Proto-Rugic: Difference between revisions

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The Balto-Slavic base of Proto-Rugic (known as Pre-Proto-Rugic, or PPR for short) had the following features:
The Balto-Slavic base of Proto-Rugic (known as Pre-Proto-Rugic, or PPR for short) had the following features:
*PPR lack the ''*eu'' to *''jau'' sound change that affected all known Balto-Slavic languages. Alternatively, if this sound change did happen, it was reversed.
*PPR lacked the ''*eu'' to *''jau'' sound change that affected all known Balto-Slavic languages. Alternatively, if this sound change did happen, it was reversed.
<!--
<!--
*PPR lacked the merger of Proto-Italic /θ, xʷ, f/ that occurred in all attested Italic languages. Instead, each of these merged with its voiced counterpart, as did /x/.  
*PPR lacked the merger of Proto-Italic /θ, xʷ, f/ that occurred in all attested Italic languages. Instead, each of these merged with its voiced counterpart, as did /x/.  
Line 136: Line 136:
| *jūk'''ōu'''
| *jūk'''ōu'''
| *jūk'''aizu'''
| *jūk'''aizu'''
|}
There was a rare class of ''a''-stems with contractions (from earlier stems ending in ''aj'') known as ''ā''-stems.<!--, ''ê''-stems, and ''ô'' stems (e.g. ''hrôz'')-->. They decline as below:
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| *pāz ''m.'' "battle" || colspan="3"| *twą̄ ''n.'' "pair"
|-
! Nominative
| *p'''āz'''
| rowspan="3"| *p'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *p'''āi'''
| rowspan="3"| *tw'''ą̄'''
| rowspan="3"| *tw'''āi'''
| rowspan="3"| *tw'''ô'''
|-
! Vocative
| *p'''ai'''
|-
! Accusative
| *p'''ą̄'''
| *p'''ônz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *p'''ô'''
| *p'''ôu'''
| *p'''ǫ̂'''
| *tw'''ô'''
| *tw'''ôu'''
| *tw'''ǫ̂'''
|-
! Dative
| *p'''ôi'''
| *p'''āmō'''
| *p'''āmaz'''
| *tw'''ôi'''
| *tw'''āmō'''
| *tw'''āmaz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *p'''āi'''
| *p'''āmō'''
| *p'''ôiz'''
| *tw'''āi'''
| *tw'''āmō'''
| *tw'''ôiz'''
|-
! Locative
| *p'''āi'''
| *p'''ôu'''
| *p'''āizu'''
| *tw'''āi'''
| *tw'''ôu'''
| *tw'''āizu'''
|}
|}


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Additionally, there was a rare subclass of ''ō''-stem nouns known as ''ī/jō''-stems. These nouns took the ending *''-ī'' in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations took the regular ''ō''-stem endings preceded by *''-(i)j-'' (according to Siever's Law).
Additionally, there was a rare subclass of ''ō''-stem nouns known as ''ī/jō''-stems. These nouns took the ending *''-ī'' in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations took the regular ''ō''-stem endings preceded by *''-(i)j-'' (according to Siever's Law).
There were also contracted ''ō''-stems known as ''ô''-stems. They were declined by replacing the ''-ō-'' in endings with ''-ô-'' (and ''-ǭ'' with ''-ǫ̂''). For example, ''*skwô'' "needle (botany)".


====''ē''-stems====
====''ē''-stems====
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Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| *ahmô ''m.'' "stone" !! colspan="3"| *immô ''n.'' "name"
! !! colspan="3"| *hamô ''m.'' "stone" !! colspan="3"| *immô ''n.'' "name"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *ahm'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *ham'''ô'''
| rowspan="3"| *ahm'''inī'''
| rowspan="3"| *ham'''inī'''
| rowspan="2"| *ahm'''iniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *ham'''iniz'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''ô'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''ô'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''inī'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''inī'''
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|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *ahm'''inį'''
| *ham'''inį'''
| *ahm'''ininz'''
| *ham'''ininz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *ahm'''iniz'''
| *ham'''iniz'''
| *ahm'''inau'''
| *ham'''inau'''
| *ahm'''inǭ'''
| *ham'''inǭ'''
| *imm'''iniz'''
| *imm'''iniz'''
| *imm'''inau'''
| *imm'''inau'''
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|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *ahm'''inī'''
| *ham'''inī'''
| *ahm'''immō'''
| *ham'''immō'''
| *ahm'''immaz'''
| *ham'''immaz'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''immō'''
| *imm'''immō'''
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|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *ahm'''immi'''
| *ham'''immi'''
| *ahm'''immō'''
| *ham'''immō'''
| *ahm'''immīz'''
| *ham'''immīz'''
| *imm'''immi'''
| *imm'''immi'''
| *imm'''immō'''
| *imm'''immō'''
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|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| *ahm'''inī'''
| *ham'''inī'''
| *ahm'''inau'''
| *ham'''inau'''
| *ahm'''inzu'''
| *ham'''inzu'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''inau'''
| *imm'''inau'''
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====''r''-stems====
====''r''-stems====
Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
Masculine and feminine were declined the same. <!--Declension patterns are shown below:-->
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| *prōþê ''m.'' "brother"
! !! colspan="3"| *prōþê ''m.'' "brother"
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| *mōl'''ô'''
| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōz'''
| *mōl'''ōzōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
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! Accusative
! Accusative
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *mōl'''ōninz'''
| *mōl'''aninz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōnz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''awjau'''
| *mōl'''anizǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōzizōz'''
| *mōl'''awjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnizǭ'''
| *mōl'''anizǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōzizjōz'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnizǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
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| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
| *mōl'''ōjjizjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōzōi'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azjōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōzōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
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| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''azjōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ōzōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
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! Locative
! Locative
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''awjau'''
| *mōl'''azwizu'''
| *mōl'''anizu'''
| *mōl'''ōjjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōzwōzu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzu'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''awjau'''
| *mōl'''azwizu'''
| *mōl'''anizu'''
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
! colspan="9"| Weak
! colspan="10"| Weak
|-
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
Line 828: Line 883:
|-
|-
!  Nominative
!  Nominative
| *mōl'''azjaz'''
| *mōl'''aniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''anī'''
| *mōl'''āi'''
| *mōl'''aniz'''
| *mōl'''ô'''
| *mōl'''ōnjō'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ani'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''anī'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnō'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *mōl'''anją'''
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōnz'''
| *mōl'''aninz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōnz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''aniz'''  
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''anjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
| *mōl'''anjǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōzjazjōz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōz'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *mōl'''azjas'''
| *mōl'''aniz'''
| *mōl'''āwjāu'''
| *mōl'''anjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
| *mōl'''anǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
| *mōl'''ōjjazjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōmômō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōmazjōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōmôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōmīzjōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
|-
! Locative
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzu'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
|-
<!--
! colspan="10"| Weak
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
!  Nominative
| *mōl'''anaz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''aną'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''anai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnō'''
|-
! Accusative
| *mōl'''aną'''
| *mōl'''anōnz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnōnz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnōz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmīz'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
| *mōl'''ōjjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōzwōzu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzu'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
|-
|-
-->
|}
====''ja/jō''-stem adjectives====
These were a sub-type of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with a *''-j-'' or *''-ij-'' (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and were declined as such. However, in the weak forms, expected **''-ija-'' became *''-ī-'' and **''-ja-'' became *''-i-''.
====''i''-stem adjectives====
These were declined identically to ''ja/jō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-iz'' and *''-į/it'' respectively instead of the expected **''-(i)jaz'' and **''-(i)ją/(i)jat''. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular could take the ending *''-in'' as an alternative to expected *''-(i)jan''.
The weak forms were identical to those of ''ja/jō''-stems.
====Consonant-stem adjectives====
These were declined identically to ''a/ō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-s/z'' and *''—'' respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **''-az'' and **''-ą/at''.
The weak forms were identical to those of ''a/ō''-stems.
===Pronouns===
<!--
<!--
'''Note:''' As with adjectives, only the ''*s'' forms of the strong feminine genitive are given where applicable. The ''*z'' forms can be derived from these simply by replacing ''*s'' in the endings.-->
! colspan="9"| Weak
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
|-
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
Nouns
|-
Adjectives
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
Verbs
Adverbs
Particles
Derivational morphology -->
====First person, second person, and reflexive pronouns====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! !! colspan="3"| First person !! colspan="3"| Second person !! rowspan="2"| Reflexive
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
! Nominative
|-
| *mōl'''az anaz'''
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *ēzų
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *wet; *wit
| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *mez; *miz
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *þū; *þu
| *mōl'''ōz anōz'''
| *jūt; *jut
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ą aną'''
| *jūz; *juz
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| —
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ō anō'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *mēn; *mi
| *mōl'''ą aną'''
| *nō
| *mōl'''ōnz anōnz'''
| *nōz
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *þēn; *þi
| *mōl'''ōnz anōnz'''
| *wō
| *wōz
| *sēn; *si
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *miniz; *mī
| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *nōu
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *nōzǭ
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *þiwiz; *þī
| *mōl'''ōz anōz'''
| *wōu
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *wōzǭ
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *siwiz; *sī
| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *minī; *mī
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *nōmō
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *nōmaz
| *mōl'''amaz anamaz'''
| *þiwī; *þī
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *wōmō
| *mōl'''ōmō anōmō'''
| *wōmaz
| *mōl'''ōmaz anōmaz'''
| *siwī; *sī
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *mōl'''amaz anamaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *minimi
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *nōmō
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *nōmīz
| *mōl'''ōiz anōiz'''
| *þiwimi
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *wōmō
| *mōl'''ōmō anōmō'''
| *wōmīz
| *mōl'''ōmīz anōmīz'''
| *siwimi
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *mōl'''ōiz anōiz'''
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| *minī
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *nōu
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *nōzu
| *mōl'''aizu anaizu'''
| *þiwī
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *wōu
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *wōzu
| *mōl'''ōzu anōzu'''
| *siwī
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *mōl'''aizu anaizu'''
|-
<!--
! colspan="10"| Weak
|-
|-
! Possessive adj.
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
| *menaz
| *nōwaz
| *nōzjaz
| *þewaz
| *wōwaz
| *wōzjaz
| *sewaz
|-
|}
 
'''Notes:'''
#When two forms are given, the first was the stressed form and the second was the unstressed form.
#Possessive adjectives were always strong.
 
====Other pronouns====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *þaz
| *mōl'''aziz'''
| rowspan="2"| *þō
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| *þai
| *mōl'''aiz'''
| *þō
| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *þōi
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| *þōz
| *mōl'''ōzjōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *þa
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *þai
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *þō
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *þan
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *þōnz
| *mōl'''ōninz'''
| *þǭ
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *þōnz
| *mōl'''ōnjōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *þas
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *þāu
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *þaizǭ
| *mōl'''ōnizǭ'''
| *þazjōz
| *mōl'''ōzizjōz'''
| *þōu
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *þōzǭ
| *mōl'''ōnjōzǭ'''
| *þas
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *þāu
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *þaizǭ
| *mōl'''ōnizǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *þammai
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *þaimō
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *þaimaz
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
| *þazjōi
| *mōl'''ōjjizjōi'''
| *þōmō
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *þōmaz
| *mōl'''ōzōmaz'''
| *þammai
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *þaimō
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *þaimaz
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *þammi
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *þaimō
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *þaimīz
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
| *þǭ
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *þōmō
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *þōmīz
| *mōl'''ōzōmīz'''
| *þammi
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *þaimō
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *þaimīz
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| *þammi
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *þāu
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *þaizu
| *mōl'''azizu'''
| *þōi
| *mōl'''ōjjōi'''
| *þōu
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *þōzu
| *mōl'''ōzōzu'''
| *þammi
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *þāu
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *þaizu
| *mōl'''azizu'''
|-
<!--
! colspan="9"| Weak
|-
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *siz
| *mōl'''azjaz'''
| rowspan="2"| *sī
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| *sīz
| *mōl'''āi'''
| *sī
| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *sijōi
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| *sijōz
| *mōl'''ōzjōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *si
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *sī
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *sī
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *sin
| *mōl'''anją'''
| *sinz
| *mōl'''ōzjōnz'''
| *sijǭ
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *sijōnz
| *mōl'''ōzjōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *ses
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *sijau
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *sezǭ
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
| *sizjōz
| *mōl'''ōzjazjōz'''
| *sijōu
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *sijōzǭ
| *mōl'''ōnjōzǭ'''
| *ses
| *mōl'''azjas'''
| *sijau
| *mōl'''āwjāu'''
| *sezǭ
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *simmai
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
| *sīmō
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *sīmaz
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
| *sizjōi
| *mōl'''ōjjazjōi'''
| *sijōmō
| *mōl'''ōmômō'''
| *sijōmaz
| *mōl'''ōmazjōmaz'''
| *simmai
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
| *sīmō
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *sīmaz
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *simmi
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *sīmō
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *sīmīz
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
| *sijǭ
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *sijōmō
| *mōl'''ōmôimō'''
| *sijōmīz
| *mōl'''ōmīzjōmīz'''
| *simmi
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *sīmō
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *sīmīz
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| *simmi
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *sijau
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *sīzu
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
| *sijōi
| *mōl'''ōjjōi'''
| *sijōu
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *sijōzu
| *mōl'''ōzwōzu'''
| *simmi
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *sijau
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *sīzu
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
|-
|-
-->
|}
|}


====Reflexive/Intensive pronoun====
====''ja/jō''-stem adjectives====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
These were a sub-type of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with a *''-j-'' or *''-ij-'' (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and were declined as such. <!--However, in the weak forms, expected **''-ija-'' became *''-ī-'' and **''-ja-'' became *''-i-''.-->
! colspan="7"| Strong
 
====''ā/ô''-stem adjectives====
These were a subset of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with lengthened endings. They arose by contraction from adjectives whose stems originally ended in ''-aj-'', after the loss of intervocalic ''-j-''.
 
<!--====''i''-stem adjectives====
These were declined identically to ''ja/jō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-iz'' and *''-į/it'' respectively instead of the expected **''-(i)jaz'' and **''-(i)ją/(i)jat''. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular could take the ending *''-in'' as an alternative to expected *''-(i)jan''.
-
The weak forms were identical to those of ''ja/jō''-stems.-->
 
<!--====Consonant-stem adjectives====
These were declined identically to ''a/ō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-s/z'' and *''—'' respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **''-az'' and **''-ą/at''.
-
The weak forms were identical to those of ''a/ō''-stems.-->
 
===Pronouns===
<!--
'''Note:''' As with adjectives, only the ''*s'' forms of the strong feminine genitive are given where applicable. The ''*z'' forms can be derived from these simply by replacing ''*s'' in the endings.-->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
Nouns
Adjectives
Verbs
Adverbs
Particles
Derivational morphology -->
====First person, second person, and reflexive pronouns====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! !! colspan="3"| First person !! colspan="3"| Second person !! rowspan="2"| Reflexive
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! Nominative
|-
| *ēzų
! Nominative
| *wet; *wit
| *safsaz
| *mez; *miz
| *safsai
| *þū; *þu
| *safsō
| *jūt; *jut
| *safsōi
| *jūz; *juz
| rowspan="2"| *safsą, *safsat
| —
| rowspan="2"| *safsō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *safsan
| *mēn; *miz
| *safsanz
| *nō
| *safsǭ
| *nōz
| *safsōnz
| *þēn; *þiz
| *wō
| *wōz
| *sēn; *siz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *mīniz; *mī
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *nōu
| *safsōz, *safsazjōz
| *nōzǭ
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *þīwiz; *þī
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *wōu
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *wōzǭ
| *sīwiz; *sī
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *safsammai
| *mīnī; *mī
| *safsabiz
| *nōmō
| *safsōi
| *nōmaz
| *safsōbiz
| *þīwī; *þī
| *safsammai
| *wōmō
| *safsabiz
| *wōmaz
| *sīwī; *sī
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *safsō
| *mīnimi
| *safsabaz
| *nōmō
| *safsô
| *nōmīz
| *safsōbaz
| *þīwimi
| *safsō
| *wōmō
| *safsabaz
| *wōmīz
| *sīwimi
|-
|-
! colspan="7"| Weak
! Locative
| *mīnī
| *nōu
| *nōzu
| *þīwī
| *wōu
| *wōzu
| *sīwī
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! Possessive adj.
|-
| *mīnaz
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
| *nōwaz
| *nōzijaz
| *þīwaz
| *wōwaz
| *wōzijaz
| *sīwaz
|-
|}
 
'''Notes:'''
#When two forms are given, the first was the stressed form and the second was the unstressed form.
#Possessive adjectives were always strong.
 
====Other pronouns====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *safsǭ
| *þaz
| *safsaniz
| rowspan="2"| *þō
| *safsǭ
| *þai
| *safsōniz
| *þō
| rowspan="2"| *safsǭ
| rowspan="2"| *þōi
| rowspan="2"| *safsanō
| *þōz
| rowspan="2"| *þa
| rowspan="2"| *þai
| rowspan="2"| *þō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *safsanį
| *þan
| *safsaninz
| *þōnz
| *safsōnį
| *þǭ
| *safsōniz
| *þōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *safsaniz
| *þas
| *safsanǭ
| *þāu
| *safsōniz
| *þaizǭ
| *safsōnǭ
| *þazjōz
| *safsaniz
| *þōu
| *safsanǭ
| *þōzǭ
| *þas
| *þāu
| *þaizǭ
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *safsanī
| *þammai
| *safsambiz
| *þaimō
| *safsōnī
| *þaimaz
| *safsōmbiz
| *þazjōi
| *safsanī
| *þōmō
| *safsambiz
| *þōmaz
| *þammai
| *þaimō
| *þaimaz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *safsani
| *þammi
| *safsambaz
| *þaimō
| *safsōni
| *þaimīz
| *safsōmbaz
| *þǭ
| *safsani
| *þōmō
| *safsambaz
| *þōmīz
| *þammi
| *þaimō
| *þaimīz
|-
! Locative
| *þammi
| *þāu
| *þaizu
| *þōi
| *þōu
| *þōzu
| *þammi
| *þāu
| *þaizu
|-
|-
|}
|}
====Neutral demonstrative====


{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *saz
| *siz
| *sai
| rowspan="2"| *sī
| *sō
| *sīz
| *sōi
| *sī
| rowspan="2"| *sat
| rowspan="2"| *sijōi
| rowspan="2"| *sō
| *sijōz
| rowspan="2"| *si
| rowspan="2"| *sī
| rowspan="2"| *sī
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *san
| *sin
| *sanz
| *sinz
| *sǭ
| *sijǭ
| *sōnz
| *sijōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *sas, *sazjas
| *ses
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *sijau
| *sōz, *sazjōz
| *sezǭ
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *sizjōz
| *sas, *sazjas
| *sijōu
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *sijōzǭ
| *ses
| *sijau
| *sezǭ
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *sammai
| *simmai
| *sabiz
| *sīmō
| *sōi
| *sīmaz
| *sōbiz
| *sizjōi
| *sammai
| *sijōmō
| *sabiz
| *sijōmaz
| *simmai
| *sīmō
| *sīmaz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *sō
| *simmi
| *sabaz
| *sīmō
| *sô
| *sīmīz
| *sōbaz
| *sijǭ
| *sō
| *sijōmō
| *sabaz
| *sijōmīz
| *simmi
| *sīmō
| *sīmīz
|-
! Locative
| *simmi
| *sijau
| *sīzu
| *sijōi
| *sijōu
| *sijōzu
| *simmi
| *sijau
| *sīzu
|-
|}
 
====Reflexive/Intensive pronoun====
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! colspan="7"| Strong
|-
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
Line 1,272: Line 1,467:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *þaz
| *safsaz
| *þai
| *safsai
| *þō
| *safsō
| *þōi
| *safsōi
| rowspan="2"| *þat
| rowspan="2"| *safsą, *safsat
| rowspan="2"| *þō
| rowspan="2"| *safsō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *þan
| *safsan
| *þanz
| *safsanz
| *þǭ
| *safsǭ
| *þōnz
| *safsōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *þas, *þazjas
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *þōz, *þazjōz
| *safsōz, *safsazjōz
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *þas, *þazjas
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *þammai
| *safsammai
| *þabiz
| *safsabiz
| *þōi
| *safsōi
| *þōbiz
| *safsōbiz
| *þammai
| *safsammai
| *þabiz
| *safsabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *þō
| *safsō
| *þabaz
| *safsabaz
| *þô
| *safsô
| *þōbaz
| *safsōbaz
| *þō
| *safsō
| *þabaz
| *safsabaz
|-
! colspan="7"| Weak
|-
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
Line 1,318: Line 1,511:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *izaz
| *safsǭ
| *izai
| *safsaniz
| *izō
| *safsǭ
| *izōi
| *safsōniz
| rowspan="2"| *izat
| rowspan="2"| *safsǭ
| rowspan="2"| *izō
| rowspan="2"| *safsanō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *izan
| *safsanį
| *izanz
| *safsaninz
| *izǭ
| *safsōnį
| *izōnz
| *safsōniz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *izas, *izazjas
| *safsaniz
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *safsanǭ
| *izōz, *izazjōz
| *safsōniz
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *safsōnǭ
| *izas, *izazjas
| *safsaniz
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *safsanǭ
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *izammai
| *safsanī
| *izabiz
| *safsambiz
| *izōi
| *safsōnī
| *izōbiz
| *safsōmbiz
| *izammai
| *safsanī
| *izabiz
| *safsambiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *izō
| *safsani
| *izabaz
| *safsambaz
| *izô
| *safsōni
| *izōbaz
| *safsōmbaz
| *izō
| *safsani
| *izabaz
| *safsambaz
|-
|-
|}
|}-->
 
====Near demonstrative====


====Neutral demonstrative====
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
Line 1,365: Line 1,558:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *istaz
| *saz
| *istai
| *sai
| *istō
| *sō
| *istōi
| *sōi
| rowspan="2"| *istat
| rowspan="2"| *sat
| rowspan="2"| *istō
| rowspan="2"| *sō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *istan
| *san
| *istanz
| *sanz
| *istǭ
| *sǭ
| *istōnz
| *sōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *istas, *istazjas
| *sas, *sazjas
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *istōz, *istazjōz
| *sōz, *sazjōz
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *istas, *istazjas
| *sas, *sazjas
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *istammai
| *sammai
| *istabiz
| *sabiz
| *istōi
| *sōi
| *istōbiz
| *sōbiz
| *istammai
| *sammai
| *istabiz
| *sabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *istō
| *sō
| *istabaz
| *sabaz
| *istô
| *sô
| *istōbaz
| *sōbaz
| *istō
| *sō
| *istabaz
| *sabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 1,410: Line 1,603:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *gehaz
| *þaz
| *gehai
| *þai
| *gehō
| *þō
| *gehōi
| *þōi
| rowspan="2"| *gehat
| rowspan="2"| *þat
| rowspan="2"| *gehō
| rowspan="2"| *þō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *gehan
| *þan
| *gehanz
| *þanz
| *gehǭ
| *þǭ
| *gehōnz
| *þōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *þas, *þazjas
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *gegōz, *gegazjōz
| *þōz, *þazjōz
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *þas, *þazjas
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *gegammai
| *þammai
| *gegabiz
| *þabiz
| *gegōi
| *þōi
| *gegōbiz
| *þōbiz
| *gegammai
| *þammai
| *gegabiz
| *þabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *gegō
| *þō
| *gegabaz
| *þabaz
| *gegô
| *þô
| *gegōbaz
| *þōbaz
| *gegō
| *þō
| *gegabaz
| *þabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Far demonstrative====
 
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
Line 1,456: Line 1,649:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *allaz
| *izaz
| *allai
| *izai
| *allō
| *izō
| *allōi
| *izōi
| rowspan="2"| *allat
| rowspan="2"| *izat
| rowspan="2"| *allō
| rowspan="2"| *izō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *allan
| *izan
| *allanz
| *izanz
| *allǭ
| *izǭ
| *allōnz
| *izōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *allas, *allazjas
| *izas, *izazjas
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *allōz, *allazjōz
| *izōz, *izazjōz
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *allas, *allazjas
| *izas, *izazjas
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *allammai
| *izammai
| *allabiz
| *izabiz
| *allōi
| *izōi
| *allōbiz
| *izōbiz
| *allammai
| *izammai
| *allabiz
| *izabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *allō
| *izō
| *allabaz
| *izabaz
| *allô
| *izô
| *allōbaz
| *izōbaz
| *allō
| *izō
| *allabaz
| *izabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}-->


====Interrogative pronouns====
====Near demonstrative====
*''*hwai'' "what, who"
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
Line 1,503: Line 1,696:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *hwai
| *istaz
| *hwēz
| *istai
| *hwōi
| *istō
| *hwēz
| *istōi
| rowspan="2"| *hwat
| rowspan="2"| *istat
| rowspan="2"| *hwō
| rowspan="2"| *istō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *hwan
| *istan
| *hwanz
| *istanz
| *hwǭ
| *istǭ
| *hwōnz
| *istōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *hwas, *hwazjas
| *istas, *istazjas
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *hwōz, *hwazjōz
| *istōz, *istazjōz
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *hwas, *hwazjas
| *istas, *istazjas
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *hwammai
| *istammai
| *hwabiz
| *istabiz
| *hwōi
| *istōi
| *hwōbiz
| *istōbiz
| *hwammai
| *istammai
| *hwabiz
| *istabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *hwō, *hwī
| *istō
| *hwabaz
| *istabaz
| *hwô, *hwī
| *istô
| *hwōbaz
| *istōbaz
| *hwō, *hwī
| *istō
| *hwabaz
| *istabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
*''*hwaþeraz'' "which, what (of two)"
 
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
*''*hwōliz'' "which, what (of many)"
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
*''*hwīnþaz'' "how much, how many"
*''*hwidagjaz'' "what kind of, what sort of"
*Undeclined adverbial interrogative pronouns:
**''*hwaþ'' "to what extent; how"
**''*hwan'' "when"
**''*hwadī'' "where"
**''*hwant'' "from where"-->
 
====Other pronouns====
<!--
*''*þōliz'' "such, like that"
*''*þanþaz'' "that much, that many"
*''*sadagjaz'' "such kind of, such sort of"
*''*aljaz'' "other, else"
*''*allaz'' "all"
*Undeclined adverbial pronouns:
**''*þaþ'' "to that extent"
**''*iþ'' "such, thus"
**''*þan'' "then"
**''*idī'' "there"
**''*istadī, *gegadī'' "here"
**''*int'' "from there"
**''*istant, *gegant'' "from here"
**''*aljadī'' "elsewhere"-->
 
===Adverbs===
====Derived manner adverbs====
The most common adverb-forming suffixes are ''*-ē'' and ''*-ō''.
 
===Numerals===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Adverbial !! Multiplier
|-
|-
! 1
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
| *ainaz
| *firmaz
|
|
|-
|-
! 2
! Nominative
| *twō
| *gehaz
| *anþeraz
| *gehai
|  
| *gehō
|  
| *gehōi
| rowspan="2"| *gehat
| rowspan="2"| *gehō
|-
|-
! 3
! Accusative
| *þrīz
| *gehan
| *þridjaz
| *gehanz
|  
| *gehǭ
|  
| *gehōnz
|-
|-
! 4
! Genitive
| *hedūriz
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *hedwirþaz
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
|  
| *gegōz, *gegazjōz
|  
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
|-
|-
! 5
! Dative
| *finhiz
| *gegammai
| *finhtaz
| *gegabiz
|  
| *gegōi
|  
| *gegōbiz
| *gegammai
| *gegabiz
|-
|-
! 6
! Instrumental
| *swes
| *gegō
| *swestaz
| *gegabaz
|  
| *gegô
|  
| *gegōbaz
| *gegō
| *gegabaz
|-
|-
! 7
|}-->
| *siftį
 
| *seftundaz
====Far demonstrative====
|  
<!--
|  
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
! 8
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
| *ahtō
| *ahtōdaz
|
|
|-
|-
! 9
! Nominative
| *niwin
| *allaz
| *niwindaz
| *allai
|  
| *allō
|  
| *allōi
| rowspan="2"| *allat
| rowspan="2"| *allō
|-
|-
! 10
! Accusative
| *tisin
| *allan
| *tisindaz
| *allanz
|  
| *allǭ
|  
| *allōnz
|-
|-
! 11
! Genitive
|  
| *allas, *allazjas
|  
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
|
| *allōz, *allazjōz
|
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *allas, *allazjas
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
|-
|-
! 12
! Dative
|  
| *allammai
|  
| *allabiz
|
| *allōi
|
| *allōbiz
| *allammai
| *allabiz
|-
|-
! 13
! Instrumental
|  
| *allō
|  
| *allabaz
|
| *allô
|
| *allōbaz
| *allō
| *allabaz
|-
|-
! 14
|}-->
|  
 
|  
====Interrogative pronouns====
|
<!--
|
*''*hwai'' "what, who"
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
! 15
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 16
! Nominative
|  
| *hwai
|  
| *hwēz
|
| *hwōi
|
| *hwēz
| rowspan="2"| *hwat
| rowspan="2"| *hwō
|-
|-
! 17
! Accusative
|  
| *hwan
|  
| *hwanz
|
| *hwǭ
|
| *hwōnz
|-
|-
! 18
! Genitive
|  
| *hwas, *hwazjas
|  
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
|
| *hwōz, *hwazjōz
|
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *hwas, *hwazjas
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
|-
|-
! 19
! Dative
|  
| *hwammai
|  
| *hwabiz
|
| *hwōi
|
| *hwōbiz
| *hwammai
| *hwabiz
|-
|-
! 20
! Instrumental
|  
| *hwō, *hwī
|  
| *hwabaz
|
| *hwô, *hwī
|
| *hwōbaz
| *hwō, *hwī
| *hwabaz
|-
|-
! 30
|}
|
*''*hwaþeraz'' "which, what (of two)"
|
<!--
|
*''*hwōliz'' "which, what (of many)"
|
*''*hwīnþaz'' "how much, how many"
|-
*''*hwidagjaz'' "what kind of, what sort of"
! 40
*Undeclined adverbial interrogative pronouns:
|
**''*hwaþ'' "to what extent; how"
|
**''*hwan'' "when"
|
**''*hwadī'' "where"
|
**''*hwant'' "from where"-->
|-
 
! 50
====Other pronouns====
<!--
*''*þōliz'' "such, like that"
*''*þanþaz'' "that much, that many"
*''*sadagjaz'' "such kind of, such sort of"
*''*aljaz'' "other, else"
*''*allaz'' "all"
*Undeclined adverbial pronouns:
**''*þaþ'' "to that extent"
**''*iþ'' "such, thus"
**''*þan'' "then"
**''*idī'' "there"
**''*istadī, *gegadī'' "here"
**''*int'' "from there"
**''*istant, *gegant'' "from here"
**''*aljadī'' "elsewhere"-->
 
===Adverbs===
====Derived manner adverbs====
The most common adverb-forming suffixes are ''*-ē'' and ''*-ō''.
 
===Numerals===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Adverbial !! Multiplier !! Collective !! Fractional
|-
! 1
| *ainaz
| *firmaz
|  
|  
|  
|  
|
|
|-
! 60
|  
|  
|  
|  
|
|
|-
|-
! 70
! 2
| *twō
| *anþeraz
|  
|  
| *twāz
| *twimaz
| *pahaz
|-
! 3
| *þrīz
| *þridjaz
|  
|  
|
| *þrāz
|
| *þrimaz
|-
|-
! 80
! 4
| *hidwiriz
| *hidwirþaz
|  
|  
| *hedweraz
| *hedwerumaz
|-
! 5
| *finhiz
| *finhtaz
|  
|  
|
| *finhteraz
|
| *finhumaz
|-
|-
! 90
! 6
| *swes
| *swestaz
|  
|  
| *swesteraz
| *swesumaz
|-
! 7
| *siftį
| *seftundaz
|  
|  
|
| *seftunderaz
|
| *seftumaz
|-
|-
! 100
! 8
|  
| *ahtō
| *ahtundaz
|  
|  
|
| *ahtunderaz
|
| *ahtumaz
|-
|-
! 1000
! 9
| *niwin
| *niwindaz
|  
|  
| *niwinderaz
| *niwinumaz
|-
! 10
| *tisin
| *tisindaz
|
| *tisinderaz
| *tisinumaz
|-
! 11
| *ainalig
|  
|  
|
|
|
|
| *analigumaz
|-
|-
|}
! 12
<!---
| *twalig
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal
|
|
|-
|-
! 1
! 13
| *ainaz
| *þrilig
| *frīsimaz<!--or *frīsmaz-->, *framaz
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 2
! 14
| *twō
| *hidwirlig
| *alþeraz
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 3
! 15
| *þrēz
| *finhlig
| *þriþjǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 4
! 16
| *hwettwōr
| *sislig
| *hwadurþǭ<!-- or *hwetwarþǭ-->
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 5
! 17
| *hwinhw
| *siftinlig
| *hwinhtǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 6
! 18
| *sehs
| *ahtōlig
| *sehstǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 7
! 19
| *siftį
| *niwinlig
| *siftumǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 8
! 20
| *ahtō
| *twitisin
| *ahtōwǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 9
! 30
| *nawį
| *þritisin
| *naunǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 10
! 40
| *tihį
| *hidwirtisin
| *tehumǭ
|  
|-
|
! 11
|
| *ainatigį
| *ainatehumǭ
|-
! 12
| *twatigį
| *twatehumǭ
|-
! 13
| *þritigį
| *þritehumǭ
|-
! 14
| *hwettwōrtigį
| *hwettwōrtehumǭ
|-
! 15
| *hwinhtigį
| *hwinhtehumǭ
|-
! 16
| *sehstigį
| *sehstehumǭ
|-
! 17
| *siftintigį
| *siftintehumǭ
|-
! 18
| *ahtōtigį
| *ahtōtehumǭ
|-
! 19
| *nawintigį
| *nawintehumǭ
|-
! 20
| *twīginþī
| *twīginsimǭ
|-
! 30
| *þrīginþō
| *þrīginsimǭ
|-
! 40
| *hwetrōginþō
| *hwetrōginsimǭ
|-
|-
! 50
! 50
| *hwinhwōginþō
| *finhtisin
| *hwinhwōginsimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 60
! 60
| *sehsōginþō
| *sistisin
| *sehsōginsimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 70
! 70
| *seftumōginþō
| *siftintisin
| *seftumōginsimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 80
! 80
| *ahtōginþō
| *ahtōtisin
| *ahtōginsimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 90
! 90
| *naunōginþō
| *niwintisin
| *naunōginsimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 100
! 100
| *hinþą
| *sinþą
| *hinsimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 1000
! 1000
| *smīgillī <!-- or something from *smīgzlī-->
| *þūsandiz
| *smīgillisimǭ
|  
|-
|
|}
|
'''Notes:'''
*''*ainaz'' "one" was declined as an ''a/ō''-stem adjective.
*''*twō'' "two" was declined as below:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Declension of *''twō'' "two" (pl.)
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|-
! Nominative
| *twō, *twai
| *twōi
| *twō
|-
! Accusative
| *twanz
| *twōnz
| *twō
|-
! Genitive
| colspan="3"| *twōsą
|-
! Dative
| colspan="3"| *twōbiz
|-
! Instrumental
| colspan="3"| *twōbaz
|-
|}
*''*þrēz'' "three" was declined as below:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Declension of *''þrēz'' "three" (pl.)
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|-
! Nominative
| colspan="2"| *þrēz
| rowspan="2"| *þrijō
|-
! Accusative
| colspan="2"| *þrinz
|-
! Genitive
| colspan="3"| *þrijǭ, *þrēsą
|-
! Dative
| colspan="3"| *þribiz, *þrēbiz
|-
! Instrumental
| colspan="3"| *þribaz, *þrēbaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
*Cardinal numbers from 4-19 and decades from 20-90 were undeclined.
*''*hinþą'' "hundred" was declined as a neuter noun.
*''*smīgillī'' "thousand" was declined as an ''ī/jō''-stem feminine noun.
*Most ordinal numbers were exclusively declined weak (as indicated in the above table with the ending *''-ǭ'') except for 1st and 2nd.
*The following adverbial numbers are reconstructed:
**''*ainas, *sims'' "once"
**''*twis'' "twice"
**''*þris'' "thrice"
**''*hwadurs'' "four times"
*The following multiplicative numbers are reconstructed: 
**''*simflaz, *simflegz, *singlaz'' "single"
**''*twiflaz, *twiflegz'' "double"
**''*þriflaz, *þriflegz'' "triple"
**''*hwadurflaz, *hwadurflegz'' "quadruple"
*The following numerical prefixes are reconstructed:
**''*sem/sim-'' "uni-, mono-, one, once"
**''*twi-'' "bi-, di-, two, twice"
**''*þri-'' "tri-, three, thrice"
**''*hwadur-'' "quadri-, tetra-, four"
**''*sēmi-'' "semi-, half"
*The following collective numerals are reconstructed:
**''*ambō'' (declined as ''*twō'') "both"
**''*twiznaz'' "pair"
**''*þriznaz'' "set of three"
**''*hwadurznaz'' "set of four"


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
====Strong verbs====
====Strong verbs====
<!--
Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative:
Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative:
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
Line 1,957: Line 2,110:
|-
|-
|}
|}
The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *''-i-''<!-- (which becomes ''-ī-'' in the case of heavy ''j''-presents)-->. The past participle was formed based on the present stem (with some caveats that will be discussed below).
The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle was formed based on the present stem (with some caveats that will be discussed below).


Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed:
Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed:
Line 2,380: Line 2,533:
| *st'''êndō'''
| *st'''êndō'''
|-
|-
|}
|}-->


====Weak verbs====
====Weak verbs====
<!--
Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they took the following endings in the past indicative:
Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they took the following endings in the past indicative:
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
Line 2,399: Line 2,553:
#*The present stem contained a *''-(i)j-'' and was conjugated in the same way as strong ''j''-presents.
#*The present stem contained a *''-(i)j-'' and was conjugated in the same way as strong ''j''-presents.
#*The past indicative had the connector vowel ''-(i)ja-''.
#*The past indicative had the connector vowel ''-(i)ja-''.
-
<!--Like strong verbs, weak verbs include. light and heavy ''j''-presents. However, unlike strong verbs, this ending is also included in -->
====='''Class 1'''=====
====='''Class 1'''=====
Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to ''j''-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.
Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to ''j''-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.
Line 2,422: Line 2,574:


The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-a-'', and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle had no connector vowel.
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-a-'', and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle had no connector vowel.
-->


====Preterite-present verbs====
====Preterite-present verbs====
<!--
Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts.
Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts.


Line 2,526: Line 2,680:
| *būindō
| *būindō
|-
|-
|}-->
|}


The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*beu/bus-''. They were in fact two verbs, ''*immį'' "to be" and ''*biumį'' "to be, become", which overlapped in some forms (namely the past indicative, both participles, and the imperative).
The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*beu/bus-''. They were in fact two verbs, ''*immį'' "to be" and ''*biumį'' "to be, become", which overlapped in some forms (namely the past indicative, both participles, and the imperative).
Line 2,611: Line 2,765:
| *beundō
| *beundō
|-
|-
|}
|}-->


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
Line 2,621: Line 2,775:
<!-- etc. etc. -->
<!-- etc. etc. -->
==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
===Time - ''*þimfaz''===
===Time - ''*hēsaz''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Seasons - ''*jōras þimfizō''
|+ Seasons - ''*katō hēsai''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
! English !! Proto-Rugic
|-
|-
| spring || *wesar (*wesn-; ''n.'', ''r/n''-stem)
| spring || *westrō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
| summer || *aisōþs (''f.'', cons.-stem)
| summer || *laidą (''n.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
| fall || *missiz (''f.'', ''i''-stem)
| fall || *aziniz (''f.'', ''i''-stem)
|-
|-
| winter || *gē₂mz (*gē₂m-; ''f.'', cons.-stem)
| winter || *dīmō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
|}
|}
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-->
-->
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Parts of the day - ''*tē₂wiz farþēz''
|+ Parts of the day - ''*tīnō tailai''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-  
|-  
| day || *teuz (''m.'', ''u''-stem<sup><small>1</small></sup>)
| day || *tīnaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
| dawn || *ausōz (''f.'', ''z''-stem)
| dawn || *garjō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
| morning || *mōdūraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
| morning || *austrō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
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|-
|-
-->
-->
| evening || *wesperaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
| evening || *weheraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
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|-
|-
-->
-->
| night || *nahts (''f.'', cons.-stem)
| night || *nahtiz (''f.'', ''i''-stem)
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
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-->
-->
|}
|}
'''Notes:'''
<sup><small>1</small></sup> Expected **''-ea-'' was coalesced to *''-ē₂-'' (e.g. nominative plural was ''*tē₂wiz'' rather than ''*teawiz'').


{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Units of time - ''*þimfiziz mēþēz''
|+ Units of time - ''*hēsō mēþīz''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-  
|-  
Line 2,730: Line 2,881:
| hour ||  
| hour ||  
|-
|-
| day || *teuz (''m.'', ''u''-stem, irregular)
| day || *tīnaz (''m.'', ''o''-stem)
|-
|-
| week || *sirį̄ (''f.'', ''īn''-stem)
| week || *seftumō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
| month || *mēns (*mēns-, ''m.'', cons.-stem)
| month || *mēnsiz (''m.'', ''i''-stem)
|-
|-
| season || *þimfaz (''n.'', ''z''-stem)
| season || *hēsaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
| year || *aþnaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem); *jōraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
| year || *kataz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
|}
|}


{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Time adverbs - ''*þimfiziz werdō''
|+ Time adverbs - ''*hēsō wardō''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-
|-
| now || *nu, *nū
| now || *nu, *nū
|-
|-
| then || *þan
| then || *þat
|-
|-
| recently, a short time ago ||  
| recently, a short time ago ||  
|-
|-
| earlier || *anþ
| earlier ||  
|-
|-
| soon, shortly || *mahs
| soon, shortly ||  
|-
|-
| later ||  
| later ||  
|-
|-
| always || *simfer
| always || *wist
|-
|-
| often || *saif
| often || *hinstō
|-
|-
| sometimes ||  
| sometimes ||  
Line 2,766: Line 2,917:
| rarely ||  
| rarely ||  
|-
|-
| never || *ne aiwą
| never || *ne waihaz
|-
|-
| ever || *aiwą
| ever || *waihaz
|-
|-
| still, yet || *int
| still, yet || *esk
|-
|-
| already || *anþ
| already || *jau(k)
<!--
<!--
|-
|-
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-->
-->
|-
|-
| yesterday || *gizi; *gester-
| yesterday ||  
<!--
<!--
|-
|-
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-->
-->
|-
|-
| tomorrow || *hrōz
| tomorrow ||  
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
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|}
|}


===Colours - ''*helaziz''===
===Colours - ''*hwaidai''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Colours - ''*helaziz''
|+ Colours - ''*hwaidai''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-
|-
| white || *albaz
| white || *palaz; *plaitaz
|-
|-
| grey || *hasnaz
| grey || *sīwaz
|-
|-
| black || *ōþraz
| black || *hirznaz
|-
|-
| red || *raudaz, *rausaz
| red || *rautaz; *rūtijaz
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
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|-
|-
-->
-->
| brown || *patjaz, *duswaz
| brown || *pēraz
|-
|-
| yellow || *gelwaz, *blāwaz
| yellow || *kildaz; *falwaz
|-
|-
| green || *wīsidaz
| green || *krēnaz; *daljaz
|-
|-
| blue || *hilizijaz
| blue || *matraz
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
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<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
Afnijai gamaniz lauderai gaflōnaihw han tehnadōþi jawizihw galōþai sind. Sabiz attōnōþōi sind raþjǭ gaskīndijǭhw, eþ alþerabiz anamǭ brōþrōlijǭ frōdamį þeþalēri<!--tēgabēnþ-->.
<!--
Afnijai gamaniz lauderai gaflōnaihw han tehnadōþi jawizihw galōþai sind. Sabiz attōnōþōi sind raþjǭ gaskīndijǭhw, eþ alþerabiz anamǭ brōþrōlijǭ frōdamį þeþalēri<!--tēgabēnþ.


'''Translation:''' All humans are born free and equal with dignity and rights. Reason and conscience are given to them, and they must show others a brotherly spirit.
'''Translation:''' All humans are born free and equal with dignity and rights. Reason and conscience are given to them, and they must show others a brotherly spirit.

Latest revision as of 17:23, 9 February 2025

Proto-Rugic is the hypothetical ancestor of the Rugic languages.

Proto-Rugic
*þaudiskaz
Pronunciation[ˈθɑuðiskɑz]
Created byShariifka
Early forms

Introduction

Proto-Rugic is the result of taking a Balto-Slavic base and applying a rough approximation of the PIE to Proto-Germanic sound changes.

The Balto-Slavic base of Proto-Rugic (known as Pre-Proto-Rugic, or PPR for short) had the following features:

  • PPR lacked the *eu to *jau sound change that affected all known Balto-Slavic languages. Alternatively, if this sound change did happen, it was reversed.

Phonology

Orthography

Consonants

Vowels

Prosody

Stress

Intonation

Phonotactics

Morphophonology

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns had three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter.

a-stems

Masculine or neuter.

*wilhaz m. "wolf" *jūką n. "yoke"
Nominative *wilhaz *wilhō *wilhai *jūką *jūkai *jūkō
Vocative *wilh
Accusative *wilhą *wilhōnz
Genitive *wilhō *wilhōu *wilhǭ *jūkō *jūkōu *jūkǭ
Dative *wilhōi *wilhamō *wilhamaz *jūkōi *jūkamō *jūkamaz
Instrumental *wilhai *wilhamō *wilhōiz *jūkai *jūkamō *jūkōiz
Locative *wilhai *wilhōu *wilhaizu *jūkai *jūkōu *jūkaizu

There was a rare class of a-stems with contractions (from earlier stems ending in aj) known as ā-stems.. They decline as below:

*pāz m. "battle" *twą̄ n. "pair"
Nominative *pāz *pô *pāi *twą̄ *twāi *twô
Vocative *pai
Accusative *pą̄ *pônz
Genitive *pô *pôu *pǫ̂ *twô *twôu *twǫ̂
Dative *pôi *pāmō *pāmaz *twôi *twāmō *twāmaz
Instrumental *pāi *pāmō *pôiz *twāi *twāmō *twôiz
Locative *pāi *pôu *pāizu *twāi *twôu *twāizu

ō-stems

Feminine.

*þaudō f. "people"
Nominative *þaudō *þaudōi *þaudōz
Vocative
Accusative *þaudǭ *þaudōnz
Genitive *þaudōz *þaudōu *þaudǭ
Dative *þaudōi *þaudōmō *þaudōmaz
Instrumental *þaudǭ *þaudōmō *þaudōmīz
Locative *þaudōi *þaudōu *þaudōzu

Additionally, there was a rare subclass of ō-stem nouns known as ī/jō-stems. These nouns took the ending *-ī in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations took the regular ō-stem endings preceded by *-(i)j- (according to Siever's Law).

There were also contracted ō-stems known as ô-stems. They were declined by replacing the -ō- in endings with -ô- (and -ǭ with -ǫ̂). For example, *skwô "needle (botany)".

ē-stems

Feminine.

*demē f. "earth"
Nominative *demē *demēi *demēz
Vocative
Accusative *demǭ *demēnz
Genitive *demēz *demēu *demǭ
Dative *demēi *demēmō *demēmaz
Instrumental *demǭ *demēmō *demēmīz
Locative *demēi *demēu *demēzu

i-stems

Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.

*ankliz f. "coal" *mari n. "sea"
Nominative *ankliz *anklī *anklīz *mari *marī *marī
Vocative *anklī
Accusative *anklį *anklinz
Genitive *anklīz *anklijau *anklijǭ *marīz *marjau *marjǭ
Dative *anklī *anklimō *anklimaz *marī *marimō *marimaz
Instrumental *anklimi *anklimō *anklimīz *marimi *marimō *marimīz
Locative *anklēi *anklijau *anklizu *marēi *marjau *marizu

Note: The genitive/locative dual and genutive plural are subject to Siever's law.

u-stems

Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.

*sūnuz f. "son" *metu n. "honey"
Nominative *sūnuz *sūnū *sūnawiz *metu *metū *metū
Vocative *sūnau
Accusative *sūnų *sūnunz
Genitive *sūnauz *sūnawau *sūnawǭ *metauz *metawau *metawǭ
Dative *sūnawī *sūnumō *sūnumaz *metawī *metumō *metumaz
Instrumental *sūnumi *sūnumō *sūnumīz *metumi *metumō *metumīz
Locative *sūnawī *sūnawau *sūnuzu *metawī *metawau *metuzu

n-stems

Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.

*hamô m. "stone" *immô n. "name"
Nominative *hamô *haminī *haminiz *immô *imminī *imminō
Vocative
Accusative *haminį *hamininz
Genitive *haminiz *haminau *haminǭ *imminiz *imminau *imminǭ
Dative *haminī *hamimmō *hamimmaz *imminī *immimmō *immimmaz
Instrumental *hamimmi *hamimmō *hamimmīz *immimmi *immimmō *immimmīz
Locative *haminī *haminau *haminzu *imminī *imminau *imminzu

Note:

  1. In heavy j-suffixed n-stems, expected **-ijin- was contracted to *-īn-. Similarly, in light j-suffixed n-stems, expected **-jin- was contracted to *-in-.


r-stems

Masculine and feminine were declined the same.

*prōþê m. "brother"
Nominative *prōþê *prōþrī *prōþriz
Vocative *prōþer
Accusative *prōþrį *prōþrinz
Genitive *prōþriz *prōþrau *prōþrǭ
Dative *prōþrī *prōþrimō *prōþrimaz
Instrumental *prōþrimi *prōþrimō *prōþrimīz
Locative *prōþrī *prōþrau *prōþrizu

z-stems

Neuter.

*nepaz n. "cloud"
Nominative *nepaz *nipizī *nipizō
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive *nipiziz *nipizau *nipizǭ
Dative *nipizī *nipimmō *nipimmaz
Instrumental *nipimmi *nipimmō *nipimmīz
Locative *nipizi *nipizau *nipissu

Consonant stems

Masculine and feminine were declined the same.

*ahmô m. "stone" *immô n. "name"
Nominative *ahmô *ahminī *ahminiz *immô *imminī *imminō
Vocative
Accusative *ahminį *ahmininz
Genitive *ahminiz *ahminau *ahminǭ *imminiz *imminau *imminǭ
Dative *ahminī *ahmimmō *ahmimmaz *imminī *immimmō *immimmaz
Instrumental *ahmimmi *ahmimmō *ahmimmīz *immimmi *immimmō *immimmīz
Locative *ahminī *ahminau *ahminzu *imminī *imminau *imminzu

Note: The usual ending for the masculine/feminine nominative-vocative singular was *-s (after unvoiced consonants) or *-z (after voiced consonants), and in the neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular there was usually no suffix. However, there were many nouns that were irregular in those forms.

Adjectives

Most adjectives could be declined strong or weak. The class of an adjective was determined by its strong conjugation.

a/ō-stem adjectives

Declension of mōlaz "small"
Strong
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative *mōlaz *mōlō *mōlai *mōlō *mōlōi *mōlōz *mōl(a) *mōlai *mōlō
Accusative *mōlan *mōlōnz *mōlǭ *mōlōnz
Genitive *mōlas *mōlāu *mōlaizǭ *mōlazjōz *mōlōu *mōlōzǭ *mōlas *mōlāu *mōlaizǭ
Dative *mōlammai *mōlaimō *mōlaimaz *mōlazjōi *mōlōmō *mōlōmaz *mōlammai *mōlaimō *mōlaimaz
Instrumental *mōlammi *mōlaimō *mōlaimīz *mōlǭ *mōlōmō *mōlōmīz *mōlammi *mōlaimō *mōlaimīz
Locative *mōlammi *mōlāu *mōlaizu *mōlōi *mōlōu *mōlōzu *mōlammi *mōlāu *mōlaizu
Weak
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative *mōlaziz *mōlô *mōlaiz *mōlô *mōlôi *mōlōzōz *mōlai *mōlāi *mōlô
Accusative *mōlanį *mōlaninz *mōlōnǭ *mōlōnōnz
Genitive *mōlôs *mōlawjau *mōlanizǭ *mōlōzizōz *mōlawjōu *mōlōnōzǭ *mōlôs *mōlawjāu *mōlanizǭ
Dative *mōlajjammai *mōlômō *mōlazimaz *mōlōzōi *mōlômō *mōlōzōmaz *mōlajjammai *mōlômō *mōlazimaz
Instrumental *mōlajjammi *mōlômō *mōlazimīz *mōlōnǭ *mōlômō *mōlōzōmīz *mōlajjammi *mōlômō *mōlazimīz
Locative *mōlajjammi *mōlawjau *mōlanizu *mōlōnōi *mōlōnōu *mōlōnōzu *mōlajjammi *mōlawjau *mōlanizu

ja/jō-stem adjectives

These were a sub-type of a/ō-stem adjectives with a *-j- or *-ij- (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and were declined as such.

ā/ô-stem adjectives

These were a subset of a/ō-stem adjectives with lengthened endings. They arose by contraction from adjectives whose stems originally ended in -aj-, after the loss of intervocalic -j-.


Pronouns

First person, second person, and reflexive pronouns

First person Second person Reflexive
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative *ēzų *wet; *wit *mez; *miz *þū; *þu *jūt; *jut *jūz; *juz —
Accusative *mēn; *miz *nō *nōz *þēn; *þiz *wō *wōz *sēn; *siz
Genitive *mīniz; *mī *nōu *nōzǭ *þīwiz; *þī *wōu *wōzǭ *sīwiz; *sī
Dative *mīnī; *mī *nōmō *nōmaz *þīwī; *þī *wōmō *wōmaz *sīwī; *sī
Instrumental *mīnimi *nōmō *nōmīz *þīwimi *wōmō *wōmīz *sīwimi
Locative *mīnī *nōu *nōzu *þīwī *wōu *wōzu *sīwī
Possessive adj. *mīnaz *nōwaz *nōzijaz *þīwaz *wōwaz *wōzijaz *sīwaz

Notes:

  1. When two forms are given, the first was the stressed form and the second was the unstressed form.
  2. Possessive adjectives were always strong.

Other pronouns

Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative *þaz *þō *þai *þō *þōi *þōz *þa *þai *þō
Accusative *þan *þōnz *þǭ *þōnz
Genitive *þas *þāu *þaizǭ *þazjōz *þōu *þōzǭ *þas *þāu *þaizǭ
Dative *þammai *þaimō *þaimaz *þazjōi *þōmō *þōmaz *þammai *þaimō *þaimaz
Instrumental *þammi *þaimō *þaimīz *þǭ *þōmō *þōmīz *þammi *þaimō *þaimīz
Locative *þammi *þāu *þaizu *þōi *þōu *þōzu *þammi *þāu *þaizu
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative *siz *sī *sīz *sī *sijōi *sijōz *si *sī *sī
Accusative *sin *sinz *sijǭ *sijōnz
Genitive *ses *sijau *sezǭ *sizjōz *sijōu *sijōzǭ *ses *sijau *sezǭ
Dative *simmai *sīmō *sīmaz *sizjōi *sijōmō *sijōmaz *simmai *sīmō *sīmaz
Instrumental *simmi *sīmō *sīmīz *sijǭ *sijōmō *sijōmīz *simmi *sīmō *sīmīz
Locative *simmi *sijau *sīzu *sijōi *sijōu *sijōzu *simmi *sijau *sīzu

Reflexive/Intensive pronoun

Neutral demonstrative

Near demonstrative

Far demonstrative

Interrogative pronouns

Other pronouns

Adverbs

Derived manner adverbs

The most common adverb-forming suffixes are *-ē and *-ō.

Numerals

# Cardinal Ordinal Adverbial Multiplier Collective Fractional
1 *ainaz *firmaz
2 *twō *anþeraz *twāz *twimaz *pahaz
3 *þrīz *þridjaz *þrāz *þrimaz
4 *hidwiriz *hidwirþaz *hedweraz *hedwerumaz
5 *finhiz *finhtaz *finhteraz *finhumaz
6 *swes *swestaz *swesteraz *swesumaz
7 *siftį *seftundaz *seftunderaz *seftumaz
8 *ahtō *ahtundaz *ahtunderaz *ahtumaz
9 *niwin *niwindaz *niwinderaz *niwinumaz
10 *tisin *tisindaz *tisinderaz *tisinumaz
11 *ainalig *analigumaz
12 *twalig
13 *þrilig
14 *hidwirlig
15 *finhlig
16 *sislig
17 *siftinlig
18 *ahtōlig
19 *niwinlig
20 *twitisin
30 *þritisin
40 *hidwirtisin
50 *finhtisin
60 *sistisin
70 *siftintisin
80 *ahtōtisin
90 *niwintisin
100 *sinþą
1000 *þūsandiz

Verbs

Strong verbs

Weak verbs

Preterite-present verbs

The verb "to be"

Syntax

Constituent order

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Vocabulary

Time - *hēsaz

Seasons - *katō hēsai
English Proto-Rugic
spring *westrō (f., ō-stem)
summer *laidą (n., a-stem)
fall *aziniz (f., i-stem)
winter *dīmō (f., ō-stem)
Parts of the day - *tīnō tailai
English Proto-Tungric
day *tīnaz (m., a-stem)
dawn *garjō (f., ō-stem)
morning *austrō (f., ō-stem)
evening *weheraz (m., a-stem)
night *nahtiz (f., i-stem)
Units of time - *hēsō mēþīz
English Proto-Tungric
hour
day *tīnaz (m., o-stem)
week *seftumō (f., ō-stem)
month *mēnsiz (m., i-stem)
season *hēsaz (m., a-stem)
year *kataz (m., a-stem)
Time adverbs - *hēsō wardō
English Proto-Tungric
now *nu, *nū
then *þat
recently, a short time ago
earlier
soon, shortly
later
always *wist
often *hinstō
sometimes
rarely
never *ne waihaz
ever *waihaz
still, yet *esk
already *jau(k)
yesterday
tomorrow

Colours - *hwaidai

Colours - *hwaidai
English Proto-Tungric
white *palaz; *plaitaz
grey *sīwaz
black *hirznaz
red *rautaz; *rūtijaz
brown *pēraz
yellow *kildaz; *falwaz
green *krēnaz; *daljaz
blue *matraz

Example texts

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)

Other resources

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