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Kämpya (view source)

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Kämpya is spoken is my far-future Antarctican conworld, where runaway global warming has melted the icecaps and made the continent habitable (while rendering most of the rest of the world uninhabitable).
Kämpya is spoken is my far-future Antarctican conworld, where runaway global warming has melted the icecaps and made the continent habitable (while rendering most of the rest of the world uninhabitable).


It originated from the area around Ross Island, one of the first large-scale colonies on Antarctica. The founders used English as a common language, but this was heavily influenced by a number of languages, especially Burmese, Minnan Chinese, and Japanese (spoken in countries where many of them fled from). Most notably, the language became postpositional (English prepositions were replaced with Burmese postpositions). A later wave of Spanish speaking migrants also heavily affected the language.
It originated from the area around Ross Island, one of the first large-scale colonies on Antarctica. The founders used English as a common language, but this developed into a creole, heavily influenced by a number of languages, especially Burmese, Minnan Chinese, and Japanese (spoken in countries where many of them fled from). Most notably, the language became postpositional (English prepositions were replaced with Burmese postpositions). A later wave of Spanish speaking migrants also heavily affected the language.


It has since spread to other parts of the continent, aided by the spread of a religion called Laikyâr (although not all Kämpya speakers follow the Laikyâr religion, and not all Laikyâr believers speak Kämpya). Indeed there is a special register of the language that is only used in religious contexts. There are also a number of regional dialects. However, this page describes what could be termed the "standard" dialect.
It then diverged into a number of widely divergent dialects (technology regressed, and groups of speakers were cut off from one another), followed by another period of koineisation when enough technology was re-invented for speakers of different dialects to be able to contact one other again. This koine was called Kämpya, and spread to many other parts of the continent, aided by the growth of a religion called Laikyâr (although not all Kämpya speakers follow the Laikyâr religion, and not all Laikyâr believers speak Kämpya). Indeed there is a special register of the language that is only used in religious contexts. There are also a number of regional dialects. However, this page describes what could be termed the "standard" dialect.




==Brief Description==
==Brief Description==


Kämpya has topic comment syntax with isolating morphology. The syntactic alignment is basically ergative, except that there is a tripartite system on pronouns. However, genitive (alienable) and ergative pronouns are identical. Possessors are marked for alienability [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alienable_possession] using tone, and come before the nouns they modify. Kämpya (at least in the standard dialect) uses postpositions rather than prepositions, and adjectives can come either before or after the nouns they modify if they are restrictive or non-restrictive respectively [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness].
Kämpya has topic comment syntax with isolating morphology. The morphosyntactic alignment is basically ergative, except that there is a tripartite system on pronouns. However, genitive (alienable) and ergative pronouns are identical. Possessors are marked for alienability [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alienable_possession] using tone, and come before the nouns they modify. Kämpya (at least in the standard dialect) uses postpositions rather than prepositions, and adjectives can come either before or after the nouns they modify if they are restrictive or non-restrictive respectively [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness].
 
Verbs do not inflect for agreement, tense or aspect, however there is an elaborate system of particles that indicate mood / evidentiality.


In terms of phonology, the most notable thing is a 3-way vowel phonation contrast on stressed syllables (which is not present on unstressed syllables). Kämpya distinguishes words with harsh voice (marked with a tilde e.g. /a̰/), from breathy voice (marked with a pair of dots either above or below the vowel e.g. /a̤/ or /ä/), from glottalisation (marked with a glottal stop after the vowel e.g. /aʔ/.
In terms of phonology, the most notable thing is a 3-way vowel phonation contrast on stressed syllables (which is not present on unstressed syllables). Kämpya distinguishes words with harsh voice (marked with a tilde e.g. /a̰/), from breathy voice (marked with a pair of dots either above or below the vowel e.g. /a̤/ or /ä/), from glottalisation (marked with a glottal stop after the vowel e.g. /aʔ/.


There are many minimal pairs of words that only contrast phonation e.g. /kʰà̤ɾ/ - "plaster cast", /kʰâ̰ɾ/ - "card", /kʰáʔɾ/ - "a cart" (the differences in tone can be predicted from the phonation). Breathy phonation emerged via a sound change where voiceless fricatives were lost after a stressed vowel. Glottalised phonation developed whenever there was a voiceless stop after a stressed vowel. In other cases (e.g. when there was a voiced stop after a stressed vowel) the syllable received harsh phonation.
There are many minimal pairs of words that only contrast phonation e.g. /kʰà̤ɾ/ - "plaster cast", /kʰâ̰ɾ/ - "card", /kʰáʔɾ/ - "a cart" (the differences in tone can be predicted from the phonation).


In addition to this, there is also a tone contrast, but this is only used for grammatical purposes (e.g. to change between different parts of speech, or to mark alienable / inalienable possession), never for lexical purposes. For example, from the noun /áˈlâṵn/ - "that which is alone", which has High Tone on the first syllable and Falling Tone on the second (with harsh voice), we can derive the non-restrictive adjective /àˈláṵn/ - "by itself / solitary", which has Low Tone on the first syllable and High Tone on the second (with harsh voice).
In addition to this, there is also a tone contrast, but this is only used for grammatical purposes (e.g. to change between different parts of speech, or to mark alienable / inalienable possession), never for lexical purposes. For example, from the noun /áˈlâṵn/ - "that which is alone", which has High Tone on the first syllable and Falling Tone on the second (with harsh voice), we can derive the non-restrictive adjective /àˈláṵn/ - "by itself / solitary", which has Low Tone on the first syllable and High Tone on the second (with harsh voice).
==Phonology==
==Phonology==


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===Consonant Neutralisations===
===Consonant Neutralisations===
Voicing and aspiration distinctions are neutralised in syllable codas, though they are still present underlyingly e.g. /tʰôṵd/ - "tide" is pronounced [tʰôṵt], but when combined with the genitive clitic /jà/ to form /ˈtʰôṵd=jà/ - "of the tide (alienable)", it is pronounced [tʰôṵdjà].


In colloquial speech, stops in the codas of unstressed syllables are debuccalised to glottal stops e.g. the city named /ˈkʰóʔnàt/ is often pronounced [ˈkʰóʔnàʔ], /ˈpʰḛ̂jòd/ - "fjord" is pronounced [ˈpʰḛ̂ːjòʔ].
In colloquial speech, stops in the codas of unstressed syllables are debuccalised to glottal stops e.g. the city named /ˈkʰóʔnàt/ is often pronounced [ˈkʰóʔnàʔ], /ˈpʰḛ̂jòd/ - "fjord" is pronounced [ˈpʰḛ̂ːjòʔ].
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| sister || ˈsì̤tà || ˈsì̤tá || ˈsǐ̤tà
| sister || ˈsì̤tà || ˈsì̤tá || ˈsǐ̤tà
|-
|-
| alone || áˈlôṵn || áˈlòṵn || àˈlóṵn
| alone || áˈlâṵn || áˈlàṵn || àˈláṵn
|-
|-
| alone + Genitive clitic /ja/ || áˈlâṵn=jà || áˈlàṵn=já || àˈláṵn=jà
| alone + Genitive clitic /ja/ || áˈlâṵn=jà || áˈlàṵn=já || àˈláṵn=jà
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| question + Genitive clitic /ja/ || à̤h=jà || à̤h=já || ǎ̤h=jà
| question + Genitive clitic /ja/ || à̤h=jà || à̤h=já || ǎ̤h=jà
|}
|}
===Sound Correspondences with English===
====Phonation====
Contrastive phonation developed on stressed vowels depending on the following consonants. Breathy phonation emerged via a sound change where voiceless fricatives were lost after a stressed vowel e.g. /ˈsì̤tà/ - "sister". Glottalised phonation developed whenever there was a voiceless stop after a stressed vowel e.g. /áʔp/ - "rise" (from English "up". In other cases (e.g. when there was a voiced stop after a stressed vowel) the syllable received harsh phonation.
====Consonants====
Aspiration on stops became phonemic. Stops were generally unaspirated, except word initial stops and stops beginning a stressed syllable. However, if the stop was preceded by an obstruent (usually /s/), it became unaspirated and the /s/ was deleted e.g. /tóʔp/ - "stop" vs. /tʰóʔp/ - "summit" (from English "top")
/s/ acquired phonemic aspiration in similar situations to the above e.g. /áˈsʰḛ̂n/ - "heaven" (from English "ascend") vs. /èˈsóʔt/ - "exotic.DESC" (the /k/ that used to precede the /s/ was lost, but not before blocking that aspiration that would otherwise have occurred on an /s/ in a stressed syllable).
Clusters of /s/ + Nasal became voiceless nasals e.g. /n̥âṵ/ - "snow", /m̥òṵ/ - "small.RESTR".
/sl/ clusters usually became /hl/, which is pronounced [ɬ] e.g. /hléʔp/ - "slap".
/ʍ/ re-emerged in English via spelling pronunciations, becoming Kämpya /hw/ (pronounced as [ʍ]) e.g. /ˈhwâ̰jù/ - "whale".
English /f/ became /pʰ/ e.g. /ˈpʰḛ̂jòd/ - "fjord".
English /v/ became /bw/ before a vowel e.g. /ˈbwḛ̂lì/ - "valley"
English /r/ became either /w/ or /zw/ e.g. "zwéʔpìd" - quickly (from English "rapid"), /pʰò̤wèt/ - "forest".
English post-alveolar consonants became sequences of alveolar consonants + /j/ e.g. /báˈsjàʔp/- "beat" (from English "bash up")
Lenition occurred of obstruents after historically long vowels (Kämpya lost its phonemic vowel length contrast). Labial obstruents lenited to /ⱱ/ e.g. /pʰ/, /p/, /b/, /f/, /v/ became /ⱱ/ e.g. /là̤ⱱ/ - "laugh". Coronal consonants lenited to /ɾ/ e.g. /déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ - "depart". Dorsal consonants lenited to /h/ e.g. /dáʔh/ - "darkness".
/l/ was lost when not before a vowel e.g. /tʰṵ̂/ - "tool".
A version of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grassmann%27s_law Grassman's Law] occured, deaspirating all but the last occurence of an aspirated consonant in a phonological word e.g. /káukákʰôṵlà/ - "Coca-Cola", not */kʰáukákʰôṵlà/. Voiceless sonorants and /h/ count as aspirated consonants.
====Vowels====
The vowel system derives from Australian English, although in many cases spelling pronunciations are used rather than the actual Australian English pronunciation. Since colonisation of Antarctica, it has undergone a number of sound changes:
# The vowel in TRAP and MARRY underwent a three-way split. In untressed syllables, it became /a/. In stressed syllables, it underwent the bad-lad split, with the long version becoming /ai/ and causing lenition of the following consonant e.g. /bàḭɾ/ - "bad.DESC", while the short version became /e/ e.g. /éʔt/ - "to be at".
# The vowel in BATH, PALM and START (Australian English is non-rhotic) became /a/ in unstressed syllables, and /aː/ in stressed syllables (causing lenition of the following consonant). Then these both merged into /a/ (Kämpya lost phonemic vowel length) e.g. /déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ - "depart".
# The vowel in NURSE merged into the above vowel e.g. /nà̤ɾ/ - "nurse".
# The vowel in LOT, CLOTH and HOT became /a/ in unstressed syllables, and /o/ in stressed syllables e.g. /óʔpàsìt/ - "opposite". However, before /l/ it became /ou/ e.g. /bôṵ/ - "bowl".
# The vowel in THOUGHT and NORTH became /o/ in unstressed syllables, and /oː/ in stressed syllables (causing lenition of the following consonant). Then these both merged into /o/ e.g. /pʰò̰/ - "four". However, before /u/ it became /ou/ e.g. /m̥óṵ/ - "small.DESC".
# The vowel in KIT became /i/ e.g. /ˈbíʔtèn/ - "bite" (from English "bitten"). However, before /l/ it became /ju/ e.g. /hjṵ̂/ - "hill".
# The vowel in HEAT usually became /ei/ e.g. /déiʔp/ - "deeply". However, before /j/ it became /e/ e.g. /ˈpʰḛ̂jòd/ - "fjord". And before /l/, it became /i/ e.g. /pʰḭ̂lìŋ/ - "display of emotions" (from English "feeling").
# The vowel in DRESS and MERRY normally became /e/ e.g. /ˈḛ̂nèm/ - "enemy". However, before /l/ it became /ei/ e.g. /béuʔt/ - "belt".
# The vowel in SQUARE and MARY became /e/ in unstressed syllables, and /eː/ in stressed syllables (causing lenition of the following consonant). Then these both merged into /e/ e.g. /kʰḛ̂/ - "hospital patient" (from English "care")
# The vowel in STRUT normally became /a/ e.g. /wà̰n/ - "one". However, before /l/, it became /au/ e.g. /kâṵ/ - "skull".
# The vowel is FOOT became /u/ e.g. /pʰúʔt/ - "foot".
# The vowel in GOOSE became /u/ in unstressed syllables, and usually became /ei/ in stressed syllables e.g. /gèi̤/ - "goose", /têḭ/ - "two". However, before another vowel, it became /e/ e.g. /sʰḛ̂wà/ - "sewer". In stressed syllables before /l/, it became /u/ e.g. /tʰṵ̂/ - "tool"
# The vowel in FACE normally became /ai/ e.g. /nâḭm/ - "name". However, before /l/ it became /aju/ e.g. /ˈhwâ̰jù/ - "whale".
# The vowel in PRICE normally became /ou/ e.g. /pʰwòṳ/ - "price". However, before /l/ it became /oju/ in stressed syllables, and /aju/ elsewhere e.g. /tʰô̰jù/ - "tile", /ˈè̤kàjù/ - "exile".
# The vowel in CHOICE merged with vowel in PRICE.
# The vowel in GOAT usually became /au/ e.g. /n̥âṵ/ - "snow". However, before /l/ it became /ou/ e.g. /káukákʰôṵlà/ - "Coca-Cola".
# The vowel in MOUTH became /ei/ in a stressed syllable, and /au/ in an unstressed syllable e.g. /mèi̤/ - "mouth".
# The vowel in NEAR became /i/ in unstressed syllables, and /iː/ in stressed syllables (causing lenition of the following consonant). Then these both merged into /i/ e.g. /pʰì̤ɾ/ - "fierce".




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/dô̰g áˈlâṵn/
/dô̰k áˈlâṵn/


dog alone
dog alone
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as well as
as well as


/áˈlâṵn dô̰g/
/áˈlâṵn dô̰k/


alone dog
alone dog
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If we include a postpositional phrase in the sentence, it must come immediately before the verb (except for any pronouns) e.g. with the postpositional phrase /ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á/ - "from the valley", the verb /déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ - "to set off" and the noun /ˈḛ̂nèm/ - "enemy", we can say:
If we include a postpositional phrase in the sentence, it must come immediately before the verb (except for any pronouns) e.g. with the postpositional phrase /ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á/ - "from the valley", the verb /déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ - "to set off" and the noun /ˈḛ̂nèm/ - "enemy", we can say:


/ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á déˈpʰâ̰ɾ ˈḛ̂nèm/
/ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á déˈpʰáʔɾ ˈḛ̂nèm/


valley=from depart enemy
valley=from depart enemy
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or
or


/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/
/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á déˈpʰáʔɾ/


enemy valley=from depart
enemy valley=from depart
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Unlike adverbs of place and other postpositional phrases which precede the verb, adverbs of manner and time follow it (and are placed in Tone Class 3) e.g.
Unlike adverbs of place and other postpositional phrases which precede the verb, adverbs of manner and time follow it (and are placed in Tone Class 3) e.g.


/déˈpʰâ̰ɾ ˈzwéʔpìd ˈjě̤tài ˈḛ̂nèm/
/déˈpʰáʔɾ ˈzwéʔpìd ˈjě̤tài ˈḛ̂nèm/


depart fast yesterday enemy
depart fast yesterday enemy
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The same subject pronouns as before are also used for intransitive sentences e.g.
The same subject pronouns as before are also used for intransitive sentences e.g.


/jéi déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/
/jéi déˈpʰáʔɾ/


2PS depart
2PS depart
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However, the pronoun must immediately precede the verb so */déˈpʰâ̰ɾ jéi/ is ungrammatical. And postpositional phrases cannot intervene between the pronoun and the verb, so */jéi ˈkʰóʔnàt=mà déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ is ungrammatical. They must come before the pronoun, so it is only grammatical to say:
However, the pronoun must immediately precede the verb so */déˈpʰâ̰ɾ jéi/ is ungrammatical. And postpositional phrases cannot intervene between the pronoun and the verb, so */jéi ˈkʰóʔnàt=mà déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ is ungrammatical. They must come before the pronoun, so it is only grammatical to say:


/ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á jéi déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/
/ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á jéi déˈpʰáʔɾ/


valley=from 2PS depart
valley=from 2PS depart
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In transitive sentences without pronouns, the basic word order is SVO, with the subject marked with the ergative clitic /-zu/ e.g.
In transitive sentences without pronouns, the basic word order is SVO, with the subject marked with the ergative clitic /-zu/ e.g.


/dô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
/dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


dog=ERG bite lizard
dog=ERG bite lizard
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However, immediately after a monophthong with breathy or harsh voice (and thus necessarily a stressed vowel), the ergative clitic has the allomorph /-ɾu/ e.g.
However, immediately after a monophthong with breathy or harsh voice (and thus necessarily a stressed vowel), the ergative clitic has the allomorph /-ɾu/ e.g.


/kʰêḭ=ɾù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
/kʰjâṵ=ɾù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


cow=ERG bite lizard
cow=ERG bite lizard
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The come after the ergative noun, but before the verb (or any pronouns) e.g.
The come after the ergative noun, but before the verb (or any pronouns) e.g.


/dô̰g=zù pʰò̤wét=ká ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
/dô̰k=zù pʰò̤wét=ká ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


dog=ERG forest=LOC bite lizard
dog=ERG forest=LOC bite lizard
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However, Kämpya speakers very often topicalise either the subject or the object. The object is topicalised by moving it in front of the subject (i.e. making the sentence OSV) e.g.
However, Kämpya speakers very often topicalise either the subject or the object. The object is topicalised by moving it in front of the subject (i.e. making the sentence OSV) e.g.


/ˈlḭ̂zàd dô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn/
/ˈlḭ̂zàd dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn/


lizard dog=ERG bite
lizard dog=ERG bite
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The subject of a transitive sentence is topicalised by deleting the ergative marker e.g.
The subject of a transitive sentence is topicalised by deleting the ergative marker e.g.


/dô̰g ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
/dô̰k ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


dog bite lizard
dog bite lizard
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The difference between this and /dô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn lḭ̂zàd/ (i.e. with the case marker), is that, in the sentence with the case marker, the "new information" being presented to the listener is that it was the dog that did the biting. Without the case marker, it is a sentence describing the dog, and the new information is that it bit the lizard. This is analagous to the difference between "ga" and "wa" in Japanese.
The difference between this and /dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn lḭ̂zàd/ (i.e. with the case marker), is that, in the sentence with the case marker, the "new information" being presented to the listener is that it was the dog that did the biting. Without the case marker, it is a sentence describing the dog, and the new information is that it bit the lizard. This is analagous to the difference between "ga" and "wa" in Japanese.




Also note that topicalising both the subject and object is ungrammatical i.e. we cannot say  */lḭ̂zàd dô̰g ˈbíʔtèn/ or anything like that.
Also note that topicalising both the subject and object is ungrammatical i.e. we cannot say  */lḭ̂zàd dô̰k ˈbíʔtèn/ or anything like that.




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/dô̰g ŋí=ˈbíʔtèn/
/dô̰k ŋí=ˈbíʔtèn/


dog 2PS.ACC=bite
dog 2PS.ACC=bite
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or
or


/ŋí=ˈbíʔtèn dô̰g/
/ŋí=ˈbíʔtèn dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=bite dog
2PS.ACC=bite dog
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You will be bitten by the dog.
You will be bitten by the dog.


Using the ergative form /dô̰g=zù/ is ungrammatical here.
Using the ergative form /dô̰k=zù/ is ungrammatical here.




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To delete the object of a transitive sentence, the antipassive voice is used [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipassive_voice]. This is done with the clitic /θu-/. It goes in the same syntactic "slot" as an object pronoun would e.g.
To delete the object of a transitive sentence, the antipassive voice is used [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipassive_voice]. This is done with the clitic /θu-/. It goes in the same syntactic "slot" as an object pronoun would e.g.


/dô̰g θú=ˈbíʔtèn/
/dô̰k θú=ˈbíʔtèn/


dog ANTIP=bite
dog ANTIP=bite
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However, if followed by a vowel, the form of the clitic is /θw-/ e.g.
However, if followed by a vowel, the form of the clitic is /θw-/ e.g.


/dô̰g θw=álâṵn/
/dô̰k θw=álâṵn/


dog ANTIP=abandon
dog ANTIP=abandon
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The deleted object can be re-introduced at the end of the sentence using the dative clitic /-àuŋ/ (note that this does not change the tone class of the noun) e.g.
The deleted object can be re-introduced at the end of the sentence using the dative clitic /-àuŋ/ (note that this does not change the tone class of the noun) e.g.


/dô̰g θú=ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/
/dô̰k θú=ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/


dog ANTIP=bite lizard=DAT
dog ANTIP=bite lizard=DAT
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At first glance, this may seem pointless, as we could have quite easily have said:
At first glance, this may seem pointless, as we could have quite easily have said:


/dô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
/dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


dog=ERG bite lizard
dog=ERG bite lizard
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However, the difference is that Kämpya has ergative syntax. Whatever argument of the verb is in the absolutive case is the syntactic pivot [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_pivot]. In a normal transitive sentence, this is the object of the verb. But, by using the antipassive voice, the subject of the transitive verb becomes the syntactic pivot. If we combine the two sentences above with the verb /áˈwâḭ/ - "to flee", the meaning becomes very different:
However, the difference is that Kämpya has ergative syntax. Whatever argument of the verb is in the absolutive case is the syntactic pivot [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_pivot]. In a normal transitive sentence, this is the object of the verb. But, by using the antipassive voice, the subject of the transitive verb becomes the syntactic pivot. If we combine the two sentences above with the verb /áˈwâḭ/ - "to flee", the meaning becomes very different:


/dô̰g θú=ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ áˈwâḭ/
/dô̰k θú=ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ áˈwâḭ/


dog ANTIP=bite lizard=DAT flee
dog ANTIP=bite lizard=DAT flee
Line 591: Line 652:
vs.
vs.


/dô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd áˈwâḭ/
/dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd áˈwâḭ/


dog=ERG bite lizard flee
dog=ERG bite lizard flee
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Note that the dative clitic has the allomorph /jàuŋ/ after a vowel e.g.
Note that the dative clitic has the allomorph /jàuŋ/ after a vowel e.g.


/ˈlḭ̂zàd θú=ˈbíʔtèn kʰêḭ=jàuŋ/
/ˈlḭ̂zàd θú=ˈbíʔtèn kʰjâṵ=jàuŋ/


lizard ANTIP=bite cow=DAT
lizard ANTIP=bite cow=DAT
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For verbs such as "give", "sell", "send" etc. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditransitive], the normal situation is to have the donor marked in the ergative case in the usual position (i.e before the verb and any postpositional phrases), the theme (whatever is being given / sold etc. to someone) directly after it, and marked with the secundative postposition /-ti/, and the recipient in the absolutive case either after the verb or topicalised at the beginning of the sentence e.g.
For verbs such as "give", "sell", "send" etc. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditransitive], the normal situation is to have the donor marked in the ergative case in the usual position (i.e before the verb and any postpositional phrases), the theme (whatever is being given / sold etc. to someone) directly after it, and marked with the secundative postposition /-ti/, and the recipient in the absolutive case either after the verb or topicalised at the beginning of the sentence e.g.


/ˈsíʔtà=zù bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b dô̰g/
/ˈsíʔtà=zù bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b dô̰k/


guardian=ERG bone=SEC give dog
guardian=ERG bone=SEC give dog
Line 620: Line 681:
or
or


/dô̰g ˈsíʔtà=zù wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b/
/dô̰k ˈsíʔtà=zù wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b/


dog guardian=ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give
dog guardian=ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give
Line 629: Line 690:
The ergative argument can be topicalised in the same way e.g.
The ergative argument can be topicalised in the same way e.g.


/ˈsíʔtà wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b dô̰g/
/ˈsíʔtà wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b dô̰k/


guardian INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
guardian INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
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It is also perfectly possible to put a ditransitive sentence in the antipassive voice e.g.
It is also perfectly possible to put a ditransitive sentence in the antipassive voice e.g.


/ˈsíʔtà bàṵn=tí θú=gḭ̂b dô̰g=àuŋ/
/ˈsíʔtà bàṵn=tí θú=gḭ̂b dô̰k=àuŋ/


guardian bone=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT
guardian bone=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT
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Postpositional phrases usually come after the theme (i.e. whatever takes the secundative case) e.g.
Postpositional phrases usually come after the theme (i.e. whatever takes the secundative case) e.g.


/ˈsíʔtà=zù bàṵn=tí pʰò̤wét=ká gḭ̂b dô̰g/
/ˈsíʔtà=zù bàṵn=tí pʰò̤wét=ká gḭ̂b dô̰k/


guardian=ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog
guardian=ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog
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Immediately after a monophthong with breathy voice (and thus necessarily a vowel in an open syllable that has stress), an inital /t/ in clitics lenites to /ɾ/. For example, the secundative clitic /ti/ becomes /ɾi/ e.g.
Immediately after a monophthong with breathy voice (and thus necessarily a vowel in an open syllable that has stress), an inital /t/ in clitics lenites to /ɾ/. For example, the secundative clitic /ti/ becomes /ɾi/ e.g.


/ˈsíʔtà gwà̤=ɾí gḭ̂b dô̰g/
/ˈsíʔtà gwà̤=ɾí gḭ̂b dô̰k/


guardian grass=SEC give dog
guardian grass=SEC give dog


The guardian gave the cow to the dog.
The guardian gave the grass to the dog.




Immediately after a monophthong with harsh voice, /t/ also lenites to /ɾ/. However, it also triggers a phonation shift on the vowel from harsh to glottalised e.g. the noun meaning "cow" is /kʰèḭ/ in Tone Class 2. It normally has harsh voice, but it combines with the secundative clitic to form /kʰèiʔ=ɾí/, as in:
Immediately after a monophthong with harsh voice, /t/ also lenites to /ɾ/. However, it also triggers a phonation shift on the vowel from harsh to glottalised e.g. the noun meaning "snare" is /n̥ḛ̀/ in Tone Class 2. It normally has harsh voice, but it combines with the secundative clitic to form /n̥ḛ̀=ɾí/, as in:


/ˈsíʔtà kʰèiʔ=ɾí θú=gḭ̂b dô̰g=àuŋ/
/ˈsíʔtà n̥ḛ̀=ɾí θú=gḭ̂b dô̰k=àuŋ/


guardian cow=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT
guardian snare=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT


The guardian gave the cow to the dog.
Literally "the guardian gave the snare to the dog", but "give a snare" could also be translated as "use a snare to catch".




In similar situations, /p/ lenites to /ⱱ/. For example, the instrumental postposition /piŋ/ likewise becomes /ⱱiŋ/ e.g. /pìʔh/ - "words" becomes /ˈpìʔh=píŋ/ - "using words", but /gwà̤/ - "grass" becomes /gwà̤=ⱱíŋ/ - "using grass", and words with harsh voice on the final vowel such as /kʰèḭ/ - "cow", become /kʰèiʔ=ⱱíŋ/ - "using cows".
In similar situations, /p/ lenites to /ⱱ/. For example, the instrumental postposition /piŋ/ likewise becomes /ⱱiŋ/ e.g. /pìʔh/ - "words" becomes /ˈpìʔh=píŋ/ - "using words", but /gwà̤/ - "grass" becomes /gwà̤=ⱱíŋ/ - "using grass", and words with harsh voice on the final vowel such as /n̥ḛ̀/ - "snare", become /n̥ḛ̀=ⱱíŋ/ - "using a snare".




Line 713: Line 774:




/bàṵn=tí pʰò̤wét=ká jô̰ gḭ̂b dô̰g/
/bàṵn=tí pʰò̤wét=ká jô̰ gḭ̂b dô̰k/


bone=SEC forest=LOC 2PS.ERG give dog
bone=SEC forest=LOC 2PS.ERG give dog
Line 723: Line 784:




/jô̰ bàṵn=tí pʰò̤wét=ká gḭ̂b dô̰g/
/jô̰ bàṵn=tí pʰò̤wét=ká gḭ̂b dô̰k/


2PS.ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog
2PS.ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog
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To topicalise a noun in a postpositional phrase, Kämpya uses applicative constructions [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applicative_voice]. These are formed by first shifting the noun in the absolutive case to the end of the sentence (and marking it with the dative clitic /-àuŋ/). In turn, the noun that the postposition was attached to goes into the absolutive case (and changes to Tone Class 1), and the postposition is placed after the verb as a clitic e.g. from the sentence:
To topicalise a noun in a postpositional phrase, Kämpya uses applicative constructions [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applicative_voice]. These are formed by first shifting the noun in the absolutive case to the end of the sentence (and marking it with the dative clitic /-àuŋ/). In turn, the noun that the postposition was attached to goes into the absolutive case (and changes to Tone Class 1), and the postposition is placed after the verb as a clitic e.g. from the sentence:


/ˈdô̰g=zù pʰò̤wét=ká ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
/ˈdô̰k=zù pʰò̤wét=ká ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


dog=ERG forest=LOC bite lizard
dog=ERG forest=LOC bite lizard
Line 760: Line 821:
we can apply an applicative transformation to get:
we can apply an applicative transformation to get:


/pʰò̤wèt ˈdô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn=kà ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/
/pʰò̤wèt ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn=kà ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/


forest dog=ERG bite=LOC lizard=DAT
forest dog=ERG bite=LOC lizard=DAT
Line 769: Line 830:
As another example, the sentence
As another example, the sentence


/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/
/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á déˈpʰáʔɾ/


enemy valley=from depart
enemy valley=from depart
Line 778: Line 839:
becomes the following:
becomes the following:


/ˈbwḛ̂lì déˈpʰâ̰ɾ=m̥à ˈḛ̂nèm=àuŋ/
/ˈbwḛ̂lì déˈpʰáʔɾ=m̥à ˈḛ̂nèm=àuŋ/


valley depart=from enemy=DAT
valley depart=from enemy=DAT
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Likewise, in ditransitive sentences, the theme (i.e. whatever is given by the donor to the recipient) can also be topicalised by the same process e.g.
Likewise, in ditransitive sentences, the theme (i.e. whatever is given by the donor to the recipient) can also be topicalised by the same process e.g.


/dô̰g ˈsíʔtà=zù wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b/
/dô̰k ˈsíʔtà=zù wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b/


dog guardian=ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give
dog guardian=ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give
Line 799: Line 860:
becomes
becomes


/bâṵn ˈsíʔtà=zù ˈgḭ̂b=tì ˈdô̰g=àuŋ/
/bâṵn ˈsíʔtà=zù ˈgḭ̂b=tì ˈdô̰k=àuŋ/


bone guardian=ERG give=SEC dog=DAT
bone guardian=ERG give=SEC dog=DAT
Line 808: Line 869:
When a pronoun is the object of the verb to be put into the applicative voice, the subject is put into the dative case instead e.g. when we apply the applicative voice to
When a pronoun is the object of the verb to be put into the applicative voice, the subject is put into the dative case instead e.g. when we apply the applicative voice to


/dô̰g pʰò̤wét=ká ŋí=ˈbíʔtèn/
/dô̰k pʰò̤wét=ká ŋí=ˈbíʔtèn/


dog forest=LOC 2PS.ACC=bite
dog forest=LOC 2PS.ACC=bite
Line 817: Line 878:
we get
we get


/pʰò̤wèt ŋí=ˈbíʔtèn=kà dô̰g=àuŋ/
/pʰò̤wèt ŋí=ˈbíʔtèn=kà dô̰k=àuŋ/


forest 2PS.ACC=bite=LOC dog=DAT
forest 2PS.ACC=bite=LOC dog=DAT
Line 828: Line 889:
This is clearly a cliticisation process, since adverbs can come before the particle but after the verb e.g.
This is clearly a cliticisation process, since adverbs can come before the particle but after the verb e.g.


/pʰò̤wèt ˈdô̰g=zù bíʔtèn ˈˈjě̤tài=kà ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/
/pʰò̤wèt ˈdô̰k=zù bíʔtèn ˈˈjě̤tài=kà ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/


forest dog=ERG bite yesterday.ADV=LOC lizard=DAT
forest dog=ERG bite yesterday.ADV=LOC lizard=DAT
Line 844: Line 905:
When an adjective modifies a noun, Kämpya makes a distinction between restrictive and non-restrictive (descriptive) adjectives [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness]. It does this by putting restrictive adjectives in Tone Class 2, and placing them before the noun they modify e.g.
When an adjective modifies a noun, Kämpya makes a distinction between restrictive and non-restrictive (descriptive) adjectives [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness]. It does this by putting restrictive adjectives in Tone Class 2, and placing them before the noun they modify e.g.


/ˈlwèʔpíd dô̰g/
/ˈlwèʔpíd dô̰k/


fast.REST dog
fast.REST dog
Line 853: Line 914:
Descriptive (non-restrictive) adjectives are in Tone Class 3 and follow the noun they modify e.g.
Descriptive (non-restrictive) adjectives are in Tone Class 3 and follow the noun they modify e.g.


/dô̰gˈlwéʔpìd/
/dô̰k ˈlwéʔpìd/


dog fast.DESC
dog fast.DESC
Line 877: Line 938:




/wá=dô̰g/
/wá=dô̰k/


INDEF=dog
INDEF=dog
Line 897: Line 958:
Compare:
Compare:


/wá=dô̰g/
/wá=dô̰k/


INDEF=dog
INDEF=dog
Line 906: Line 967:
with
with


/wà̰n dô̰g/
/wà̰n dô̰k/


one dog
one dog
Line 918: Line 979:




/wá=ˈjḛ̀láu dô̰g/
/wá=ˈjḛ̀láu dô̰k/


INDEF=yellow.REST dog
INDEF=yellow.REST dog
Line 934: Line 995:




For example "this mountain" is /dá ˈmjáuʔnàn/, since a mountain is a place. But "this dog" is /dà̰ dô̰g/, since a dog is not a place.
For example "this mountain" is /dá ˈméiʔnàn/, since a mountain is a place. But "this dog" is /dà̰ dô̰k/, since a dog is not a place.




Line 956: Line 1,017:
Kämpya distinguishes alienable and inalienable possession. In both cases, possessors are marked with the cliticised case marker /ja/, and come before the noun they possess. But inalienable possessors are in Tone Class 2 e.g.
Kämpya distinguishes alienable and inalienable possession. In both cases, possessors are marked with the cliticised case marker /ja/, and come before the noun they possess. But inalienable possessors are in Tone Class 2 e.g.


/dò̰g=já bâṵn/
/dò̰k=já bâṵn/


dog=GEN.INALIENABLE bone
dog=GEN.INALIENABLE bone
Line 964: Line 1,025:
While alienable possessors are in Tone Class 1 e.g.
While alienable possessors are in Tone Class 1 e.g.


/dô̰g=jà bâṵn/
/dô̰k=jà bâṵn/


dog=GEN.ALIENABLE bone
dog=GEN.ALIENABLE bone
Line 974: Line 1,035:




/dô̰g=jà dà̰ bâṵn/
/dô̰k=jà dà̰ bâṵn/


dog=GEN.ALIENABLE this bone
dog=GEN.ALIENABLE this bone
Line 985: Line 1,046:
In the same way as with adjectives, Kämpya places relative clauses before the head noun if they are restrictive, and after the noun if they are non-restrictive e.g.
In the same way as with adjectives, Kämpya places relative clauses before the head noun if they are restrictive, and after the noun if they are non-restrictive e.g.


/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔtèn dô̰g áˈwâḭ/
/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔtèn dô̰k áˈwâḭ/


lizard=ERG bite dog flee
lizard=ERG bite dog flee
Line 994: Line 1,055:
Or, using a non-restrictive relative clause:
Or, using a non-restrictive relative clause:


/dô̰g ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔtèn áˈwâḭ/
/dô̰k ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔtèn áˈwâḭ/


dog lizard=ERG bite flee
dog lizard=ERG bite flee
Line 1,045: Line 1,106:




/θú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd dô̰g=àuŋ áˈwâḭ/
/θú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd dô̰k=àuŋ áˈwâḭ/


ANTIP=bite lizard dog=DAT flee
ANTIP=bite lizard dog=DAT flee
Line 1,055: Line 1,116:




/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔtèn=kà pʰò̤wèt dô̰g=àuŋ m̥ôṵ/
/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔtèn=kà pʰò̤wèt dô̰k=àuŋ m̥ôṵ/


lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest dog=DAT small
lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest dog=DAT small
Line 1,071: Line 1,132:
The basic way to negate something is to place the clitic /na/ immediately before it e.g. from the sentence
The basic way to negate something is to place the clitic /na/ immediately before it e.g. from the sentence


/ŋí=bíʔtèn dô̰g/
/ŋí=bíʔtèn dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=bite dog.
2PS.ACC=bite dog.
Line 1,080: Line 1,141:
We can say
We can say


/ŋí=ná=bíʔtèn dô̰g/
/ŋí=ná=bíʔtèn dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=NEG=bite dog
2PS.ACC=NEG=bite dog
Line 1,089: Line 1,150:
as well as
as well as


/ná=ŋí=bíʔtèn dô̰g/
/ná=ŋí=bíʔtèn dô̰k/


NEG=2PS.ACC=bite dog
NEG=2PS.ACC=bite dog
Line 1,098: Line 1,159:
and
and


/ŋí=bíʔtèn ná=dô̰g/
/ŋí=bíʔtèn ná=dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=bite NEG=dog
2PS.ACC=bite NEG=dog
Line 1,110: Line 1,171:
As we can see, /na/ can attach to either nouns or verbs. It can also attach to adjectives e.g.
As we can see, /na/ can attach to either nouns or verbs. It can also attach to adjectives e.g.


/ŋí=bíʔtèn ná=m̥ôṵ dô̰g/
/ŋí=bíʔtèn ná=m̥ôṵ dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=bite NEG=small.REST dog
2PS.ACC=bite NEG=small.REST dog
Line 1,120: Line 1,181:
And adverbs e.g.
And adverbs e.g.


/ŋí=bíʔtèn nà=déiʔp dô̰g/
/ŋí=bíʔtèn nà=déiʔp dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=bite NEG=deep.ADV dog
2PS.ACC=bite NEG=deep.ADV dog
Line 1,130: Line 1,191:
However, if the word after /na/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g.
However, if the word after /na/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g.


/ŋí=náw=áˈlôṵn dô̰g/
/ŋí=náw=áˈlâṵn dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=NEG=abandon dog
2PS.ACC=NEG=abandon dog
Line 1,142: Line 1,203:




/ái=lét=déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/
/ái=lét=déˈpʰáʔɾ/


1PS.EXCL=NEC=depart
1PS.EXCL=NEC=depart
Line 1,152: Line 1,213:




/wéi=lét=déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/
/wéi=lét=déˈpʰáʔɾ/


1PS.INCL=NEC=depart
1PS.INCL=NEC=depart
Line 1,162: Line 1,223:




/jéi=lét=déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/
/jéi=lét=déˈpʰáʔɾ/


2PS=NEC=depart
2PS=NEC=depart
Line 1,172: Line 1,233:




/jéi=déˈpʰâ̰ɾ lèt=ˈlwéʔpìd/
/jéi=déˈpʰáʔɾ lèt=ˈlwéʔpìd/


2PS=depart NEC=fast
2PS=depart NEC=fast
Line 1,183: Line 1,244:
Kämpya has a special pattern to say that something is forbidden. This is to use the necessitative mood, and also change the verb from Tone Class 1 (the normal class for verbs) to Tone Class 2 (for infinitives). It is then followed by the verb /nâ̰/ e.g.
Kämpya has a special pattern to say that something is forbidden. This is to use the necessitative mood, and also change the verb from Tone Class 1 (the normal class for verbs) to Tone Class 2 (for infinitives). It is then followed by the verb /nâ̰/ e.g.


/jéi=lét=áˈlòṵn nâ̰/
/jéi=lét=áˈlàṵn nâ̰/


2PS.INTR=NEC=alone.INF PROH
2PS.INTR=NEC=alone.INF PROH
Line 1,192: Line 1,253:
This pattern can also be used for transitive verbs
This pattern can also be used for transitive verbs


/jô̰ lét=bíʔtèn nâ̰ dô̰g/
/jô̰ lét=bíʔtèn nâ̰ dô̰k/


2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog
2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog
Line 1,201: Line 1,262:
It is also perfectly possible to front the argument of /nâ̰/ e.g.
It is also perfectly possible to front the argument of /nâ̰/ e.g.


/dô̰g jô̰ lét=bíʔtèn nâ̰/
/dô̰k jô̰ lét=bíʔtèn nâ̰/


dog 2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH
dog 2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH
Line 1,210: Line 1,271:
Other nouns can be used apart from the 2nd person pronouns e.g.
Other nouns can be used apart from the 2nd person pronouns e.g.


/ˈsíʔtà=zù lét=bíʔtèn nâ̰ dô̰g/
/ˈsíʔtà=zù lét=bíʔtèn nâ̰ dô̰k/


guardian=ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog
guardian=ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog
Line 1,222: Line 1,283:




/ái=wáná=déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/
/ái=wáná=déˈpʰáʔɾ/


1PS.EXCL.INTR=OPT=depart
1PS.EXCL.INTR=OPT=depart
Line 1,229: Line 1,290:




/ŋí=wáná=bíʔtèn dô̰g/
/ŋí=wáná=bíʔtèn dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=OPT=bite dog
2PS.ACC=OPT=bite dog
Line 1,236: Line 1,297:




/ŋí=bíʔtèn wáná=dô̰g/
/ŋí=bíʔtèn wáná=dô̰k/


2PS.ACC bite OPT=dog
2PS.ACC bite OPT=dog
Line 1,243: Line 1,304:




/ŋí=bíʔtèn wáná=m̥ôṵ dô̰g/
/ŋí=bíʔtèn wáná=m̥ôṵ dô̰k/


2PS.ACC bite OPT=small.REST dog
2PS.ACC bite OPT=small.REST dog
Line 1,255: Line 1,316:




/ái=káu=déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/
/ái=káu=déˈpʰáʔɾ/


1PS.EXCL.INTR=COND=depart
1PS.EXCL.INTR=COND=depart
Line 1,262: Line 1,323:




/ái=déˈpʰâ̰ɾ kò=ˈlwéʔpìd/
/ái=déˈpʰáʔɾ kò=ˈlwéʔpìd/


1PS.EXCL.INTR depart COND=fast
1PS.EXCL.INTR depart COND=fast
Line 1,272: Line 1,333:




/jéi=wáná=déˈpʰâ̰ɾ áj=káw=áˈlôṵn/
/jéi=wáná=déˈpʰáʔɾ ái=káw=áˈlâṵn/


2PS.INTR=OPT=depart COND=1PS.EXCL=alone
2PS.INTR=OPT=depart COND=1PS.EXCL=alone
Line 1,284: Line 1,345:




/jéi=nóu=déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/
/jéi=nóu=déˈpʰáʔɾ/


2PS.INTR=HYP=depart
2PS.INTR=HYP=depart
Line 1,294: Line 1,355:




/jéi=nóu=déˈpʰâ̰ɾ áj=káw=áˈlôṵn/
/jéi=nóu=déˈpʰáʔɾ ái=káw=áˈlâṵn/


2PS.INTR=HYP=depart COND=1PS.EXCL=alone
2PS.INTR=HYP=depart COND=1PS.EXCL=alone
Line 1,306: Line 1,367:




/dô̰g áˈlôṵn/
/dô̰k áˈlâṵn/


dog alone
dog alone
Line 1,317: Line 1,378:
If the speaker is reporting information that someone else told them, the proclitic /hi/ (/hizw/ before a vowel) is used e.g.
If the speaker is reporting information that someone else told them, the proclitic /hi/ (/hizw/ before a vowel) is used e.g.


/dô̰g hízw=áˈlôṵn/
/dô̰k hízw=áˈlâṵn/


dog REP=alone
dog REP=alone
Line 1,324: Line 1,385:




/áˈlôṵn hí=dô̰g/
/áˈlâṵn hí=dô̰k/


alone REP=dog
alone REP=dog
Line 1,335: Line 1,396:
If the speaker is arriving at a judgment based on some kind of direct physical evidence, then the proclitic /ge/ is used (/ges/ before a vowel) e.g.
If the speaker is arriving at a judgment based on some kind of direct physical evidence, then the proclitic /ge/ is used (/ges/ before a vowel) e.g.


/dô̰g gés=áˈlôṵn/
/dô̰k gés=áˈlâṵn/


dog INFR=alone
dog INFR=alone
Line 1,368: Line 1,429:




/ŋí=dú=bíʔtèn dô̰g/
/ŋí=dú=bíʔtèn dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
Line 1,377: Line 1,438:
as well as
as well as


/dú=ŋí=bíʔtèn dô̰g/
/dú=ŋí=bíʔtèn dô̰k/


POLQ=2PS.ACC=bite dog
POLQ=2PS.ACC=bite dog
Line 1,386: Line 1,447:
and
and


/ŋí=bíʔtèn dú=dô̰g/
/ŋí=bíʔtèn dú=dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=dog
2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=dog
Line 1,395: Line 1,456:
Like with /na/, /du/ can also attach to adjectives e.g.
Like with /na/, /du/ can also attach to adjectives e.g.


/ŋí=bíʔtèn dú=m̥òṵ dô̰g/
/ŋí=bíʔtèn dú=m̥òṵ dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=small.REST dog
2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=small.REST dog
Line 1,404: Line 1,465:
And adverbs e.g.
And adverbs e.g.


/ŋí=bíʔtèn dù=déiʔp dô̰g/
/ŋí=bíʔtèn dù=déiʔp dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=deep.ADV dog
2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=deep.ADV dog
Line 1,413: Line 1,474:
However, if the word after /du/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g.
However, if the word after /du/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g.


/ŋí=dúw=áˈlôṵn dô̰g/
/ŋí=dúw=áˈlâṵn dô̰k/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=abandon dog
2PS.ACC=POLQ=abandon dog
Line 1,425: Line 1,486:




A) /dô̰g dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
Line 1,445: Line 1,506:




A) /dô̰g dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
Line 1,462: Line 1,523:




A) /dô̰g dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
Line 1,479: Line 1,540:




A) /dô̰g dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
Line 1,496: Line 1,557:




A) /dô̰g dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
Line 1,530: Line 1,591:




A) /dô̰g dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
Line 1,558: Line 1,619:
or
or


/ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á bá=ˈdéˈpʰâ̰ɾ/
/ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á bá=ˈdéˈpʰáʔɾ/


Hkonat=from Q.INTR=depart
Hkonat=from Q.INTR=depart
Line 1,579: Line 1,640:




/ˈsíʔtà ˈkèʔ=ɾí θú=gḭ̂b dô̰g=àuŋ/
/ˈsíʔtà ˈkèʔ=ɾí θú=gḭ̂b dô̰k=àuŋ/


guardian Q.ACC=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT
guardian Q.ACC=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT
Line 1,588: Line 1,649:
When English would use a word such as "where" or "when", Kämpya instead uses /kḛ̀/ (the accusative emphatic interrogative pronoun) with a postposition e.g.
When English would use a word such as "where" or "when", Kämpya instead uses /kḛ̀/ (the accusative emphatic interrogative pronoun) with a postposition e.g.


/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈkḛ̀=m̥á déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/
/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈkḛ̀=m̥á déˈpʰáʔɾ/


enemy Q.ACC=from depart
enemy Q.ACC=from depart
Line 1,595: Line 1,656:




/dô̰g=zù ˈkḛ̀=wé ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
/dô̰k=zù ˈkḛ̀=wé ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


dog=ERG Q.ACC=TEM bite lizard
dog=ERG Q.ACC=TEM bite lizard
Line 1,602: Line 1,663:




/dô̰g=zù ˈkèʔ=ⱱíŋ ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
/dô̰k=zù ˈkèʔ=ⱱíŋ ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


dog=ERG Q.ACC=INS bite lizard
dog=ERG Q.ACC=INS bite lizard
Line 1,609: Line 1,670:




/dô̰g=zù ˈkèʔ=há ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
/dô̰k=zù ˈkèʔ=há ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


dog=ERG Q.ACC=LOC bite lizard
dog=ERG Q.ACC=LOC bite lizard
Line 1,620: Line 1,681:
Kämpya has no word meaning "whose". Instead it is necessary to ask "Who has ...?", combined with a relative clause e.g.
Kämpya has no word meaning "whose". Instead it is necessary to ask "Who has ...?", combined with a relative clause e.g.


/dô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd zwé=ˈhḛ̂b/
/dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd zwé=ˈhḛ̂b/


dog=ERG bite lizard Q.ERG=have
dog=ERG bite lizard Q.ERG=have
Line 1,629: Line 1,690:
or
or


/θú=ˈbíʔtèn dô̰g ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ zwé=ˈhḛ̂b/
/θú=ˈbíʔtèn dô̰k ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ zwé=ˈhḛ̂b/


ANTIP=bite dog lizard=DAT Q.ERG=have
ANTIP=bite dog lizard=DAT Q.ERG=have
Line 1,640: Line 1,701:
To ask questions like "Which lizard did the dog bite?", attach the clitic bá- (or báj- before a vowel) to the noun being asked about e.g.
To ask questions like "Which lizard did the dog bite?", attach the clitic bá- (or báj- before a vowel) to the noun being asked about e.g.


/dô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn bá=ˈlḭ̂zàd/
/dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn bá=ˈlḭ̂zàd/


dog=ERG bite Q.INTR=lizard
dog=ERG bite Q.INTR=lizard
Line 1,649: Line 1,710:
However, bá- can only attach to a noun in the absolutive case. To ask about the subject of a transitive verb, it is necessary to antipassivise the verb. e.g.
However, bá- can only attach to a noun in the absolutive case. To ask about the subject of a transitive verb, it is necessary to antipassivise the verb. e.g.


/θú=ˈbíʔtèn bá=dô̰g ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/
/θú=ˈbíʔtèn bá=dô̰k ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/


ANTIP=bite Q.INTR=dog lizard=DAT
ANTIP=bite Q.INTR=dog lizard=DAT
Line 1,656: Line 1,717:




Attaching the clitic to a noun in the ergative case is ungrammatical e.g. */bá=dô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn lḭ̂zàd/. Also the clitic cannot attach to a topicalised noun e.g. */bá=dô̰g θú=ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/.
Attaching the clitic to a noun in the ergative case is ungrammatical e.g. */bá=dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn lḭ̂zàd/. Also the clitic cannot attach to a topicalised noun e.g. */bá=dô̰k θú=ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/.




To ask about the object of a postposition, an applicative construction is needed e.g.
To ask about the object of a postposition, an applicative construction is needed e.g.


/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù ˈbíʔtèn=kà bá=pʰò̤wèt ˈdô̰g=àuŋ/
/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù ˈbíʔtèn=kà bá=pʰò̤wèt ˈdô̰k=àuŋ/


lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest dog=DAT which
lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest dog=DAT which
Line 1,703: Line 1,764:
If there is a subordinate clause, then the accusative pronoun is replaced with /nó/ e.g.
If there is a subordinate clause, then the accusative pronoun is replaced with /nó/ e.g.


/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite lizard
mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite lizard
Line 1,712: Line 1,773:
If the superordinate clause's absolutive argument is also the topic of the subordinate clause, then it does not need to be mentioned twice e.g.  
If the superordinate clause's absolutive argument is also the topic of the subordinate clause, then it does not need to be mentioned twice e.g.  


/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn/
/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn/


mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite
mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite
Line 1,719: Line 1,780:




It would be redundant to say something like ?/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn mùˈhḛ̂/.
It would be redundant to say something like ?/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn mùˈhḛ̂/.




Line 1,725: Line 1,786:
And another example using a postposition:
And another example using a postposition:


/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí píʔh kʰḭ̂d ˈdô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/
/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí píʔh kʰḭ̂d ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child dog=ERG bite lizard
mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child dog=ERG bite lizard
Line 1,734: Line 1,795:
And as before, the absolutive argument of the superordinate clause can be the topic of the subordinate clause e.g.
And as before, the absolutive argument of the superordinate clause can be the topic of the subordinate clause e.g.


/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí píʔh kʰḭ̂d wá=áˈjòṳ=tí lét=gḭ̂b dô̰g/
/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí píʔh kʰḭ̂d wá=áˈjòṳ=tí lét=gḭ̂b dô̰k/


mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog
mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog
Line 1,741: Line 1,802:




/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=ˈdè̤sì ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ wá=bàṵn=tí lét=gḭ̂b dô̰g/
/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=ˈdè̤sì ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ wá=bàṵn=tí lét=gḭ̂b dô̰k/


mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT  INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog
mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT  INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog
Line 1,751: Line 1,812:




/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=píʔh ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b dô̰g/
/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=píʔh ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b dô̰k/


mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT  INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT  INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
Line 1,758: Line 1,819:




/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=píʔh ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ wá=bàṵn=tí hí=gḭ̂b dô̰g/
/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=píʔh ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ wá=bàṵn=tí hí=gḭ̂b dô̰k/


mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT  INDEF=bone=SEC REP=give dog
mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT  INDEF=bone=SEC REP=give dog
Line 1,771: Line 1,832:
So if the above 2 sentences take ðjíʔ, then they become:
So if the above 2 sentences take ðjíʔ, then they become:


/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí píʔh ˈkʰḭ̂d ðjíʔ wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b dô̰g/
/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí píʔh ˈkʰḭ̂d ðjíʔ wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b dô̰k/


mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
Line 1,778: Line 1,839:




/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=ˈpíʔh ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ ðjíʔ wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b dô̰g/
/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=ˈpíʔh ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ ðjíʔ wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b dô̰k/


mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
Line 1,790: Line 1,851:




/ˈkʰḭ̂d ˈnòʔ=ɾí mí=ˈpíʔh ˈḛ̂nèm déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/
/ˈkʰḭ̂d ˈnòʔ=ɾí mí=ˈpíʔh ˈḛ̂nèm déˈpʰáʔɾ/


child SBRD.ACC 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak enemy depart
child SBRD.ACC 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak enemy depart
Line 1,800: Line 1,861:




/ˈkʰḭ̂d ˈnòʔ=ɾí mí=ˈpíʔh ˈḛ̂nèm hí=déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/
/ˈkʰḭ̂d ˈnòʔ=ɾí mí=ˈpíʔh ˈḛ̂nèm hí=déˈpʰáʔɾ/


child SBRD.ACC 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak enemy REP=depart
child SBRD.ACC 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak enemy REP=depart
Line 1,811: Line 1,872:
To say "more than ...", Kämpya speakers say ... /téŋ/, where /téŋ/ is a postpositional clitic that also means "above" e.g.
To say "more than ...", Kämpya speakers say ... /téŋ/, where /téŋ/ is a postpositional clitic that also means "above" e.g.


/dô̰g ˈlḭ̀zád=téŋ lwéʔpìd/
/dô̰k ˈlḭ̀zád=téŋ lwéʔpìd/


dog.TOP lizard=above fast
dog.TOP lizard=above fast


Dogs are faster than lizards (literally "Dogs are fast above lizards").
Dogs are faster than lizards (literally "Dogs are fast above lizards").
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