640
edits
No edit summary |
(Added section on sound correspondences) |
||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
Kämpya is spoken is my far-future Antarctican conworld, where runaway global warming has melted the icecaps and made the continent habitable (while rendering most of the rest of the world uninhabitable). | Kämpya is spoken is my far-future Antarctican conworld, where runaway global warming has melted the icecaps and made the continent habitable (while rendering most of the rest of the world uninhabitable). | ||
It originated from the area around Ross Island, one of the first large-scale colonies on Antarctica. The founders used English as a common language, but this | It originated from the area around Ross Island, one of the first large-scale colonies on Antarctica. The founders used English as a common language, but this developed into a creole, heavily influenced by a number of languages, especially Burmese, Minnan Chinese, and Japanese (spoken in countries where many of them fled from). Most notably, the language became postpositional (English prepositions were replaced with Burmese postpositions). A later wave of Spanish speaking migrants also heavily affected the language. | ||
It | It then diverged into a number of widely divergent dialects (technology regressed, and groups of speakers were cut off from one another), followed by another period of koineisation when enough technology was re-invented for speakers of different dialects to be able to contact one other again. This koine was called Kämpya, and spread to many other parts of the continent, aided by the growth of a religion called Laikyâr (although not all Kämpya speakers follow the Laikyâr religion, and not all Laikyâr believers speak Kämpya). Indeed there is a special register of the language that is only used in religious contexts. There are also a number of regional dialects. However, this page describes what could be termed the "standard" dialect. | ||
==Brief Description== | ==Brief Description== | ||
Kämpya has topic comment syntax with isolating morphology. The | Kämpya has topic comment syntax with isolating morphology. The morphosyntactic alignment is basically ergative, except that there is a tripartite system on pronouns. However, genitive (alienable) and ergative pronouns are identical. Possessors are marked for alienability [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alienable_possession] using tone, and come before the nouns they modify. Kämpya (at least in the standard dialect) uses postpositions rather than prepositions, and adjectives can come either before or after the nouns they modify if they are restrictive or non-restrictive respectively [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness]. | ||
Verbs do not inflect for agreement, tense or aspect, however there is an elaborate system of particles that indicate mood / evidentiality. | |||
In terms of phonology, the most notable thing is a 3-way vowel phonation contrast on stressed syllables (which is not present on unstressed syllables). Kämpya distinguishes words with harsh voice (marked with a tilde e.g. /a̰/), from breathy voice (marked with a pair of dots either above or below the vowel e.g. /a̤/ or /ä/), from glottalisation (marked with a glottal stop after the vowel e.g. /aʔ/. | In terms of phonology, the most notable thing is a 3-way vowel phonation contrast on stressed syllables (which is not present on unstressed syllables). Kämpya distinguishes words with harsh voice (marked with a tilde e.g. /a̰/), from breathy voice (marked with a pair of dots either above or below the vowel e.g. /a̤/ or /ä/), from glottalisation (marked with a glottal stop after the vowel e.g. /aʔ/. | ||
There are many minimal pairs of words that only contrast phonation e.g. /kʰà̤ɾ/ - "plaster cast", /kʰâ̰ɾ/ - "card", /kʰáʔɾ/ - "a cart" (the differences in tone can be predicted from the phonation) | There are many minimal pairs of words that only contrast phonation e.g. /kʰà̤ɾ/ - "plaster cast", /kʰâ̰ɾ/ - "card", /kʰáʔɾ/ - "a cart" (the differences in tone can be predicted from the phonation). | ||
In addition to this, there is also a tone contrast, but this is only used for grammatical purposes (e.g. to change between different parts of speech, or to mark alienable / inalienable possession), never for lexical purposes. For example, from the noun /áˈlâṵn/ - "that which is alone", which has High Tone on the first syllable and Falling Tone on the second (with harsh voice), we can derive the non-restrictive adjective /àˈláṵn/ - "by itself / solitary", which has Low Tone on the first syllable and High Tone on the second (with harsh voice). | In addition to this, there is also a tone contrast, but this is only used for grammatical purposes (e.g. to change between different parts of speech, or to mark alienable / inalienable possession), never for lexical purposes. For example, from the noun /áˈlâṵn/ - "that which is alone", which has High Tone on the first syllable and Falling Tone on the second (with harsh voice), we can derive the non-restrictive adjective /àˈláṵn/ - "by itself / solitary", which has Low Tone on the first syllable and High Tone on the second (with harsh voice). | ||
==Phonology== | ==Phonology== | ||
Line 80: | Line 84: | ||
===Consonant Neutralisations=== | ===Consonant Neutralisations=== | ||
In colloquial speech, stops in the codas of unstressed syllables are debuccalised to glottal stops e.g. the city named /ˈkʰóʔnàt/ is often pronounced [ˈkʰóʔnàʔ], /ˈpʰḛ̂jòd/ - "fjord" is pronounced [ˈpʰḛ̂ːjòʔ]. | In colloquial speech, stops in the codas of unstressed syllables are debuccalised to glottal stops e.g. the city named /ˈkʰóʔnàt/ is often pronounced [ˈkʰóʔnàʔ], /ˈpʰḛ̂jòd/ - "fjord" is pronounced [ˈpʰḛ̂ːjòʔ]. | ||
Line 175: | Line 177: | ||
| sister || ˈsì̤tà || ˈsì̤tá || ˈsǐ̤tà | | sister || ˈsì̤tà || ˈsì̤tá || ˈsǐ̤tà | ||
|- | |- | ||
| alone || | | alone || áˈlâṵn || áˈlàṵn || àˈláṵn | ||
|- | |- | ||
| alone + Genitive clitic /ja/ || áˈlâṵn=jà || áˈlàṵn=já || àˈláṵn=jà | | alone + Genitive clitic /ja/ || áˈlâṵn=jà || áˈlàṵn=já || àˈláṵn=jà | ||
Line 183: | Line 185: | ||
| question + Genitive clitic /ja/ || à̤h=jà || à̤h=já || ǎ̤h=jà | | question + Genitive clitic /ja/ || à̤h=jà || à̤h=já || ǎ̤h=jà | ||
|} | |} | ||
===Sound Correspondences with English=== | |||
====Phonation==== | |||
Contrastive phonation developed on stressed vowels depending on the following consonants. Breathy phonation emerged via a sound change where voiceless fricatives were lost after a stressed vowel e.g. /ˈsì̤tà/ - "sister". Glottalised phonation developed whenever there was a voiceless stop after a stressed vowel e.g. /áʔp/ - "rise" (from English "up". In other cases (e.g. when there was a voiced stop after a stressed vowel) the syllable received harsh phonation. | |||
====Consonants==== | |||
Aspiration on stops became phonemic. Stops were generally unaspirated, except word initial stops and stops beginning a stressed syllable. However, if the stop was preceded by an obstruent (usually /s/), it became unaspirated and the /s/ was deleted e.g. /tóʔp/ - "stop" vs. /tʰóʔp/ - "summit" (from English "top") | |||
/s/ acquired phonemic aspiration in similar situations to the above e.g. /áˈsʰḛ̂n/ - "heaven" (from English "ascend") vs. /èˈsóʔt/ - "exotic.DESC" (the /k/ that used to precede the /s/ was lost, but not before blocking that aspiration that would otherwise have occurred on an /s/ in a stressed syllable). | |||
Clusters of /s/ + Nasal became voiceless nasals e.g. /n̥âṵ/ - "snow", /m̥òṵ/ - "small.RESTR". | |||
/sl/ clusters usually became /hl/, which is pronounced [ɬ] e.g. /hléʔp/ - "slap". | |||
/ʍ/ re-emerged in English via spelling pronunciations, becoming Kämpya /hw/ (pronounced as [ʍ]) e.g. /ˈhwâ̰jù/ - "whale". | |||
English /f/ became /pʰ/ e.g. /ˈpʰḛ̂jòd/ - "fjord". | |||
English /v/ became /bw/ before a vowel e.g. /ˈbwḛ̂lì/ - "valley" | |||
English /r/ became either /w/ or /zw/ e.g. "zwéʔpìd" - quickly (from English "rapid"), /pʰò̤wèt/ - "forest". | |||
English post-alveolar consonants became sequences of alveolar consonants + /j/ e.g. /báˈsjàʔp/- "beat" (from English "bash up") | |||
Lenition occurred of obstruents after historically long vowels (Kämpya lost its phonemic vowel length contrast). Labial obstruents lenited to /ⱱ/ e.g. /pʰ/, /p/, /b/, /f/, /v/ became /ⱱ/ e.g. /là̤ⱱ/ - "laugh". Coronal consonants lenited to /ɾ/ e.g. /déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ - "depart". Dorsal consonants lenited to /h/ e.g. /dáʔh/ - "darkness". | |||
/l/ was lost when not before a vowel e.g. /tʰṵ̂/ - "tool". | |||
A version of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grassmann%27s_law Grassman's Law] occured, deaspirating all but the last occurence of an aspirated consonant in a phonological word e.g. /káukákʰôṵlà/ - "Coca-Cola", not */kʰáukákʰôṵlà/. Voiceless sonorants and /h/ count as aspirated consonants. | |||
====Vowels==== | |||
The vowel system derives from Australian English, although in many cases spelling pronunciations are used rather than the actual Australian English pronunciation. Since colonisation of Antarctica, it has undergone a number of sound changes: | |||
# The vowel in TRAP and MARRY underwent a three-way split. In untressed syllables, it became /a/. In stressed syllables, it underwent the bad-lad split, with the long version becoming /ai/ and causing lenition of the following consonant e.g. /bàḭɾ/ - "bad.DESC", while the short version became /e/ e.g. /éʔt/ - "to be at". | |||
# The vowel in BATH, PALM and START (Australian English is non-rhotic) became /a/ in unstressed syllables, and /aː/ in stressed syllables (causing lenition of the following consonant). Then these both merged into /a/ (Kämpya lost phonemic vowel length) e.g. /déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ - "depart". | |||
# The vowel in NURSE merged into the above vowel e.g. /nà̤ɾ/ - "nurse". | |||
# The vowel in LOT, CLOTH and HOT became /a/ in unstressed syllables, and /o/ in stressed syllables e.g. /óʔpàsìt/ - "opposite". However, before /l/ it became /ou/ e.g. /bôṵ/ - "bowl". | |||
# The vowel in THOUGHT and NORTH became /o/ in unstressed syllables, and /oː/ in stressed syllables (causing lenition of the following consonant). Then these both merged into /o/ e.g. /pʰò̰/ - "four". However, before /u/ it became /ou/ e.g. /m̥óṵ/ - "small.DESC". | |||
# The vowel in KIT became /i/ e.g. /ˈbíʔtèn/ - "bite" (from English "bitten"). However, before /l/ it became /ju/ e.g. /hjṵ̂/ - "hill". | |||
# The vowel in HEAT usually became /ei/ e.g. /déiʔp/ - "deeply". However, before /j/ it became /e/ e.g. /ˈpʰḛ̂jòd/ - "fjord". And before /l/, it became /i/ e.g. /pʰḭ̂lìŋ/ - "display of emotions" (from English "feeling"). | |||
# The vowel in DRESS and MERRY normally became /e/ e.g. /ˈḛ̂nèm/ - "enemy". However, before /l/ it became /ei/ e.g. /béuʔt/ - "belt". | |||
# The vowel in SQUARE and MARY became /e/ in unstressed syllables, and /eː/ in stressed syllables (causing lenition of the following consonant). Then these both merged into /e/ e.g. /kʰḛ̂/ - "hospital patient" (from English "care") | |||
# The vowel in STRUT normally became /a/ e.g. /wà̰n/ - "one". However, before /l/, it became /au/ e.g. /kâṵ/ - "skull". | |||
# The vowel is FOOT became /u/ e.g. /pʰúʔt/ - "foot". | |||
# The vowel in GOOSE became /u/ in unstressed syllables, and usually became /ei/ in stressed syllables e.g. /gèi̤/ - "goose", /têḭ/ - "two". However, before another vowel, it became /e/ e.g. /sʰḛ̂wà/ - "sewer". In stressed syllables before /l/, it became /u/ e.g. /tʰṵ̂/ - "tool" | |||
# The vowel in FACE normally became /ai/ e.g. /nâḭm/ - "name". However, before /l/ it became /aju/ e.g. /ˈhwâ̰jù/ - "whale". | |||
# The vowel in PRICE normally became /ou/ e.g. /pʰwòṳ/ - "price". However, before /l/ it became /oju/ in stressed syllables, and /aju/ elsewhere e.g. /tʰô̰jù/ - "tile", /ˈè̤kàjù/ - "exile". | |||
# The vowel in CHOICE merged with vowel in PRICE. | |||
# The vowel in GOAT usually became /au/ e.g. /n̥âṵ/ - "snow". However, before /l/ it became /ou/ e.g. /káukákʰôṵlà/ - "Coca-Cola". | |||
# The vowel in MOUTH became /ei/ in a stressed syllable, and /au/ in an unstressed syllable e.g. /mèi̤/ - "mouth". | |||
# The vowel in NEAR became /i/ in unstressed syllables, and /iː/ in stressed syllables (causing lenition of the following consonant). Then these both merged into /i/ e.g. /pʰì̤ɾ/ - "fierce". | |||
Line 297: | Line 358: | ||
/ | /dô̰k áˈlâṵn/ | ||
dog alone | dog alone | ||
Line 306: | Line 367: | ||
as well as | as well as | ||
/áˈlâṵn | /áˈlâṵn dô̰k/ | ||
alone dog | alone dog | ||
Line 328: | Line 389: | ||
If we include a postpositional phrase in the sentence, it must come immediately before the verb (except for any pronouns) e.g. with the postpositional phrase /ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á/ - "from the valley", the verb /déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ - "to set off" and the noun /ˈḛ̂nèm/ - "enemy", we can say: | If we include a postpositional phrase in the sentence, it must come immediately before the verb (except for any pronouns) e.g. with the postpositional phrase /ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á/ - "from the valley", the verb /déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ - "to set off" and the noun /ˈḛ̂nèm/ - "enemy", we can say: | ||
/ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á | /ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á déˈpʰáʔɾ ˈḛ̂nèm/ | ||
valley=from depart enemy | valley=from depart enemy | ||
Line 337: | Line 398: | ||
or | or | ||
/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á | /ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á déˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
enemy valley=from depart | enemy valley=from depart | ||
Line 360: | Line 421: | ||
Unlike adverbs of place and other postpositional phrases which precede the verb, adverbs of manner and time follow it (and are placed in Tone Class 3) e.g. | Unlike adverbs of place and other postpositional phrases which precede the verb, adverbs of manner and time follow it (and are placed in Tone Class 3) e.g. | ||
/ | /déˈpʰáʔɾ ˈzwéʔpìd ˈjě̤tài ˈḛ̂nèm/ | ||
depart fast yesterday enemy | depart fast yesterday enemy | ||
Line 371: | Line 432: | ||
The same subject pronouns as before are also used for intransitive sentences e.g. | The same subject pronouns as before are also used for intransitive sentences e.g. | ||
/jéi | /jéi déˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
2PS depart | 2PS depart | ||
Line 380: | Line 441: | ||
However, the pronoun must immediately precede the verb so */déˈpʰâ̰ɾ jéi/ is ungrammatical. And postpositional phrases cannot intervene between the pronoun and the verb, so */jéi ˈkʰóʔnàt=mà déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ is ungrammatical. They must come before the pronoun, so it is only grammatical to say: | However, the pronoun must immediately precede the verb so */déˈpʰâ̰ɾ jéi/ is ungrammatical. And postpositional phrases cannot intervene between the pronoun and the verb, so */jéi ˈkʰóʔnàt=mà déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ is ungrammatical. They must come before the pronoun, so it is only grammatical to say: | ||
/ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á jéi | /ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á jéi déˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
valley=from 2PS depart | valley=from 2PS depart | ||
Line 391: | Line 452: | ||
In transitive sentences without pronouns, the basic word order is SVO, with the subject marked with the ergative clitic /-zu/ e.g. | In transitive sentences without pronouns, the basic word order is SVO, with the subject marked with the ergative clitic /-zu/ e.g. | ||
/ | /dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog=ERG bite lizard | dog=ERG bite lizard | ||
Line 400: | Line 461: | ||
However, immediately after a monophthong with breathy or harsh voice (and thus necessarily a stressed vowel), the ergative clitic has the allomorph /-ɾu/ e.g. | However, immediately after a monophthong with breathy or harsh voice (and thus necessarily a stressed vowel), the ergative clitic has the allomorph /-ɾu/ e.g. | ||
/ | /kʰjâṵ=ɾù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
cow=ERG bite lizard | cow=ERG bite lizard | ||
Line 411: | Line 472: | ||
The come after the ergative noun, but before the verb (or any pronouns) e.g. | The come after the ergative noun, but before the verb (or any pronouns) e.g. | ||
/ | /dô̰k=zù pʰò̤wét=ká ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog=ERG forest=LOC bite lizard | dog=ERG forest=LOC bite lizard | ||
Line 422: | Line 483: | ||
However, Kämpya speakers very often topicalise either the subject or the object. The object is topicalised by moving it in front of the subject (i.e. making the sentence OSV) e.g. | However, Kämpya speakers very often topicalise either the subject or the object. The object is topicalised by moving it in front of the subject (i.e. making the sentence OSV) e.g. | ||
/ˈlḭ̂zàd | /ˈlḭ̂zàd dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn/ | ||
lizard dog=ERG bite | lizard dog=ERG bite | ||
Line 431: | Line 492: | ||
The subject of a transitive sentence is topicalised by deleting the ergative marker e.g. | The subject of a transitive sentence is topicalised by deleting the ergative marker e.g. | ||
/ | /dô̰k ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog bite lizard | dog bite lizard | ||
Line 438: | Line 499: | ||
The difference between this and / | The difference between this and /dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn lḭ̂zàd/ (i.e. with the case marker), is that, in the sentence with the case marker, the "new information" being presented to the listener is that it was the dog that did the biting. Without the case marker, it is a sentence describing the dog, and the new information is that it bit the lizard. This is analagous to the difference between "ga" and "wa" in Japanese. | ||
Also note that topicalising both the subject and object is ungrammatical i.e. we cannot say */lḭ̂zàd | Also note that topicalising both the subject and object is ungrammatical i.e. we cannot say */lḭ̂zàd dô̰k ˈbíʔtèn/ or anything like that. | ||
Line 481: | Line 542: | ||
/ | /dô̰k ŋí=ˈbíʔtèn/ | ||
dog 2PS.ACC=bite | dog 2PS.ACC=bite | ||
Line 490: | Line 551: | ||
or | or | ||
/ŋí=ˈbíʔtèn | /ŋí=ˈbíʔtèn dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite dog | 2PS.ACC=bite dog | ||
Line 496: | Line 557: | ||
You will be bitten by the dog. | You will be bitten by the dog. | ||
Using the ergative form / | Using the ergative form /dô̰k=zù/ is ungrammatical here. | ||
Line 547: | Line 608: | ||
To delete the object of a transitive sentence, the antipassive voice is used [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipassive_voice]. This is done with the clitic /θu-/. It goes in the same syntactic "slot" as an object pronoun would e.g. | To delete the object of a transitive sentence, the antipassive voice is used [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipassive_voice]. This is done with the clitic /θu-/. It goes in the same syntactic "slot" as an object pronoun would e.g. | ||
/ | /dô̰k θú=ˈbíʔtèn/ | ||
dog ANTIP=bite | dog ANTIP=bite | ||
Line 556: | Line 617: | ||
However, if followed by a vowel, the form of the clitic is /θw-/ e.g. | However, if followed by a vowel, the form of the clitic is /θw-/ e.g. | ||
/ | /dô̰k θw=álâṵn/ | ||
dog ANTIP=abandon | dog ANTIP=abandon | ||
Line 565: | Line 626: | ||
The deleted object can be re-introduced at the end of the sentence using the dative clitic /-àuŋ/ (note that this does not change the tone class of the noun) e.g. | The deleted object can be re-introduced at the end of the sentence using the dative clitic /-àuŋ/ (note that this does not change the tone class of the noun) e.g. | ||
/ | /dô̰k θú=ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/ | ||
dog ANTIP=bite lizard=DAT | dog ANTIP=bite lizard=DAT | ||
Line 574: | Line 635: | ||
At first glance, this may seem pointless, as we could have quite easily have said: | At first glance, this may seem pointless, as we could have quite easily have said: | ||
/ | /dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog=ERG bite lizard | dog=ERG bite lizard | ||
Line 583: | Line 644: | ||
However, the difference is that Kämpya has ergative syntax. Whatever argument of the verb is in the absolutive case is the syntactic pivot [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_pivot]. In a normal transitive sentence, this is the object of the verb. But, by using the antipassive voice, the subject of the transitive verb becomes the syntactic pivot. If we combine the two sentences above with the verb /áˈwâḭ/ - "to flee", the meaning becomes very different: | However, the difference is that Kämpya has ergative syntax. Whatever argument of the verb is in the absolutive case is the syntactic pivot [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_pivot]. In a normal transitive sentence, this is the object of the verb. But, by using the antipassive voice, the subject of the transitive verb becomes the syntactic pivot. If we combine the two sentences above with the verb /áˈwâḭ/ - "to flee", the meaning becomes very different: | ||
/ | /dô̰k θú=ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ áˈwâḭ/ | ||
dog ANTIP=bite lizard=DAT flee | dog ANTIP=bite lizard=DAT flee | ||
Line 591: | Line 652: | ||
vs. | vs. | ||
/ | /dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd áˈwâḭ/ | ||
dog=ERG bite lizard flee | dog=ERG bite lizard flee | ||
Line 600: | Line 661: | ||
Note that the dative clitic has the allomorph /jàuŋ/ after a vowel e.g. | Note that the dative clitic has the allomorph /jàuŋ/ after a vowel e.g. | ||
/ˈlḭ̂zàd θú=ˈbíʔtèn | /ˈlḭ̂zàd θú=ˈbíʔtèn kʰjâṵ=jàuŋ/ | ||
lizard ANTIP=bite cow=DAT | lizard ANTIP=bite cow=DAT | ||
Line 611: | Line 672: | ||
For verbs such as "give", "sell", "send" etc. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditransitive], the normal situation is to have the donor marked in the ergative case in the usual position (i.e before the verb and any postpositional phrases), the theme (whatever is being given / sold etc. to someone) directly after it, and marked with the secundative postposition /-ti/, and the recipient in the absolutive case either after the verb or topicalised at the beginning of the sentence e.g. | For verbs such as "give", "sell", "send" etc. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditransitive], the normal situation is to have the donor marked in the ergative case in the usual position (i.e before the verb and any postpositional phrases), the theme (whatever is being given / sold etc. to someone) directly after it, and marked with the secundative postposition /-ti/, and the recipient in the absolutive case either after the verb or topicalised at the beginning of the sentence e.g. | ||
/ˈsíʔtà=zù bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b | /ˈsíʔtà=zù bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b dô̰k/ | ||
guardian=ERG bone=SEC give dog | guardian=ERG bone=SEC give dog | ||
Line 620: | Line 681: | ||
or | or | ||
/ | /dô̰k ˈsíʔtà=zù wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b/ | ||
dog guardian=ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give | dog guardian=ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give | ||
Line 629: | Line 690: | ||
The ergative argument can be topicalised in the same way e.g. | The ergative argument can be topicalised in the same way e.g. | ||
/ˈsíʔtà wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b | /ˈsíʔtà wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b dô̰k/ | ||
guardian INDEF=bone=SEC give dog | guardian INDEF=bone=SEC give dog | ||
Line 638: | Line 699: | ||
It is also perfectly possible to put a ditransitive sentence in the antipassive voice e.g. | It is also perfectly possible to put a ditransitive sentence in the antipassive voice e.g. | ||
/ˈsíʔtà bàṵn=tí θú=gḭ̂b | /ˈsíʔtà bàṵn=tí θú=gḭ̂b dô̰k=àuŋ/ | ||
guardian bone=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT | guardian bone=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT | ||
Line 649: | Line 710: | ||
Postpositional phrases usually come after the theme (i.e. whatever takes the secundative case) e.g. | Postpositional phrases usually come after the theme (i.e. whatever takes the secundative case) e.g. | ||
/ˈsíʔtà=zù bàṵn=tí pʰò̤wét=ká gḭ̂b | /ˈsíʔtà=zù bàṵn=tí pʰò̤wét=ká gḭ̂b dô̰k/ | ||
guardian=ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog | guardian=ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog | ||
Line 662: | Line 723: | ||
Immediately after a monophthong with breathy voice (and thus necessarily a vowel in an open syllable that has stress), an inital /t/ in clitics lenites to /ɾ/. For example, the secundative clitic /ti/ becomes /ɾi/ e.g. | Immediately after a monophthong with breathy voice (and thus necessarily a vowel in an open syllable that has stress), an inital /t/ in clitics lenites to /ɾ/. For example, the secundative clitic /ti/ becomes /ɾi/ e.g. | ||
/ˈsíʔtà gwà̤=ɾí gḭ̂b | /ˈsíʔtà gwà̤=ɾí gḭ̂b dô̰k/ | ||
guardian grass=SEC give dog | guardian grass=SEC give dog | ||
The guardian gave the | The guardian gave the grass to the dog. | ||
Immediately after a monophthong with harsh voice, /t/ also lenites to /ɾ/. However, it also triggers a phonation shift on the vowel from harsh to glottalised e.g. the noun meaning " | Immediately after a monophthong with harsh voice, /t/ also lenites to /ɾ/. However, it also triggers a phonation shift on the vowel from harsh to glottalised e.g. the noun meaning "snare" is /n̥ḛ̀/ in Tone Class 2. It normally has harsh voice, but it combines with the secundative clitic to form /n̥ḛ̀=ɾí/, as in: | ||
/ˈsíʔtà | /ˈsíʔtà n̥ḛ̀=ɾí θú=gḭ̂b dô̰k=àuŋ/ | ||
guardian | guardian snare=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT | ||
Literally "the guardian gave the snare to the dog", but "give a snare" could also be translated as "use a snare to catch". | |||
In similar situations, /p/ lenites to /ⱱ/. For example, the instrumental postposition /piŋ/ likewise becomes /ⱱiŋ/ e.g. /pìʔh/ - "words" becomes /ˈpìʔh=píŋ/ - "using words", but /gwà̤/ - "grass" becomes /gwà̤=ⱱíŋ/ - "using grass", and words with harsh voice on the final vowel such as / | In similar situations, /p/ lenites to /ⱱ/. For example, the instrumental postposition /piŋ/ likewise becomes /ⱱiŋ/ e.g. /pìʔh/ - "words" becomes /ˈpìʔh=píŋ/ - "using words", but /gwà̤/ - "grass" becomes /gwà̤=ⱱíŋ/ - "using grass", and words with harsh voice on the final vowel such as /n̥ḛ̀/ - "snare", become /n̥ḛ̀=ⱱíŋ/ - "using a snare". | ||
Line 713: | Line 774: | ||
/bàṵn=tí pʰò̤wét=ká jô̰ gḭ̂b | /bàṵn=tí pʰò̤wét=ká jô̰ gḭ̂b dô̰k/ | ||
bone=SEC forest=LOC 2PS.ERG give dog | bone=SEC forest=LOC 2PS.ERG give dog | ||
Line 723: | Line 784: | ||
/jô̰ bàṵn=tí pʰò̤wét=ká gḭ̂b | /jô̰ bàṵn=tí pʰò̤wét=ká gḭ̂b dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog | 2PS.ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog | ||
Line 751: | Line 812: | ||
To topicalise a noun in a postpositional phrase, Kämpya uses applicative constructions [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applicative_voice]. These are formed by first shifting the noun in the absolutive case to the end of the sentence (and marking it with the dative clitic /-àuŋ/). In turn, the noun that the postposition was attached to goes into the absolutive case (and changes to Tone Class 1), and the postposition is placed after the verb as a clitic e.g. from the sentence: | To topicalise a noun in a postpositional phrase, Kämpya uses applicative constructions [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applicative_voice]. These are formed by first shifting the noun in the absolutive case to the end of the sentence (and marking it with the dative clitic /-àuŋ/). In turn, the noun that the postposition was attached to goes into the absolutive case (and changes to Tone Class 1), and the postposition is placed after the verb as a clitic e.g. from the sentence: | ||
/ | /ˈdô̰k=zù pʰò̤wét=ká ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog=ERG forest=LOC bite lizard | dog=ERG forest=LOC bite lizard | ||
Line 760: | Line 821: | ||
we can apply an applicative transformation to get: | we can apply an applicative transformation to get: | ||
/pʰò̤wèt | /pʰò̤wèt ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn=kà ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/ | ||
forest dog=ERG bite=LOC lizard=DAT | forest dog=ERG bite=LOC lizard=DAT | ||
Line 769: | Line 830: | ||
As another example, the sentence | As another example, the sentence | ||
/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á | /ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á déˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
enemy valley=from depart | enemy valley=from depart | ||
Line 778: | Line 839: | ||
becomes the following: | becomes the following: | ||
/ˈbwḛ̂lì | /ˈbwḛ̂lì déˈpʰáʔɾ=m̥à ˈḛ̂nèm=àuŋ/ | ||
valley depart=from enemy=DAT | valley depart=from enemy=DAT | ||
Line 790: | Line 851: | ||
Likewise, in ditransitive sentences, the theme (i.e. whatever is given by the donor to the recipient) can also be topicalised by the same process e.g. | Likewise, in ditransitive sentences, the theme (i.e. whatever is given by the donor to the recipient) can also be topicalised by the same process e.g. | ||
/ | /dô̰k ˈsíʔtà=zù wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b/ | ||
dog guardian=ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give | dog guardian=ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give | ||
Line 799: | Line 860: | ||
becomes | becomes | ||
/bâṵn ˈsíʔtà=zù ˈgḭ̂b=tì | /bâṵn ˈsíʔtà=zù ˈgḭ̂b=tì ˈdô̰k=àuŋ/ | ||
bone guardian=ERG give=SEC dog=DAT | bone guardian=ERG give=SEC dog=DAT | ||
Line 808: | Line 869: | ||
When a pronoun is the object of the verb to be put into the applicative voice, the subject is put into the dative case instead e.g. when we apply the applicative voice to | When a pronoun is the object of the verb to be put into the applicative voice, the subject is put into the dative case instead e.g. when we apply the applicative voice to | ||
/ | /dô̰k pʰò̤wét=ká ŋí=ˈbíʔtèn/ | ||
dog forest=LOC 2PS.ACC=bite | dog forest=LOC 2PS.ACC=bite | ||
Line 817: | Line 878: | ||
we get | we get | ||
/pʰò̤wèt ŋí=ˈbíʔtèn=kà | /pʰò̤wèt ŋí=ˈbíʔtèn=kà dô̰k=àuŋ/ | ||
forest 2PS.ACC=bite=LOC dog=DAT | forest 2PS.ACC=bite=LOC dog=DAT | ||
Line 828: | Line 889: | ||
This is clearly a cliticisation process, since adverbs can come before the particle but after the verb e.g. | This is clearly a cliticisation process, since adverbs can come before the particle but after the verb e.g. | ||
/pʰò̤wèt | /pʰò̤wèt ˈdô̰k=zù bíʔtèn ˈˈjě̤tài=kà ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/ | ||
forest dog=ERG bite yesterday.ADV=LOC lizard=DAT | forest dog=ERG bite yesterday.ADV=LOC lizard=DAT | ||
Line 844: | Line 905: | ||
When an adjective modifies a noun, Kämpya makes a distinction between restrictive and non-restrictive (descriptive) adjectives [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness]. It does this by putting restrictive adjectives in Tone Class 2, and placing them before the noun they modify e.g. | When an adjective modifies a noun, Kämpya makes a distinction between restrictive and non-restrictive (descriptive) adjectives [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness]. It does this by putting restrictive adjectives in Tone Class 2, and placing them before the noun they modify e.g. | ||
/ˈlwèʔpíd | /ˈlwèʔpíd dô̰k/ | ||
fast.REST dog | fast.REST dog | ||
Line 853: | Line 914: | ||
Descriptive (non-restrictive) adjectives are in Tone Class 3 and follow the noun they modify e.g. | Descriptive (non-restrictive) adjectives are in Tone Class 3 and follow the noun they modify e.g. | ||
/ | /dô̰k ˈlwéʔpìd/ | ||
dog fast.DESC | dog fast.DESC | ||
Line 877: | Line 938: | ||
/wá= | /wá=dô̰k/ | ||
INDEF=dog | INDEF=dog | ||
Line 897: | Line 958: | ||
Compare: | Compare: | ||
/wá= | /wá=dô̰k/ | ||
INDEF=dog | INDEF=dog | ||
Line 906: | Line 967: | ||
with | with | ||
/wà̰n | /wà̰n dô̰k/ | ||
one dog | one dog | ||
Line 918: | Line 979: | ||
/wá=ˈjḛ̀láu | /wá=ˈjḛ̀láu dô̰k/ | ||
INDEF=yellow.REST dog | INDEF=yellow.REST dog | ||
Line 934: | Line 995: | ||
For example "this mountain" is /dá | For example "this mountain" is /dá ˈméiʔnàn/, since a mountain is a place. But "this dog" is /dà̰ dô̰k/, since a dog is not a place. | ||
Line 956: | Line 1,017: | ||
Kämpya distinguishes alienable and inalienable possession. In both cases, possessors are marked with the cliticised case marker /ja/, and come before the noun they possess. But inalienable possessors are in Tone Class 2 e.g. | Kämpya distinguishes alienable and inalienable possession. In both cases, possessors are marked with the cliticised case marker /ja/, and come before the noun they possess. But inalienable possessors are in Tone Class 2 e.g. | ||
/ | /dò̰k=já bâṵn/ | ||
dog=GEN.INALIENABLE bone | dog=GEN.INALIENABLE bone | ||
Line 964: | Line 1,025: | ||
While alienable possessors are in Tone Class 1 e.g. | While alienable possessors are in Tone Class 1 e.g. | ||
/ | /dô̰k=jà bâṵn/ | ||
dog=GEN.ALIENABLE bone | dog=GEN.ALIENABLE bone | ||
Line 974: | Line 1,035: | ||
/ | /dô̰k=jà dà̰ bâṵn/ | ||
dog=GEN.ALIENABLE this bone | dog=GEN.ALIENABLE this bone | ||
Line 985: | Line 1,046: | ||
In the same way as with adjectives, Kämpya places relative clauses before the head noun if they are restrictive, and after the noun if they are non-restrictive e.g. | In the same way as with adjectives, Kämpya places relative clauses before the head noun if they are restrictive, and after the noun if they are non-restrictive e.g. | ||
/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔtèn | /ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔtèn dô̰k áˈwâḭ/ | ||
lizard=ERG bite dog flee | lizard=ERG bite dog flee | ||
Line 994: | Line 1,055: | ||
Or, using a non-restrictive relative clause: | Or, using a non-restrictive relative clause: | ||
/ | /dô̰k ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔtèn áˈwâḭ/ | ||
dog lizard=ERG bite flee | dog lizard=ERG bite flee | ||
Line 1,045: | Line 1,106: | ||
/θú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd | /θú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd dô̰k=àuŋ áˈwâḭ/ | ||
ANTIP=bite lizard dog=DAT flee | ANTIP=bite lizard dog=DAT flee | ||
Line 1,055: | Line 1,116: | ||
/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔtèn=kà pʰò̤wèt | /ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔtèn=kà pʰò̤wèt dô̰k=àuŋ m̥ôṵ/ | ||
lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest dog=DAT small | lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest dog=DAT small | ||
Line 1,071: | Line 1,132: | ||
The basic way to negate something is to place the clitic /na/ immediately before it e.g. from the sentence | The basic way to negate something is to place the clitic /na/ immediately before it e.g. from the sentence | ||
/ŋí=bíʔtèn | /ŋí=bíʔtèn dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite dog. | 2PS.ACC=bite dog. | ||
Line 1,080: | Line 1,141: | ||
We can say | We can say | ||
/ŋí=ná=bíʔtèn | /ŋí=ná=bíʔtèn dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=NEG=bite dog | 2PS.ACC=NEG=bite dog | ||
Line 1,089: | Line 1,150: | ||
as well as | as well as | ||
/ná=ŋí=bíʔtèn | /ná=ŋí=bíʔtèn dô̰k/ | ||
NEG=2PS.ACC=bite dog | NEG=2PS.ACC=bite dog | ||
Line 1,098: | Line 1,159: | ||
and | and | ||
/ŋí=bíʔtèn ná= | /ŋí=bíʔtèn ná=dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite NEG=dog | 2PS.ACC=bite NEG=dog | ||
Line 1,110: | Line 1,171: | ||
As we can see, /na/ can attach to either nouns or verbs. It can also attach to adjectives e.g. | As we can see, /na/ can attach to either nouns or verbs. It can also attach to adjectives e.g. | ||
/ŋí=bíʔtèn ná=m̥ôṵ | /ŋí=bíʔtèn ná=m̥ôṵ dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite NEG=small.REST dog | 2PS.ACC=bite NEG=small.REST dog | ||
Line 1,120: | Line 1,181: | ||
And adverbs e.g. | And adverbs e.g. | ||
/ŋí=bíʔtèn nà=déiʔp | /ŋí=bíʔtèn nà=déiʔp dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite NEG=deep.ADV dog | 2PS.ACC=bite NEG=deep.ADV dog | ||
Line 1,130: | Line 1,191: | ||
However, if the word after /na/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g. | However, if the word after /na/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g. | ||
/ŋí=náw= | /ŋí=náw=áˈlâṵn dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=NEG=abandon dog | 2PS.ACC=NEG=abandon dog | ||
Line 1,142: | Line 1,203: | ||
/ái=lét= | /ái=lét=déˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
1PS.EXCL=NEC=depart | 1PS.EXCL=NEC=depart | ||
Line 1,152: | Line 1,213: | ||
/wéi=lét= | /wéi=lét=déˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
1PS.INCL=NEC=depart | 1PS.INCL=NEC=depart | ||
Line 1,162: | Line 1,223: | ||
/jéi=lét= | /jéi=lét=déˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
2PS=NEC=depart | 2PS=NEC=depart | ||
Line 1,172: | Line 1,233: | ||
/jéi= | /jéi=déˈpʰáʔɾ lèt=ˈlwéʔpìd/ | ||
2PS=depart NEC=fast | 2PS=depart NEC=fast | ||
Line 1,183: | Line 1,244: | ||
Kämpya has a special pattern to say that something is forbidden. This is to use the necessitative mood, and also change the verb from Tone Class 1 (the normal class for verbs) to Tone Class 2 (for infinitives). It is then followed by the verb /nâ̰/ e.g. | Kämpya has a special pattern to say that something is forbidden. This is to use the necessitative mood, and also change the verb from Tone Class 1 (the normal class for verbs) to Tone Class 2 (for infinitives). It is then followed by the verb /nâ̰/ e.g. | ||
/jéi=lét= | /jéi=lét=áˈlàṵn nâ̰/ | ||
2PS.INTR=NEC=alone.INF PROH | 2PS.INTR=NEC=alone.INF PROH | ||
Line 1,192: | Line 1,253: | ||
This pattern can also be used for transitive verbs | This pattern can also be used for transitive verbs | ||
/jô̰ lét=bíʔtèn nâ̰ | /jô̰ lét=bíʔtèn nâ̰ dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog | 2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog | ||
Line 1,201: | Line 1,262: | ||
It is also perfectly possible to front the argument of /nâ̰/ e.g. | It is also perfectly possible to front the argument of /nâ̰/ e.g. | ||
/ | /dô̰k jô̰ lét=bíʔtèn nâ̰/ | ||
dog 2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH | dog 2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH | ||
Line 1,210: | Line 1,271: | ||
Other nouns can be used apart from the 2nd person pronouns e.g. | Other nouns can be used apart from the 2nd person pronouns e.g. | ||
/ˈsíʔtà=zù lét=bíʔtèn nâ̰ | /ˈsíʔtà=zù lét=bíʔtèn nâ̰ dô̰k/ | ||
guardian=ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog | guardian=ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog | ||
Line 1,222: | Line 1,283: | ||
/ái=wáná= | /ái=wáná=déˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
1PS.EXCL.INTR=OPT=depart | 1PS.EXCL.INTR=OPT=depart | ||
Line 1,229: | Line 1,290: | ||
/ŋí=wáná=bíʔtèn | /ŋí=wáná=bíʔtèn dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=OPT=bite dog | 2PS.ACC=OPT=bite dog | ||
Line 1,236: | Line 1,297: | ||
/ŋí=bíʔtèn wáná= | /ŋí=bíʔtèn wáná=dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC bite OPT=dog | 2PS.ACC bite OPT=dog | ||
Line 1,243: | Line 1,304: | ||
/ŋí=bíʔtèn wáná=m̥ôṵ | /ŋí=bíʔtèn wáná=m̥ôṵ dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC bite OPT=small.REST dog | 2PS.ACC bite OPT=small.REST dog | ||
Line 1,255: | Line 1,316: | ||
/ái=káu= | /ái=káu=déˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
1PS.EXCL.INTR=COND=depart | 1PS.EXCL.INTR=COND=depart | ||
Line 1,262: | Line 1,323: | ||
/ái= | /ái=déˈpʰáʔɾ kò=ˈlwéʔpìd/ | ||
1PS.EXCL.INTR depart COND=fast | 1PS.EXCL.INTR depart COND=fast | ||
Line 1,272: | Line 1,333: | ||
/jéi=wáná= | /jéi=wáná=déˈpʰáʔɾ ái=káw=áˈlâṵn/ | ||
2PS.INTR=OPT=depart COND=1PS.EXCL=alone | 2PS.INTR=OPT=depart COND=1PS.EXCL=alone | ||
Line 1,284: | Line 1,345: | ||
/jéi=nóu= | /jéi=nóu=déˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
2PS.INTR=HYP=depart | 2PS.INTR=HYP=depart | ||
Line 1,294: | Line 1,355: | ||
/jéi=nóu= | /jéi=nóu=déˈpʰáʔɾ ái=káw=áˈlâṵn/ | ||
2PS.INTR=HYP=depart COND=1PS.EXCL=alone | 2PS.INTR=HYP=depart COND=1PS.EXCL=alone | ||
Line 1,306: | Line 1,367: | ||
/ | /dô̰k áˈlâṵn/ | ||
dog alone | dog alone | ||
Line 1,317: | Line 1,378: | ||
If the speaker is reporting information that someone else told them, the proclitic /hi/ (/hizw/ before a vowel) is used e.g. | If the speaker is reporting information that someone else told them, the proclitic /hi/ (/hizw/ before a vowel) is used e.g. | ||
/ | /dô̰k hízw=áˈlâṵn/ | ||
dog REP=alone | dog REP=alone | ||
Line 1,324: | Line 1,385: | ||
/ | /áˈlâṵn hí=dô̰k/ | ||
alone REP=dog | alone REP=dog | ||
Line 1,335: | Line 1,396: | ||
If the speaker is arriving at a judgment based on some kind of direct physical evidence, then the proclitic /ge/ is used (/ges/ before a vowel) e.g. | If the speaker is arriving at a judgment based on some kind of direct physical evidence, then the proclitic /ge/ is used (/ges/ before a vowel) e.g. | ||
/ | /dô̰k gés=áˈlâṵn/ | ||
dog INFR=alone | dog INFR=alone | ||
Line 1,368: | Line 1,429: | ||
/ŋí=dú=bíʔtèn | /ŋí=dú=bíʔtèn dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | 2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | ||
Line 1,377: | Line 1,438: | ||
as well as | as well as | ||
/dú=ŋí=bíʔtèn | /dú=ŋí=bíʔtèn dô̰k/ | ||
POLQ=2PS.ACC=bite dog | POLQ=2PS.ACC=bite dog | ||
Line 1,386: | Line 1,447: | ||
and | and | ||
/ŋí=bíʔtèn dú= | /ŋí=bíʔtèn dú=dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=dog | 2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=dog | ||
Line 1,395: | Line 1,456: | ||
Like with /na/, /du/ can also attach to adjectives e.g. | Like with /na/, /du/ can also attach to adjectives e.g. | ||
/ŋí=bíʔtèn dú=m̥òṵ | /ŋí=bíʔtèn dú=m̥òṵ dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=small.REST dog | 2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=small.REST dog | ||
Line 1,404: | Line 1,465: | ||
And adverbs e.g. | And adverbs e.g. | ||
/ŋí=bíʔtèn dù=déiʔp | /ŋí=bíʔtèn dù=déiʔp dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=deep.ADV dog | 2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=deep.ADV dog | ||
Line 1,413: | Line 1,474: | ||
However, if the word after /du/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g. | However, if the word after /du/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g. | ||
/ŋí=dúw= | /ŋí=dúw=áˈlâṵn dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=POLQ=abandon dog | 2PS.ACC=POLQ=abandon dog | ||
Line 1,425: | Line 1,486: | ||
A) / | A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | 2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | ||
Line 1,445: | Line 1,506: | ||
A) / | A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | 2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | ||
Line 1,462: | Line 1,523: | ||
A) / | A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | 2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | ||
Line 1,479: | Line 1,540: | ||
A) / | A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | 2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | ||
Line 1,496: | Line 1,557: | ||
A) / | A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | 2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | ||
Line 1,530: | Line 1,591: | ||
A) / | A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | 2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | ||
Line 1,558: | Line 1,619: | ||
or | or | ||
/ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á bá= | /ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á bá=ˈdéˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
Hkonat=from Q.INTR=depart | Hkonat=from Q.INTR=depart | ||
Line 1,579: | Line 1,640: | ||
/ˈsíʔtà ˈkèʔ=ɾí θú=gḭ̂b | /ˈsíʔtà ˈkèʔ=ɾí θú=gḭ̂b dô̰k=àuŋ/ | ||
guardian Q.ACC=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT | guardian Q.ACC=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT | ||
Line 1,588: | Line 1,649: | ||
When English would use a word such as "where" or "when", Kämpya instead uses /kḛ̀/ (the accusative emphatic interrogative pronoun) with a postposition e.g. | When English would use a word such as "where" or "when", Kämpya instead uses /kḛ̀/ (the accusative emphatic interrogative pronoun) with a postposition e.g. | ||
/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈkḛ̀=m̥á | /ˈḛ̂nèm ˈkḛ̀=m̥á déˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
enemy Q.ACC=from depart | enemy Q.ACC=from depart | ||
Line 1,595: | Line 1,656: | ||
/ | /dô̰k=zù ˈkḛ̀=wé ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog=ERG Q.ACC=TEM bite lizard | dog=ERG Q.ACC=TEM bite lizard | ||
Line 1,602: | Line 1,663: | ||
/ | /dô̰k=zù ˈkèʔ=ⱱíŋ ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog=ERG Q.ACC=INS bite lizard | dog=ERG Q.ACC=INS bite lizard | ||
Line 1,609: | Line 1,670: | ||
/ | /dô̰k=zù ˈkèʔ=há ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog=ERG Q.ACC=LOC bite lizard | dog=ERG Q.ACC=LOC bite lizard | ||
Line 1,620: | Line 1,681: | ||
Kämpya has no word meaning "whose". Instead it is necessary to ask "Who has ...?", combined with a relative clause e.g. | Kämpya has no word meaning "whose". Instead it is necessary to ask "Who has ...?", combined with a relative clause e.g. | ||
/ | /dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd zwé=ˈhḛ̂b/ | ||
dog=ERG bite lizard Q.ERG=have | dog=ERG bite lizard Q.ERG=have | ||
Line 1,629: | Line 1,690: | ||
or | or | ||
/θú=ˈbíʔtèn | /θú=ˈbíʔtèn dô̰k ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ zwé=ˈhḛ̂b/ | ||
ANTIP=bite dog lizard=DAT Q.ERG=have | ANTIP=bite dog lizard=DAT Q.ERG=have | ||
Line 1,640: | Line 1,701: | ||
To ask questions like "Which lizard did the dog bite?", attach the clitic bá- (or báj- before a vowel) to the noun being asked about e.g. | To ask questions like "Which lizard did the dog bite?", attach the clitic bá- (or báj- before a vowel) to the noun being asked about e.g. | ||
/ | /dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn bá=ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog=ERG bite Q.INTR=lizard | dog=ERG bite Q.INTR=lizard | ||
Line 1,649: | Line 1,710: | ||
However, bá- can only attach to a noun in the absolutive case. To ask about the subject of a transitive verb, it is necessary to antipassivise the verb. e.g. | However, bá- can only attach to a noun in the absolutive case. To ask about the subject of a transitive verb, it is necessary to antipassivise the verb. e.g. | ||
/θú=ˈbíʔtèn bá= | /θú=ˈbíʔtèn bá=dô̰k ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/ | ||
ANTIP=bite Q.INTR=dog lizard=DAT | ANTIP=bite Q.INTR=dog lizard=DAT | ||
Line 1,656: | Line 1,717: | ||
Attaching the clitic to a noun in the ergative case is ungrammatical e.g. */bá= | Attaching the clitic to a noun in the ergative case is ungrammatical e.g. */bá=dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn lḭ̂zàd/. Also the clitic cannot attach to a topicalised noun e.g. */bá=dô̰k θú=ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/. | ||
To ask about the object of a postposition, an applicative construction is needed e.g. | To ask about the object of a postposition, an applicative construction is needed e.g. | ||
/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù ˈbíʔtèn=kà bá=pʰò̤wèt | /ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù ˈbíʔtèn=kà bá=pʰò̤wèt ˈdô̰k=àuŋ/ | ||
lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest dog=DAT which | lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest dog=DAT which | ||
Line 1,703: | Line 1,764: | ||
If there is a subordinate clause, then the accusative pronoun is replaced with /nó/ e.g. | If there is a subordinate clause, then the accusative pronoun is replaced with /nó/ e.g. | ||
/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè | /múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite lizard | mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite lizard | ||
Line 1,712: | Line 1,773: | ||
If the superordinate clause's absolutive argument is also the topic of the subordinate clause, then it does not need to be mentioned twice e.g. | If the superordinate clause's absolutive argument is also the topic of the subordinate clause, then it does not need to be mentioned twice e.g. | ||
/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè | /múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn/ | ||
mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite | mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite | ||
Line 1,719: | Line 1,780: | ||
It would be redundant to say something like ?/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè | It would be redundant to say something like ?/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn mùˈhḛ̂/. | ||
Line 1,725: | Line 1,786: | ||
And another example using a postposition: | And another example using a postposition: | ||
/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí píʔh kʰḭ̂d | /múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí píʔh kʰḭ̂d ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child dog=ERG bite lizard | mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child dog=ERG bite lizard | ||
Line 1,734: | Line 1,795: | ||
And as before, the absolutive argument of the superordinate clause can be the topic of the subordinate clause e.g. | And as before, the absolutive argument of the superordinate clause can be the topic of the subordinate clause e.g. | ||
/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí píʔh kʰḭ̂d wá=áˈjòṳ=tí lét=gḭ̂b | /múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí píʔh kʰḭ̂d wá=áˈjòṳ=tí lét=gḭ̂b dô̰k/ | ||
mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog | mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog | ||
Line 1,741: | Line 1,802: | ||
/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=ˈdè̤sì ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ wá=bàṵn=tí lét=gḭ̂b | /múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=ˈdè̤sì ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ wá=bàṵn=tí lét=gḭ̂b dô̰k/ | ||
mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog | mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog | ||
Line 1,751: | Line 1,812: | ||
/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=píʔh ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b | /múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=píʔh ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b dô̰k/ | ||
mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT INDEF=bone=SEC give dog | mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT INDEF=bone=SEC give dog | ||
Line 1,758: | Line 1,819: | ||
/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=píʔh ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ wá=bàṵn=tí hí=gḭ̂b | /múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=píʔh ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ wá=bàṵn=tí hí=gḭ̂b dô̰k/ | ||
mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT INDEF=bone=SEC REP=give dog | mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT INDEF=bone=SEC REP=give dog | ||
Line 1,771: | Line 1,832: | ||
So if the above 2 sentences take ðjíʔ, then they become: | So if the above 2 sentences take ðjíʔ, then they become: | ||
/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí píʔh ˈkʰḭ̂d ðjíʔ wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b | /múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí píʔh ˈkʰḭ̂d ðjíʔ wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b dô̰k/ | ||
mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog | mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog | ||
Line 1,778: | Line 1,839: | ||
/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=ˈpíʔh ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ ðjíʔ wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b | /múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=ˈpíʔh ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ ðjíʔ wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b dô̰k/ | ||
mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog | mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog | ||
Line 1,790: | Line 1,851: | ||
/ˈkʰḭ̂d ˈnòʔ=ɾí mí=ˈpíʔh ˈḛ̂nèm | /ˈkʰḭ̂d ˈnòʔ=ɾí mí=ˈpíʔh ˈḛ̂nèm déˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
child SBRD.ACC 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak enemy depart | child SBRD.ACC 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak enemy depart | ||
Line 1,800: | Line 1,861: | ||
/ˈkʰḭ̂d ˈnòʔ=ɾí mí=ˈpíʔh ˈḛ̂nèm hí= | /ˈkʰḭ̂d ˈnòʔ=ɾí mí=ˈpíʔh ˈḛ̂nèm hí=déˈpʰáʔɾ/ | ||
child SBRD.ACC 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak enemy REP=depart | child SBRD.ACC 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak enemy REP=depart | ||
Line 1,811: | Line 1,872: | ||
To say "more than ...", Kämpya speakers say ... /téŋ/, where /téŋ/ is a postpositional clitic that also means "above" e.g. | To say "more than ...", Kämpya speakers say ... /téŋ/, where /téŋ/ is a postpositional clitic that also means "above" e.g. | ||
/ | /dô̰k ˈlḭ̀zád=téŋ lwéʔpìd/ | ||
dog.TOP lizard=above fast | dog.TOP lizard=above fast | ||
Dogs are faster than lizards (literally "Dogs are fast above lizards"). | Dogs are faster than lizards (literally "Dogs are fast above lizards"). |
edits