!-- or something from *smīgzlī-->
| *allō
| *smīgillisimǭ
| *allabaz
|-
|}-->
 
====Interrogative pronouns====
<!--
*''*hwai'' "what, who"
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
|}
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
'''Notes:'''
*''*ainaz'' "one" was declined as an ''a/ō''-stem adjective.
*''*twō'' "two" was declined as below:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Declension of *''twō'' "two" (pl.)
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *twō, *twai
| *hwai
| *twōi
| *hwēz
| *twō
| *hwōi
| *hwēz
| rowspan="2"| *hwat
| rowspan="2"| *hwō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *twanz
| *hwan
| *twōnz
| *hwanz
| *twō
| *hwǭ
|-
| *hwōnz
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| colspan="3"| *twōsą
| *hwas, *hwazjas
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *hwōz, *hwazjōz
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *hwas, *hwazjas
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| colspan="3"| *twōbiz
| *hwammai
| *hwabiz
| *hwōi
| *hwōbiz
| *hwammai
| *hwabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| colspan="3"| *twōbaz
| *hwō, *hwī
| *hwabaz
| *hwô, *hwī
| *hwōbaz
| *hwō, *hwī
| *hwabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
*''*þrēz'' "three" was declined as below:
*''*hwaþeraz'' "which, what (of two)"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
<!--
|+ Declension of *''þrēz'' "three" (pl.)
*''*hwōliz'' "which, what (of many)"
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
*''*hwīnþaz'' "how much, how many"
|-
*''*hwidagjaz'' "what kind of, what sort of"
! Nominative
*Undeclined adverbial interrogative pronouns:
| colspan="2"| *þrēz
**''*hwaþ'' "to what extent; how"
| rowspan="2"| *þrijō
**''*hwan'' "when"
|-
**''*hwadī'' "where"
! Accusative
**''*hwant'' "from where"-->
| colspan="2"| *þrinz
|-
! Genitive
| colspan="3"| *þrijǭ, *þrēsą
|-
! Dative
| colspan="3"| *þribiz, *þrēbiz
|-
! Instrumental
| colspan="3"| *þribaz, *þrēbaz
|-
|}
*Cardinal numbers from 4-19 and decades from 20-90 were undeclined.
*''*hinþą'' "hundred" was declined as a neuter noun.
*''*smīgillī'' "thousand" was declined as an ''ī/jō''-stem feminine noun.
*Most ordinal numbers were exclusively declined weak (as indicated in the above table with the ending *''-ǭ'') except for 1st and 2nd.
*The following adverbial numbers are reconstructed:
**''*ainas, *sims'' "once"
**''*twis'' "twice"
**''*þris'' "thrice"
**''*hwadurs'' "four times"
*The following multiplicative numbers are reconstructed: 
**''*simflaz, *simflegz, *singlaz'' "single"
**''*twiflaz, *twiflegz'' "double"
**''*þriflaz, *þriflegz'' "triple"
**''*hwadurflaz, *hwadurflegz'' "quadruple"
*The following numerical prefixes are reconstructed:
**''*sem/sim-'' "uni-, mono-, one, once"
**''*twi-'' "bi-, di-, two, twice"
**''*þri-'' "tri-, three, thrice"
**''*hwadur-'' "quadri-, tetra-, four"
**''*sēmi-'' "semi-, half"
*The following collective numerals are reconstructed:
**''*ambō'' (declined as ''*twō'') "both"
**''*twiznaz'' "pair"
**''*þriznaz'' "set of three"
**''*hwadurznaz'' "set of four"


===Verbs===
====Other pronouns====
====Strong verbs====
<!--
Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative:
*''*þōliz'' "such, like that"
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
*''*þanþaz'' "that much, that many"
! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 1P !! 2P !! 3P
*''*sadagjaz'' "such kind of, such sort of"
|-
*''*aljaz'' "other, else"
| *-ai || *-istai || *- || *-amaz || *-istiz || *-ēri
*''*allaz'' "all"
|-
*Undeclined adverbial pronouns:
|}
**''*þaþ'' "to that extent"
The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *''-i-''<!-- (which becomes ''-ī-'' in the case of heavy ''j''-presents)-->. The past participle was formed based on the present stem (with some caveats that will be discussed below).
**''*iþ'' "such, thus"
**''*þan'' "then"
**''*idī'' "there"
**''*istadī, *gegadī'' "here"
**''*int'' "from there"
**''*istant, *gegant'' "from here"
**''*aljadī'' "elsewhere"-->


Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed:
===Adverbs===
#'''Class 1:''' This class had a present stem vowel of *''-i-''. It had two subclasses:
====Derived manner adverbs====
#:'''a.''' The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *''-ai-'' — e.g. ''*'''wit'''ēō'' "I see" > ''*'''wait'''ai'' "I saw", ''*'''wis'''saz'' "seen"
The most common adverb-forming suffixes are ''*-ē'' and ''*-ō''.
#:'''b.''' The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *''-ī-'' — e.g. ''*'''winh'''ō'' "I conquer" > ''*'''wīh'''ai'' "I conquered", ''*'''wih'''taz'' "conquered"
#'''Class 2:''' This class had a present stem vowel of *''-u-'' which changed to *''-au-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''buk'''jō'' "I flee" > ''*'''bauk'''ai'' "I fled", ''*'''buk'''adaz'' "fled"
#'''Class 3:''' This class had a present stem vowel *''-a-'', *''-e-'', or *''-i-'' that became *''-ē-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''dah'''jō'' "I do" > ''*'''dēh'''ai'' "I did", ''*'''dah'''taz'' "done"
#'''Class 4:''' This class had a present stem vowel *''-a-'' that became *''-ō-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''skab'''ō'' "I scratch" > ''*'''skōb'''ai'' "I scratched", ''*'''skab'''adaz'' "scratched"
#'''Class 5:''' The past stem had the same stem vowel as the present stem — e.g. ''*'''fip'''ō'' "I drink" > ''*'''fip'''ai'' "I drank", ''*'''fip'''adaz'' "drunk"
#<b>Class 6:</b> The past stem was derived from the present stem by adding *''-s-'' — e.g. ''*<b>þrag</b>ō'' "I drag" > ''*<b>þrahs</b>ai'' "I dragged", ''*'''þrah'''taz'' "dragged"
#'''Class 7:''' The past stem was formed by reduplication of the first consonant followed by ''-e-''. In some verbs, there was also be a vowel change (usually *''-e/i-'' to *''-a-'') — e.g. ''*'''han'''ō'' "I sing" > ''*'''hehan'''ai'' "I sang"
#'''Irregular:''' The past stem was formed in another way besides those above — e.g. ''*'''stê'''ō'' "I stand" > ''*'''steþ'''ai'' "I stood"


Some strong verbs had irregular presents. This affected the present tense (both indicative and subjunctive), present participle, infinitive, and imperative. There were three types of irregularities, and they could co-occur:
===Numerals===
# A ''j''-suffix. Such verbs are said to be ''j''-presents, and could be light or heavy. This affected the present tense suffixes in much the same way as it did in nouns and adjectives.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
#An nasal infix. This did not affect the verb's endings, but affected the present stem. Such verbs are called nasal presents.
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Adverbial !! Multiplier !! Collective !! Fractional
#A vowel suffix (usually *''-ō-'' or *''-ē-''). Such verbs are called ''ō''-presents or ''ē''-presents respectively. They conjugated similarly to class 2 or 3 weak verbs respectively in the present forms. There was also the exceptional verb ''*stêsi'' which had the suffix *''-ê-''.
|-
 
! 1
The past participle of all verbs was formed with the suffix *''-þaz'' which, depending on the environment, could become *''-taz'', *''-daz'', or *''-saz''. Some verbs had a connector vowel, while others did not. For those that did, it was usually *''-a-'' (or *''-i-'' in the case of ''j''-presents). Verbs with nasal infixes or vowel suffixes did not exhibit these in the past participle.
| *ainaz
 
| *firmaz
The infinitive was formed with the suffix *''-mį'' added to the present stem (including any irregularities). ''j''-presents used a connector vowel of *''-i-'' (light) or *''-ī-'' (heavy). Otherwise, if the present stem did not end in a vowel, the connector vowel *''-a-'' was used.
|
 
|
'''Example (class 3): *''akamį'' "to do, act"'''
|
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
|-
| colspan="3"| *ak'''amį'''
! 2
| *twō
| *anþeraz
|  
| *twāz
| *twimaz
| *pahaz
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 3
| colspan="3"| *ak'''inþs'''
| *þrīz
| *þridjaz
|  
| *þrāz
| *þrimaz
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 4
| colspan="3"| *ah'''taz'''
| *hidwiriz
| *hidwirþaz
|
| *hedweraz
| *hedwerumaz
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! 5
| *finhiz
| *finhtaz
|  
| *finhteraz
| *finhumaz
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
! 6
| *swes
| *swestaz
|
| *swesteraz
| *swesumaz
|-
|-
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
! 7
| *siftį
| *seftundaz
|
| *seftunderaz
| *seftumaz
|-
|-
! 1S
! 8
| *ak'''jō'''
| *ahtō
| *ak'''jōr'''
| *ahtundaz
| *ak'''jǭ'''
|  
| *ak'''jār'''
| *ahtunderaz
| *ēk'''ai'''
| *ahtumaz
| *ēk'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 9
| *ak'''iz'''
| *niwin
| *ak'''izar'''
| *niwindaz
| *ak'''jāz'''
|  
| *ak'''jāzar'''
| *niwinderaz
| *ēk'''istai'''
| *niwinumaz
| *ēk'''izēs'''
| *ak
|-
|-
! 3S
! 10
| *ak'''id'''
| *tisin
| *ak'''idar'''
| *tisindaz
| *ak'''jā'''
|  
| *ak'''jādar'''
| *tisinderaz
| *ēk''' '''
| *tisinumaz
| *ēk'''izē'''
| *ak'''idō'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! 11
| *ak'''jamaz'''
| *ainalig
| rowspan="3"| *ak'''iminai'''
|  
| *ak'''jāmaz'''
|
| rowspan="3"| *ak'''jāminai'''
|
| *ēk'''amaz'''
| *analigumaz
| *ēk'''izēmaz'''
|-
! 12
| *twalig
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 2P
! 13
| *ak'''idiz'''
| *þrilig
| *ak'''jādiz'''
|  
| *ēk'''istiz'''
|
| *ēk'''izēþiz'''
|
| *ak'''id'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 14
| *ak'''jand'''
| *hidwirlig
| *ak'''jān'''
|  
| *ēk'''ēri'''
|
| *ēk'''izēn'''
|
| *ak'''jandō'''
|-
|-
|}
! 15
 
| *finhlig
'''Example (class 3, light ''j''-present): *''dahimį'' "to do, make"'''
|  
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
|
| colspan="3"| *dah'''imį'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 16
| colspan="3"| *dag'''inþs'''
| *sislig
|  
|
|
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 17
| colspan="3"| *dah'''taz'''
| *siftinlig
|  
|
|
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! 18
| *ahtōlig
|  
|
|
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
! 19
| *niwinlig
|
|
|
|-
|-
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
! 20
| *twitisin
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 1S
! 30
| *dah'''jō'''
| *þritisin
| *dah'''jōr'''
|  
| *dah'''jǭ'''
|
| *dah'''jār'''
|
| *dēh'''ai'''
| *dēg'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 40
| *dah'''iz'''
| *hidwirtisin
| *dah'''izar'''
|  
| *dah'''jāz'''
|
| *dag'''jāzar'''
|
| *dēg'''istai'''
| *dēg'''izēs'''
| *dah
|-
|-
! 3S
! 50
| *dah'''id'''
| *finhtisin
| *dah'''idar'''
|  
| *dah'''jā'''
|
| *dag'''jādar'''
|
| *dēh''' '''
| *dēg'''izē'''
| *dah'''idō'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! 60
| *dah'''jamaz'''
| *sistisin
| rowspan="3"| *dag'''iminai'''
|  
| *dag'''jāmaz'''
|
| rowspan="3"| *dag'''jāminai'''
|
| *dēh'''amaz'''
| *dēg'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 70
| *dah'''idiz'''
| *siftintisin
| *dag'''jādiz'''
|  
| *dēg'''istiz'''
|
| *dēg'''izēþiz'''
|
| *dah'''id'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 80
| *dah'''jand'''
| *ahtōtisin
| *dah'''jān'''
|  
| *dēg'''ēri'''
|
| *dag'''izēn'''
|
| *dag'''jandō'''
|-
|-
|}
! 90
 
| *niwintisin
'''Example: *''þragamį'' (class 6) "to drag"'''
|  
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
|
| colspan="3"| *þrag'''amį'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 100
| colspan="3"| *þrag'''inþs'''
| *sinþą
|  
|
|
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 1000
| colspan="3"| *þrah'''taz'''
| *þūsandiz
|  
|
|
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
|}
 
===Verbs===
====Strong verbs====
<!--
Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative:
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 1P !! 2P !! 3P
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
| *-ai || *-istai || *- || *-amaz || *-istiz || *-ēri
|-
|-
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
|}
The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle was formed based on the present stem (with some caveats that will be discussed below).
 
Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed:
#'''Class 1:''' This class had a present stem vowel of *''-i-''. It had two subclasses:
#:'''a.''' The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *''-ai-'' — e.g. ''*'''wit'''ēō'' "I see" > ''*'''wait'''ai'' "I saw", ''*'''wis'''saz'' "seen"
#:'''b.''' The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *''-ī-'' — e.g. ''*'''winh'''ō'' "I conquer" > ''*'''wīh'''ai'' "I conquered", ''*'''wih'''taz'' "conquered"
#'''Class 2:''' This class had a present stem vowel of *''-u-'' which changed to *''-au-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''buk'''jō'' "I flee" > ''*'''bauk'''ai'' "I fled", ''*'''buk'''adaz'' "fled"
#'''Class 3:''' This class had a present stem vowel *''-a-'', *''-e-'', or *''-i-'' that became *''-ē-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''dah'''jō'' "I do" > ''*'''dēh'''ai'' "I did", ''*'''dah'''taz'' "done"
#'''Class 4:''' This class had a present stem vowel *''-a-'' that became *''-ō-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''skab'''ō'' "I scratch" > ''*'''skōb'''ai'' "I scratched", ''*'''skab'''adaz'' "scratched"
#'''Class 5:''' The past stem had the same stem vowel as the present stem — e.g. ''*'''fip'''ō'' "I drink" > ''*'''fip'''ai'' "I drank", ''*'''fip'''adaz'' "drunk"
#<b>Class 6:</b> The past stem was derived from the present stem by adding *''-s-'' — e.g. ''*<b>þrag</b>ō'' "I drag" > ''*<b>þrahs</b>ai'' "I dragged", ''*'''þrah'''taz'' "dragged"
#'''Class 7:''' The past stem was formed by reduplication of the first consonant followed by ''-e-''. In some verbs, there was also be a vowel change (usually *''-e/i-'' to *''-a-'') — e.g. ''*'''han'''ō'' "I sing" > ''*'''hehan'''ai'' "I sang"
#'''Irregular:''' The past stem was formed in another way besides those above — e.g. ''*'''stê'''ō'' "I stand" > ''*'''steþ'''ai'' "I stood"
 
Some strong verbs had irregular presents. This affected the present tense (both indicative and subjunctive), present participle, infinitive, and imperative. There were three types of irregularities, and they could co-occur:
# A ''j''-suffix. Such verbs are said to be ''j''-presents, and could be light or heavy. This affected the present tense suffixes in much the same way as it did in nouns and adjectives.
#An nasal infix. This did not affect the verb's endings, but affected the present stem. Such verbs are called nasal presents.
#A vowel suffix (usually *''-ō-'' or *''-ē-''). Such verbs are called ''ō''-presents or ''ē''-presents respectively. They conjugated similarly to class 2 or 3 weak verbs respectively in the present forms. There was also the exceptional verb ''*stêsi'' which had the suffix *''-ê-''.
 
The past participle of all verbs was formed with the suffix *''-þaz'' which, depending on the environment, could become *''-taz'', *''-daz'', or *''-saz''. Some verbs had a connector vowel, while others did not. For those that did, it was usually *''-a-'' (or *''-i-'' in the case of ''j''-presents). Verbs with nasal infixes or vowel suffixes did not exhibit these in the past participle.
 
The infinitive was formed with the suffix *''-mį'' added to the present stem (including any irregularities). ''j''-presents used a connector vowel of *''-i-'' (light) or *''-ī-'' (heavy). Otherwise, if the present stem did not end in a vowel, the connector vowel *''-a-'' was used.
 
'''Example (class 3): *''akamį'' "to do, act"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *ak'''amį'''
|-
|-
! 1S
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| *þrag'''ō'''
| colspan="3"| *ak'''inþs'''
| *þrag'''ōr'''
|-
| *þrag'''ǭ'''
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| *þrag'''ār'''
| colspan="3"| *ah'''taz'''
| *þrahs'''ai'''
|-
| *þrahs'''izǭ'''
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
|-
|-
! 2S
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
| *þrag'''iz'''
| *þrag'''izar'''
| *þrag'''āz'''
| *þrag'''āzar'''
| *þrahs'''istai'''
| *þrahs'''izēs'''
| *þrag
|-
|-
! 3S
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
| *þrag'''id'''
| *þrag'''idar'''
| *þrag'''ā'''
| *þrag'''ādar'''
| *þrahs''' '''
| *þrahs'''izē'''
| *þrag'''idō'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1S
| *þrag'''amaz'''
| *ak'''jō'''
| rowspan="3"| *þrag'''iminai'''
| *ak'''jōr'''
| *þrag'''āmaz'''
| *ak'''jǭ'''
| rowspan="3"| *þrag'''āminai'''
| *ak'''jār'''
| *þrahs'''amaz'''
| *ēk'''ai'''
| *þrahs'''izēmaz'''
| *ēk'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2S
| *þrag'''idiz'''
| *ak'''iz'''
| *þrag'''ādiz'''
| *ak'''izar'''
| *þrahs'''istiz'''
| *ak'''jāz'''
| *þrahs'''izēþiz'''
| *ak'''jāzar'''
| *þrag'''id'''
| *ēk'''istai'''
| *ēk'''izēs'''
| *ak
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3S
| *þrag'''and'''
| *ak'''id'''
| *þrag'''ān'''
| *ak'''idar'''
| *þrahs'''ēri'''
| *ak'''jā'''
| *þrahs'''izēn'''
| *ak'''jādar'''
| *þrag'''andō'''
| *ēk''' '''
| *ēk'''izē'''
| *ak'''idō'''
|-
|-
|}
! 1P
 
| *ak'''jamaz'''
'''Example: *''hanamį'' (class 7) "to sing"'''
| rowspan="3"| *ak'''iminai'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
| *ak'''jāmaz'''
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| rowspan="3"| *ak'''jāminai'''
| colspan="3"| *han'''amį'''
| *ēk'''amaz'''
| *ēk'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 2P
| colspan="3"| *han'''inþs'''
| *ak'''idiz'''
| *ak'''jādiz'''
| *ēk'''istiz'''
| *ēk'''izēþiz'''
| *ak'''id'''
|-
! 3P
| *ak'''jand'''
| *ak'''jān'''
| *ēk'''ēri'''
| *ēk'''izēn'''
| *ak'''jandō'''
|-
|}
 
'''Example (class 3, light ''j''-present): *''dahimį'' "to do, make"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *dah'''imį'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *dag'''inþs'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *han'''þaz'''
| colspan="3"| *dah'''taz'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
Line 1,804: Line 2,218:
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1S
| *han'''ō'''
| *dah'''jō'''
| *han'''ōr'''
| *dah'''jōr'''
| *han'''ǭ'''
| *dah'''jǭ'''
| *han'''ār'''
| *dah'''jār'''
| *hehan'''ai'''
| *dēh'''ai'''
| *hegan'''izǭ'''
| *dēg'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 2S
| *han'''iz'''
| *dah'''iz'''
| *han'''izar'''
| *dah'''izar'''
| *han'''āz'''
| *dah'''jāz'''
| *han'''āzar'''
| *dag'''jāzar'''
| *hegan'''istai'''
| *dēg'''istai'''
| *hegan'''izēs'''
| *dēg'''izēs'''
| *han
| *dah
|-
|-
! 3S
! 3S
| *han'''id'''
| *dah'''id'''
| *han'''idar'''
| *dah'''idar'''
| *han'''ā'''
| *dah'''jā'''
| *han'''ādar'''
| *dag'''jādar'''
| *hehan''' '''
| *dēh''' '''
| *hegan'''izē'''
| *dēg'''izē'''
| *han'''idō'''
| *dah'''idō'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| *han'''amaz'''
| *dah'''jamaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *han'''iminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *dag'''iminai'''
| *han'''āmaz'''
| *dag'''jāmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *han'''āminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *dag'''jāminai'''
| *hegan'''amaz'''
| *dēh'''amaz'''
| *hegan'''izēmaz'''
| *dēg'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| *han'''idiz'''
| *dah'''idiz'''
| *han'''ādiz'''
| *dag'''jādiz'''
| *hegan'''istiz'''
| *dēg'''istiz'''
| *hegan'''izēþiz'''
| *dēg'''izēþiz'''
| *han'''id'''
| *dah'''id'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| *han'''and'''
| *dah'''jand'''
| *han'''ān'''
| *dah'''jān'''
| *hegan'''ēri'''
| *dēg'''ēri'''
| *hegan'''izēn'''
| *dag'''izēn'''
| *han'''andō'''
| *dag'''jandō'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


'''Example (class 7, heavy ''j''-present): *''bargīmį'' "to stuff"'''
'''Example: *''þragamį'' (class 6) "to drag"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *barg'''īmį'''
| colspan="3"| *þrag'''amį'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *barg'''īnþs'''
| colspan="3"| *þrag'''inþs'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *barh'''taz'''
| colspan="3"| *þrah'''taz'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
Line 1,871: Line 2,285:
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1S
| *barh'''ijō'''
| *þrag'''ō'''
| *barh'''ijōr'''
| *þrag'''ōr'''
| *barh'''ijǭ'''
| *þrag'''ǭ'''
| *barh'''ijār'''
| *þrag'''ār'''
| *bebarh'''ai'''
| *þrahs'''ai'''
| *bebarg'''izǭ'''
| *þrahs'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 2S
| *barh'''īz'''
| *þrag'''iz'''
| *barg'''īzar'''
| *þrag'''izar'''
| *barh'''ijāz'''
| *þrag'''āz'''
| *barg'''ijāzar'''
| *þrag'''āzar'''
| *bebarg'''istai'''
| *þrahs'''istai'''
| *bebarg'''izēs'''
| *þrahs'''izēs'''
| *barh
| *þrag
|-
|-
! 3S
! 3S
| *barh'''īd'''
| *þrag'''id'''
| *barg'''īdar'''
| *þrag'''idar'''
| *barh'''ijā'''
| *þrag'''ā'''
| *barg'''ijādar'''
| *þrag'''ādar'''
| *bebarh''' '''
| *þrahs''' '''
| *bebarg'''izē'''
| *þrahs'''izē'''
| *barh'''īdō'''
| *þrag'''idō'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| *barg'''ijamaz'''
| *þrag'''amaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *barg'''īminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *þrag'''iminai'''
| *barg'''ijāmaz'''
| *þrag'''āmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *barg'''ijāminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *þrag'''āminai'''
| *bebarh'''amaz'''
| *þrahs'''amaz'''
| *bebarg'''izēmaz'''
| *þrahs'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| *barg'''īdiz'''
| *þrag'''idiz'''
| *barg'''ijādiz'''
| *þrag'''ādiz'''
| *bebarg'''istiz'''
| *þrahs'''istiz'''
| *bebarg'''izēþiz'''
| *þrahs'''izēþiz'''
| *barg'''īþ'''
| *þrag'''id'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| *barh'''ijand'''
| *þrag'''and'''
| *barh'''ijān'''
| *þrag'''ān'''
| *bebarg'''ēri'''
| *þrahs'''ēri'''
| *bebarg'''izēn'''
| *þrahs'''izēn'''
| *barg'''ijandō'''
| *þrag'''andō'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


'''Example: *''stêmį'' (irregular, present suffix ''-ê-'') "to stand"'''
'''Example: *''hanamį'' (class 7) "to sing"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *st'''êmį'''
| colspan="3"| *han'''amį'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *st'''ênþs'''
| colspan="3"| *han'''inþs'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *sta'''þaz'''
| colspan="3"| *han'''þaz'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
Line 1,938: Line 2,352:
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1S
| *st'''êō'''
| *han'''ō'''
| *st'''êōr'''
| *han'''ōr'''
| *st'''êǭ'''
| *han'''ǭ'''
| *st'''êār'''
| *han'''ār'''
| *steþ'''ai'''
| *hehan'''ai'''
| *stid'''izǭ'''
| *hegan'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 2S
| *st'''ês'''
| *han'''iz'''
| *st'''êsar'''
| *han'''izar'''
| *st'''êāz'''
| *han'''āz'''
| *st'''êāzar'''
| *han'''āzar'''
| *stid'''istai'''
| *hegan'''istai'''
| *stid'''izēs'''
| *hegan'''izēs'''
| *st'''ê'''
| *han
|-
|-
! 3S
! 3S
| *st'''êþ'''
| *han'''id'''
| *st'''êþar'''
| *han'''idar'''
| *st'''êā'''
| *han'''ā'''
| *st'''êādar'''
| *han'''ādar'''
| *steþ''' '''
| *hehan''' '''
| *stid'''izē'''
| *hegan'''izē'''
| *st'''êdō'''
| *han'''idō'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| *st'''êmaz'''
| *han'''amaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *st'''êminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *han'''iminai'''
| *st'''êāmaz'''
| *han'''āmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *st'''êāminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *han'''āminai'''
| *steþ'''amaz'''
| *hegan'''amaz'''
| *stid'''izēmaz'''
| *hegan'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| *st'''êþiz'''
| *han'''idiz'''
| *st'''êādiz'''
| *han'''ādiz'''
| *stid'''istiz'''
| *hegan'''istiz'''
| *stid'''izēþiz'''
| *hegan'''izēþiz'''
| *st'''êd'''
| *han'''id'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| *st'''ênþ'''
| *han'''and'''
| *st'''êān'''
| *han'''ān'''
| *sted'''ēri'''
| *hegan'''ēri'''
| *stid'''izēn'''
| *hegan'''izēn'''
| *st'''êndō'''
| *han'''andō'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Weak verbs====
'''Example (class 7, heavy ''j''-present): *''bargīmį'' "to stuff"'''
Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they took the following endings in the past indicative:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 1P !! 2P !! 3P
| colspan="3"| *barg'''īmį'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *barg'''īnþs'''
|-
|-
| *-bǭ || *-bōs || *-bō || *-bōmaz || *-bōþiz || *-bōn
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *barh'''taz'''
|-
|-
|}
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
The *''-b-'' was usually preceded with a connector vowel, which depended on the verb's class. The same connector vowel was also used to form the infinitive.
|-
 
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
The past subjunctive endings were also added to the present stem. A connector vowel was also used, which can be predicted from the connector vowel of the past indicative.
|-
<!--
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
Weak verbs can be categorized into the following classes:
|-
<!--
! 1S
#'''Class 1:'''
| *barh'''ijō'''
#*The present stem contained a *''-(i)j-'' and was conjugated in the same way as strong ''j''-presents.
| *barh'''ijōr'''
#*The past indicative had the connector vowel ''-(i)ja-''.
| *barh'''ijǭ'''
-
| *barh'''ijār'''
<!--Like strong verbs, weak verbs include. light and heavy ''j''-presents. However, unlike strong verbs, this ending is also included in -->
| *bebarh'''ai'''
====='''Class 1'''=====
| *bebarg'''izǭ'''
Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to ''j''-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.
|-
 
! 2S
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-(i)ja-'', while the past subjunctive and past participle had a connector vowel *''-i/ī-''. In both cases, the suffixes followed Siever's law.
| *barh'''īz'''
 
| *barg'''īzar'''
====='''Class 2'''=====
| *barh'''ijāz'''
Class 2 weak verbs had the following characteristics:
| *barg'''ijāzar'''
*The present stem ended in *''-ō-'', which absorbed any following short vowels and contracted with 1S *''-ō-'' to *''-ô-''. In the present subjunctive, expected **''-ōǭ'' contracted to *''-ǫ̂'', while expected **''-ōā-'' became *''-ōē-''.
| *bebarg'''istai'''
*The connector vowel in the past (both indicative and subjunctive) and past participle was *''-ō-'', as in the present stem.
| *bebarg'''izēs'''
 
| *barh
====='''Class 3'''=====
|-
There were two subclasses of class 3 weak verbs.
! 3S
 
| *barh'''īd'''
The first subclass was conjugated with the suffixed vowel *''-ē-'', which absorbed following short vowels (similar to the *''-ō-'' of class 2) but did not contract with long vowels. The past participle dropped the *''-ē-'' suffix and instead had the connector vowel *''-a-''.
| *barg'''īdar'''
 
| *barh'''ijā'''
The second subclass was conjugated similarly to the first subclass but with the following exception: The present subjunctive were conjugated similarly to class 1 weak verbs (i.e. without the vowel *''-ē-'' and with a palatal suffix). The past participle had the connector vowel *''-i-''.
| *barg'''ijādar'''
 
| *bebarh''' '''
====='''Class 4'''=====
| *bebarg'''izē'''
Class 4 weak verbs did not have a suffix. Their non-past conjugation followed that of non-''j''-stem strong verbs.
| *barh'''īdō'''
 
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-a-'', and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle had no connector vowel.
 
====Preterite-present verbs====
Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts.
 
For example:
*''*menamį'' "to remember", ''*memanai'' "I remember", ''*menabǭ'' "I remembered", ''*minþaz'' "remembered"
*''*ōtamį'' "to hate", ''*ōtai'' "I hate", ''*ōtabǭ'' "I hated", ''*ōsaz'' "hated"
*''*(ga)knōmį'' "to know, be familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōai'' "I know, am familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōbǭ'' "I knew, was familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōþaz'' "known"
*''*(ga)swedamį'' "to be used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swedai'' "I am used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swedabǭ'' "I was used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swessaz'' "accustomed"
*''*emamį'' "to have, own", ''*ēmai'' "I have, own", ''*emabǭ'' "I had, owned", ''*imþaz'' "had, owned"
*''*simį'' "to be allowed", ''*sisai'' "I am allowed", ''*sibǭ'' "I was allowed", ''*siþaz'' "allowed"
*''*hrimį'' "to be determined", ''*hrisai'' "I am determined", ''*hribǭ'' "I was determined", ''*hriþaz'' "determined"
*''*(ga)flēmį'' "to suffice, be enough", ''*(ga)flēai'' "I suffice, am enough", ''*(ga)flēþaz'' "sufficed, enough"
*''*þelamį'' "to owe, have to", ''*þeþalai'' "I owe, have to", ''*þelabǭ'' "I owe, had to", ''*þelþaz'' "owed, had to"
*''*afamį'' "to be necessary/suitable", ''*ēfai'' "I am necessary/suitable", ''*afabǭ'' "I was necessary/suitable", ''*aftaz'' "necessary/suitable"
<!--
*''jawōmį'' "to be suitable", ''*jawazai'' "I am suitable", ''*jawōbǭ'' "-->
 
====The verb "to be"====
<!--
The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*bū/bus-''.<!-- They can be treated as two separate verbs sharing past indicative and imperative forms.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="2"| *immį
| colspan="2"| *būamį
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 1P
| colspan="2"| *sinþs
| *barg'''ijamaz'''
| colspan="2"| *būinþs
| rowspan="3"| *barg'''īminai'''
| *barg'''ijāmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *barg'''ijāminai'''
| *bebarh'''amaz'''
| *bebarg'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Past participle
! 2P
| colspan="2"| —
| *barg'''īdiz'''
| colspan="2"| *būadaz
| *barg'''ijādiz'''
| *bebarg'''istiz'''
| *bebarg'''izēþiz'''
| *barg'''īþ'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="5" | Present !! colspan="3"| Past !! rowspan="3"| Imperative
! 3P
| *barh'''ijand'''
| *barh'''ijān'''
| *bebarg'''ēri'''
| *bebarg'''izēn'''
| *barg'''ijandō'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! colspan="2"| Subjunctive
|}
 
'''Example: *''stêmį'' (irregular, present suffix ''-ê-'') "to stand"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *st'''êmį'''
|-
|-
! !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį'' 1 !! ''*būamį'' 2 !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį'' !! ''*būamį'' !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį''
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *st'''ênþs'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *sta'''þaz'''
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
|-
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1S
| *izą
| *st'''êō'''
| *būō
| *st'''êōr'''
| *buzą
| *st'''êǭ'''
| *sijǭ
| *st'''êār'''
| *buzǭ
| *steþ'''ai'''
| *bebūai
| *stid'''izǭ'''
| *issǭ
| *bebūizǭ
|-
|-
! 2S
! 2S
| *iz
| *st'''ês'''
| *būiz
| *st'''êsar'''
| *buz
| *st'''êāz'''
| *sijēz
| *st'''êāzar'''
| *buzāz
| *stid'''istai'''
| *bebūistai
| *stid'''izēs'''
| *issēz
| *st'''ê'''
| *bebūizēz
| *bū
|-
|-
! 3S
! 3S
| *ist
| *st'''êþ'''
| *būid
| *st'''êþar'''
| *bust
| *st'''êā'''
| *sijē
| *st'''êādar'''
| *buzā
| *steþ''' '''
| *bebū
| *stid'''izē'''
| *issē
| *st'''êdō'''
| *bebūizē
| *būidō
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| *samaz
| *st'''êmaz'''
| *būamaz
| rowspan="3"| *st'''êminai'''
| *buzamaz
| *st'''êāmaz'''
| *sīmaz
| rowspan="3"| *st'''êāminai'''
| *buzāmaz
| *steþ'''amaz'''
| *bebūamaz
| *stid'''izēmaz'''
| *issēmaz
| *bebūizēmaz
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| *istiz
| *st'''êþiz'''
| *būidiz
| *st'''êādiz'''
| *bustiz
| *stid'''istiz'''
| *sīþiz
| *stid'''izēþiz'''
| *buzāþiz
| *st'''êd'''
| *bebūistiz
| *issēþiz
| *bebūizēþiz
| *būid
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| *sind
| *st'''ênþ'''
| *būind
| *st'''êān'''
| *buzind
| *sted'''ēri'''
| *sijēn
| *stid'''izēn'''
| *buzān
| *st'''êndō'''
| *bebūēri
| *issēn
| *bebūizēn
| *būindō
|-
|-
|}-->
|}-->


The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*beu/bus-''. They were in fact two verbs, ''*immį'' "to be" and ''*biumį'' "to be, become", which overlapped in some forms (namely the past indicative, both participles, and the imperative).
====Weak verbs====
 
<!--
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they took the following endings in the past indicative:
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
| colspan="2"| *immį
! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 1P !! 2P !! 3P
| colspan="2"| *biumį
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| *-bǭ || *-bōs || *-bō || *-bōmaz || *-bōþiz || *-bōn
| colspan="4"| *beunþs
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Past participle
|}
| colspan="4"| *beudaz
The *''-b-'' was usually preceded with a connector vowel, which depended on the verb's class. The same connector vowel was also used to form the infinitive.
|-
 
! !! colspan="5" | Present !! colspan="3"| Past !! rowspan="3"| Imperative
The past subjunctive endings were also added to the present stem. A connector vowel was also used, which can be predicted from the connector vowel of the past indicative.
|-
<!--
! !! colspan="3"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! colspan="2"| Subjunctive
Weak verbs can be categorized into the following classes:
|-
<!--
! !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį'' 1 !! ''*biumį'' 2 !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį'' !! ''*biumį'' !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį''
#'''Class 1:'''
|-
#*The present stem contained a *''-(i)j-'' and was conjugated in the same way as strong ''j''-presents.
! 1S
#*The past indicative had the connector vowel ''-(i)ja-''.
| *izą
====='''Class 1'''=====
| *bewō
Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to ''j''-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.
| *buzą
 
| *sijǭ
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-(i)ja-'', while the past subjunctive and past participle had a connector vowel *''-i/ī-''. In both cases, the suffixes followed Siever's law.
| *buzǭ
 
| *bebewai
====='''Class 2'''=====
| *issǭ
Class 2 weak verbs had the following characteristics:
| *bebeuzǭ
*The present stem ended in *''-ō-'', which absorbed any following short vowels and contracted with 1S *''-ō-'' to *''-ô-''. In the present subjunctive, expected **''-ōǭ'' contracted to *''-ǫ̂'', while expected **''-ōā-'' became *''-ōē-''.
|-
*The connector vowel in the past (both indicative and subjunctive) and past participle was *''-ō-'', as in the present stem.
! 2S
 
| *iz
====='''Class 3'''=====
| *beuz
There were two subclasses of class 3 weak verbs.
| *buz
 
| *sijēz
The first subclass was conjugated with the suffixed vowel *''-ē-'', which absorbed following short vowels (similar to the *''-ō-'' of class 2) but did not contract with long vowels. The past participle dropped the *''-ē-'' suffix and instead had the connector vowel *''-a-''.
| *buzāz
 
| *bebeustai
The second subclass was conjugated similarly to the first subclass but with the following exception: The present subjunctive were conjugated similarly to class 1 weak verbs (i.e. without the vowel *''-ē-'' and with a palatal suffix). The past participle had the connector vowel *''-i-''.
| *issēz
 
| *bebeuzēz
====='''Class 4'''=====
| *beu
Class 4 weak verbs did not have a suffix. Their non-past conjugation followed that of non-''j''-stem strong verbs.
|-
 
! 3S
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-a-'', and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle had no connector vowel.
| *ist
-->
| *beud
 
| *bust
====Preterite-present verbs====
| *sijē
<!--
| *buzā
Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts.
| *bebeu
 
| *issē
For example:
| *bebeuzē
*''*menamį'' "to remember", ''*memanai'' "I remember", ''*menabǭ'' "I remembered", ''*minþaz'' "remembered"
| *beudō
*''*ōtamį'' "to hate", ''*ōtai'' "I hate", ''*ōtabǭ'' "I hated", ''*ōsaz'' "hated"
*''*(ga)knōmį'' "to know, be familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōai'' "I know, am familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōbǭ'' "I knew, was familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōþaz'' "known"
*''*(ga)swedamį'' "to be used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swedai'' "I am used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swedabǭ'' "I was used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swessaz'' "accustomed"
*''*emamį'' "to have, own", ''*ēmai'' "I have, own", ''*emabǭ'' "I had, owned", ''*imþaz'' "had, owned"
*''*simį'' "to be allowed", ''*sisai'' "I am allowed", ''*sibǭ'' "I was allowed", ''*siþaz'' "allowed"
*''*hrimį'' "to be determined", ''*hrisai'' "I am determined", ''*hribǭ'' "I was determined", ''*hriþaz'' "determined"
*''*(ga)flēmį'' "to suffice, be enough", ''*(ga)flēai'' "I suffice, am enough", ''*(ga)flēþaz'' "sufficed, enough"
*''*þelamį'' "to owe, have to", ''*þeþalai'' "I owe, have to", ''*þelabǭ'' "I owe, had to", ''*þelþaz'' "owed, had to"
*''*afamį'' "to be necessary/suitable", ''*ēfai'' "I am necessary/suitable", ''*afabǭ'' "I was necessary/suitable", ''*aftaz'' "necessary/suitable"
<!--
*''jawōmį'' "to be suitable", ''*jawazai'' "I am suitable", ''*jawōbǭ'' "-->
 
====The verb "to be"====
<!--
The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*bū/bus-''.<!-- They can be treated as two separate verbs sharing past indicative and imperative forms.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="2"| *immį
| colspan="2"| *būamį
|-
|-
! 1P
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| *samaz
| colspan="2"| *sinþs
| *beumaz
| colspan="2"| *būinþs
| *buzamaz
|-
| *sīmaz
! colspan="2" | Past participle
| *buzāmaz
| colspan="2"| —
| *bebeumaz
| colspan="2"| *būadaz
| *issēmaz
|-
| *bebeuzēmaz
! !! colspan="5" | Present !! colspan="3"| Past !! rowspan="3"| Imperative
|-
|-
! 2P
! !! colspan="3"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! colspan="2"| Subjunctive
| *istiz
| *beudiz
| *bustiz
| *sīþiz
| *buzāþiz
| *bebiustiz
| *issēþiz
| *bebeuzēþiz
| *beud
|-
|-
! 3P
! !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį'' 1 !! ''*būamį'' 2 !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį'' !! ''*būamį'' !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį''
| *sind
| *beund
| *buzind
| *sīn
| *buzān
| *bebewēri
| *issēn
| *bebeuzēn
| *beundō
|-
|-
|}
! 1S
 
| *izą
==Syntax==
| *būō
===Constituent order===
| *buzą
===Noun phrase===
| *sijǭ
===Verb phrase===
| *buzǭ
===Sentence phrase===
| *bebūai
===Dependent clauses===
| *issǭ
<!-- etc. etc. -->
| *bebūizǭ
==Vocabulary==
===Time - ''*þimfaz''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Seasons - ''*jōras þimfizō''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
|-
| spring || *wesar (*wesn-; ''n.'', ''r/n''-stem)
! 2S
| *iz
| *būiz
| *buz
| *sijēz
| *buzāz
| *bebūistai
| *issēz
| *bebūizēz
| *bū
|-
|-
| summer || *aisōþs (''f.'', cons.-stem)
! 3S
| *ist
| *būid
| *bust
| *sijē
| *buzā
| *bebū
| *issē
| *bebūizē
| *būidō
|-
|-
| fall || *missiz (''f.'', ''i''-stem)
! 1P
|-
| *samaz
| winter || *gē₂mz (*gē₂m-; ''f.'', cons.-stem)
| *būamaz
| *buzamaz
| *sīmaz
| *buzāmaz
| *bebūamaz
| *issēmaz
| *bebūizēmaz
|-
! 2P
| *istiz
| *būidiz
| *bustiz
| *sīþiz
| *buzāþiz
| *bebūistiz
| *issēþiz
| *bebūizēþiz
| *būid
|-
! 3P
| *sind
| *būind
| *buzind
| *sijēn
| *buzān
| *bebūēri
| *issēn
| *bebūizēn
| *būindō
|-
|-
|}
|}
<!--
 
The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*beu/bus-''. They were in fact two verbs, ''*immį'' "to be" and ''*biumį'' "to be, become", which overlapped in some forms (namely the past indicative, both participles, and the imperative).
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Gregorian months - '' ''
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
! English !! Proto-Tungric
| colspan="2"| *immį
| colspan="2"| *biumį
|-
|-
| January ||  
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="4"| *beunþs
|-
|-
| February ||  
! colspan="2" | Past participle
| colspan="4"| *beudaz
|-
|-
| March ||  
! !! colspan="5" | Present !! colspan="3"| Past !! rowspan="3"| Imperative
|-
|-
| April ||  
! !! colspan="3"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! colspan="2"| Subjunctive
|-
|-
| May ||
! !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį'' 1 !! ''*biumį'' 2 !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį'' !! ''*biumį'' !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį''
|-
|-
| June ||  
! 1S
| *izą
| *bewō
| *buzą
| *sijǭ
| *buzǭ
| *bebewai
| *issǭ
| *bebeuzǭ
|-
|-
| July ||  
! 2S
|-
| *iz
| August ||  
| *beuz
|-
| *buz
| September ||
| *sijēz
| *buzāz
| *bebeustai
| *issēz
| *bebeuzēz
| *beu
|-
|-
| October ||  
! 3S
| *ist
| *beud
| *bust
| *sijē
| *buzā
| *bebeu
| *issē
| *bebeuzē
| *beudō
|-
|-
| November ||  
! 1P
| *samaz
| *beumaz
| *buzamaz
| *sīmaz
| *buzāmaz
| *bebeumaz
| *issēmaz
| *bebeuzēmaz
|-
|-
| December ||  
! 2P
| *istiz
| *beudiz
| *bustiz
| *sīþiz
| *buzāþiz
| *bebiustiz
| *issēþiz
| *bebeuzēþiz
| *beud
|-
! 3P
| *sind
| *beund
| *buzind
| *sīn
| *buzān
| *bebewēri
| *issēn
| *bebeuzēn
| *beundō
|-
|-
|}
|}-->


==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->
==Vocabulary==
===Time - ''*hēsaz''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Days of the week - '' ''
|+ Seasons - ''*katō hēsai''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
! English !! Proto-Rugic
|-
| Sunday ||
|-
|-
| Monday ||  
| spring || *westrō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
| Tuesday ||  
| summer || *laidą (''n.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
| Wednesday ||  
| fall || *aziniz (''f.'', ''i''-stem)
|-
|-
| Thursday ||  
| winter || *dīmō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
| Friday ||
|-
| Saturday ||
|-
|-
|}
|}
-->
<!--
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Parts of the day - ''*tē₂wiz farþēz''
|+ Gregorian months - '' ''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-
| day || *teuz (''m.'', ''u''-stem<sup><small>1</small></sup>)
|-
|-
| dawn || *ausōz (''f.'', ''z''-stem)
| January ||  
|-
|-
| morning || *mōdūraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
| February ||  
|-
|-
<!--
| March ||  
| noon ||  
|-
|-
| afternoon ||  
| April ||  
|-
|-
-->
| May ||  
| evening || *wesperaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
<!--
| June ||  
| dusk ||  
|-
|-
-->
| July ||
| night || *nahts (''f.'', cons.-stem)
|-
| August ||
|-
| September ||  
|-
| October ||
|-
| November ||
|-
| December ||
|-
|-
<!--
| midnight ||
-->
|}
|}
'''Notes:'''
<sup><small>1</small></sup> Expected **''-ea-'' was coalesced to *''-ē₂-'' (e.g. nominative plural was ''*tē₂wiz'' rather than ''*teawiz'').


{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Units of time - ''*þimfiziz mēþēz''
|+ Days of the week - '' ''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-
<!--
| second ||
|-
|-
| minute ||  
| Sunday ||  
-->
|-
|-
| hour ||  
| Monday ||  
|-
|-
| day || *teuz (''m.'', ''u''-stem, irregular)
| Tuesday ||  
|-
|-
| week || *sirį̄ (''f.'', ''īn''-stem)
| Wednesday ||  
|-
|-
| month || *mēns (*mēns-, ''m.'', cons.-stem)
| Thursday ||  
|-
|-
| season || *þimfaz (''n.'', ''z''-stem)
| Friday ||  
|-
|-
| year || *aþnaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem); *jōraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
| Saturday ||  
|-
|-
|}
|}
 
-->
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Time adverbs - ''*þimfiziz werdō''
|+ Parts of the day - ''*tīnō tailai''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-
| day || *tīnaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
| now || *nu, *nū
| dawn || *garjō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
| then || *þan
| morning || *austrō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
| recently, a short time ago ||  
<!--
| noon ||  
|-
|-
| earlier || *anþ
| afternoon ||  
|-
|-
| soon, shortly || *mahs
-->
| evening || *weheraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
| later ||  
<!--
| dusk ||  
|-
|-
| always || *simfer
-->
| night || *nahtiz (''f.'', ''i''-stem)
|-
|-
| often || *saif
<!--
| midnight ||  
-->
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Units of time - ''*hēsō mēþīz''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
<!--
| second ||
|-
|-
| sometimes ||  
| minute ||  
-->
|-
|-
| rarely ||  
| hour ||  
|-
|-
| never || *ne aiwą
| day || *tīnaz (''m.'', ''o''-stem)
|-
|-
| ever || *aiwą
| week || *seftumō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
| still, yet || *int
| month || *mēnsiz (''m.'', ''i''-stem)
|-
|-
| already || *anþ
| season || *hēsaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
<!--
|-
|-
| today ||  
| year || *kataz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
| tonight ||  
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Time adverbs - ''*hēsō wardō''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| now || *nu, *nū
|-
| then || *þat
|-
| recently, a short time ago ||
|-
| earlier ||
|-
| soon, shortly ||
|-
| later ||
|-
| always || *wist
|-
| often || *hinstō
|-
| sometimes ||
|-
| rarely ||
|-
| never || *ne waihaz
|-
| ever || *waihaz
|-
| still, yet || *esk
|-
| already || *jau(k)
<!--
|-
| today ||
|-
| tonight ||  
-->
-->
|-
|-
| yesterday || *gizi; *gester-
| yesterday ||  
<!--
<!--
|-
|-
Line 2,391: Line 2,937:
-->
-->
|-
|-
| tomorrow || *hrōz
| tomorrow ||  
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
Line 2,406: Line 2,952:
| next week ||  
| next week ||  
|-
|-
-->
-->
|}
|}
 
 
===Colours - ''*helaziz''===
===Colours - ''*hwaidai''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Colours - ''*helaziz''
|+ Colours - ''*hwaidai''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-
|-
| white || *albaz
| white || *palaz; *plaitaz
|-
|-
| grey || *hasnaz
| grey || *sīwaz
|-
|-
| black || *ōþraz
| black || *hirznaz
|-
|-
| red || *raudaz, *rausaz
| red || *rautaz; *rūtijaz
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
| orange ||
| orange ||
|-
|-
-->
-->
| brown || *patjaz, *duswaz
| brown || *pēraz
|-
|-
| yellow || *gelwaz, *blāwaz
| yellow || *kildaz; *falwaz
|-
|-
| green || *wīsidaz
| green || *krēnaz; *daljaz
|-
|-
| blue || *hilizijaz
| blue || *matraz
|-
|-
<!--
| pink ||
|-
| purple ||
|-
| golden ||
|-
-->
|}
 
==Example texts==
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
<!--
<!--
| pink ||
Afnijai gamaniz lauderai gaflōnaihw han tehnadōþi jawizihw galōþai sind. Sabiz attōnōþōi sind raþjǭ gaskīndijǭhw, eþ alþerabiz anamǭ brōþrōlijǭ frōdamį þeþalēri<!--tēgabēnþ.
|-
| purple ||
|-
| golden ||
|-
-->
|}
 
==Example texts==
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
Afnijai gamaniz lauderai gaflōnaihw han tehnadōþi jawizihw galōþai sind. Sabiz attōnōþōi sind raþjǭ gaskīndijǭhw, eþ alþerabiz anamǭ brōþrōlijǭ frōdamį þeþalēri<!--tēgabēnþ-->.


'''Translation:''' All humans are born free and equal with dignity and rights. Reason and conscience are given to them, and they must show others a brotherly spirit.
'''Translation:''' All humans are born free and equal with dignity and rights. Reason and conscience are given to them, and they must show others a brotherly spirit.
Line 2,464: Line 3,011:




[[Category:Proto-Tungric]]
[[Category:Proto-Rugic]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Italic languages]]
[[Category:Balto-Slavic languages]]
Shariifka
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