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Kämpya (view source)

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Kämpya is spoken is my far-future Antarctican conworld, where runaway global warming has melted the icecaps and made the continent habitable (while rendering most of the rest of the world uninhabitable).
Kämpya is spoken is my far-future Antarctican conworld, where runaway global warming has melted the icecaps and made the continent habitable (while rendering most of the rest of the world uninhabitable).


It originated from the area around Ross Island, one of the first large-scale colonies on Antarctica. The founders of the settlement were mostly either Burmese, Australian or Taiwanese, and as such Kämpya is most heavily influenced by the languages of those countries (especially Burmese). However, a later wave of Spanish speaking migrants from South America also had a large impact on the language.
It originated from the area around Ross Island, one of the first large-scale colonies on Antarctica. The founders used English as a common language, but this was heavily influenced by a number of languages, especially Burmese, Minnan Chinese, and Japanese (spoken in countries where many of them fled from). Most notably, the language became postpositional (English prepositions were replaced with Burmese postpositions). A later wave of Spanish speaking migrants also heavily affected the language.


It has since spread to other parts of the continent, aided by the spread of a religion called Laikyâr (although not all Kämpya speakers follow the Laikyâr religion, and not all Laikyâr believers speak Kämpya). Indeed there is a special register of the language that is only used in religious contexts. There are also a number of regional dialects. However, this page describes what could be termed the "standard" dialect.
It has since spread to other parts of the continent, aided by the spread of a religion called Laikyâr (although not all Kämpya speakers follow the Laikyâr religion, and not all Laikyâr believers speak Kämpya). Indeed there is a special register of the language that is only used in religious contexts. There are also a number of regional dialects. However, this page describes what could be termed the "standard" dialect.
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In terms of phonology, the most notable thing is a 3-way vowel phonation contrast on stressed syllables (which is not present on unstressed syllables). Kämpya distinguishes words with harsh voice (marked with a tilde e.g. /a̰/), from breathy voice (marked with a pair of dots either above or below the vowel e.g. /a̤/ or /ä/), from glottalisation (marked with a glottal stop after the vowel e.g. /aʔ/.
In terms of phonology, the most notable thing is a 3-way vowel phonation contrast on stressed syllables (which is not present on unstressed syllables). Kämpya distinguishes words with harsh voice (marked with a tilde e.g. /a̰/), from breathy voice (marked with a pair of dots either above or below the vowel e.g. /a̤/ or /ä/), from glottalisation (marked with a glottal stop after the vowel e.g. /aʔ/.


There are many minimal pairs of words that only contrast stress and phonation e.g. /síˈtâ̰/ - "wing" vs. /ˈsíʔtà/ - "guardian" vs. /ˈsì̤tà/ - "sister".
There are many minimal pairs of words that only contrast phonation e.g. /kʰà̤ɾ/ - "plaster cast", /kʰâ̰ɾ/ - "card", /kʰáʔɾ/ - "a cart" (the differences in tone can be predicted from the phonation). Breathy phonation emerged via a sound change where voiceless fricatives were lost after a stressed vowel. Glottalised phonation developed whenever there was a voiceless stop after a stressed vowel. In other cases (e.g. when there was a voiced stop after a stressed vowel) the syllable received harsh phonation.
 
In addition to this, there is also a tone contrast, but this is only used for grammatical purposes (e.g. to change between different parts of speech, or to mark alienable / inalienable possession), never for lexical purposes. For example, from the nouns /síˈtâ̰/ - "wing" and /áˈlôṵn/ - "that which is alone", which both have High Tone on the first syllable and Low Tone on the second (with harsh voice), we can derive the non-restrictive adjectives /sìˈtá̰/ - "wing" and /àˈlóṵn/ - "by itself / solitary", which both have Low Tone on the first syllable and High Tone on the second (with harsh voice).
 
It is usually written using a script based on the Burmese alphabet.


In addition to this, there is also a tone contrast, but this is only used for grammatical purposes (e.g. to change between different parts of speech, or to mark alienable / inalienable possession), never for lexical purposes. For example, from the noun /áˈlâṵn/ - "that which is alone", which has High Tone on the first syllable and Falling Tone on the second (with harsh voice), we can derive the non-restrictive adjective /àˈláṵn/ - "by itself / solitary", which has Low Tone on the first syllable and High Tone on the second (with harsh voice).
==Phonology==
==Phonology==


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# /b/, /d/ and /g/ are often pronounced as slightly implosive.
# /b/, /d/ and /g/ are often pronounced as slightly implosive.
# [ɬ] corresponds to Burmese */l̥/, and English */sl/. It is underlyingly /hl/.
# [ɬ] is underlyingly /hl/.
# [ç] is underlyingly /hj/.
# [ç] is underlyingly /hj/.
# [ʍ] is underlyingly /hw/.
# [ʍ] is underlyingly /hw/.
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===Consonant Neutralisations===
===Consonant Neutralisations===


Voicing and aspiration distinctions are neutralised in syllable codas, though they are still present underlyingly e.g. /sjúˈðâ̰d/ - "city" is pronounced [sjúˈðâ̰t], but when combined with the genitive clitic /jà/ to form /sjúˈðâ̰djà/ - "of the city (alienable)", it is pronounced [sjúˈðâ̰djà].
Voicing and aspiration distinctions are neutralised in syllable codas, though they are still present underlyingly e.g. /tʰôṵd/ - "tide" is pronounced [tʰôṵt], but when combined with the genitive clitic /jà/ to form /ˈtʰôṵd=jà/ - "of the tide (alienable)", it is pronounced [tʰôṵdjà].


In colloquial speech, stops in the codas of unstressed syllables are debuccalised to glottal stops e.g. the city named /ˈkʰóʔnàt/ is often pronounced [ˈkʰóʔnàʔ].
In colloquial speech, stops in the codas of unstressed syllables are debuccalised to glottal stops e.g. the city named /ˈkʰóʔnàt/ is often pronounced [ˈkʰóʔnàʔ], /ˈpʰḛ̂jòd/ - "fjord" is pronounced [ˈpʰḛ̂ːjòʔ].


If a nasal coda occurs before /h/, an approximant, or at the end of a word, it is often pronounced as nasalisation of the preceding vowel e.g. /áˈlòṳm/ - "everyone" is pronounced [áˈlòṳⁿ]. But likewise it is still present underlyingly, as can be seen when combined with the dative clitic /àuŋ/ to form /áˈlòṳmàuŋ/ - "to everyone", which is pronounced [áˈlòṳmàuⁿ].
If a nasal coda occurs before /h/, an approximant, or at the end of a word, it is often pronounced as nasalisation of the preceding vowel e.g. /nâḭm/ - "name" is pronounced [nâḭⁿ]. But likewise it is still present underlyingly, as can be seen when combined with the dative clitic /àuŋ/ to form /nâḭm=àuŋ/ - "to the name", which is pronounced [nâḭmàuⁿ].


===Stress and Phonation===
===Stress and Phonation===
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/h/ can occur in the coda of stressed syllables. It's realisation depends on the phonation of the previous vowel.
/h/ can occur in the coda of stressed syllables. It's realisation depends on the phonation of the previous vowel.


If the stressed vowel has breathy phonation, the /h/ manifests itself as a breathy voiced fricative [ɦ] e.g. /à̤h/ - "question" is pronounced [à̤ɦ]. Compare /ŋà̤/ - "fish" which is pronounced [ŋà̤].
If the stressed vowel has breathy phonation, the /h/ manifests itself as a breathy voiced fricative [ɦ] e.g. /à̤h/ - "question" is pronounced [à̤ɦ]. Compare /gwà̤/ - "grass" which is pronounced [gwà̤].


If the stressed vowel has glottalised phonation, the /h/ manifests itself as an epiglottal stop [ʡ] e.g. /dáʔh/ - "darkness" is pronounced [dáʡ].
If the stressed vowel has glottalised phonation, the /h/ manifests itself as an epiglottal stop [ʡ] e.g. /dáʔh/ - "darkness" is pronounced [dáʡ].
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Of course, if a process such a cliticisation (e.g. with the genitive clitic /jà/ or the dative clitic /àuŋ/), means that the /h/ is no longer in coda position, then these processes do not occur e.g.
Of course, if a process such a cliticisation (e.g. with the genitive clitic /jà/ or the dative clitic /àuŋ/), means that the /h/ is no longer in coda position, then these processes do not occur e.g.


/à̤h jà/ - "of the question (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈà̤çà] (/hj/ assimilates to [ç]).
/à̤h=jà/ - "of the question (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈà̤çà] (/hj/ assimilates to [ç]).


/dáʔh jà/ - "of the darkness (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈdáʔçà].
/dáʔh=jà/ - "of the darkness (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈdáʔçà].


/à̤h àuŋ/ - "to the question" is pronounced [ˈà̤ɦàuⁿ].
/à̤h=àuŋ/ - "to the question" is pronounced [ˈà̤ɦàuⁿ].


/dáʔh àuŋ/ - "to the darkness" is pronounced [ˈdáʔhàuⁿ].
/dáʔh=àuŋ/ - "to the darkness" is pronounced [ˈdáʔhàuⁿ].




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|-
|-
| Kämpya || ˈkà̤mpjà || ˈkà̤mpjá || ˈkǎ̤mpjà
| Kämpya || ˈkà̤mpjà || ˈkà̤mpjá || ˈkǎ̤mpjà
|-
| wing || síˈtâ̰ || síˈtà̰ || sìˈtá̰
|-
|-
| guardian || ˈsíʔtà || ˈsìʔtá || ˈsíʔtà
| guardian || ˈsíʔtà || ˈsìʔtá || ˈsíʔtà
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| alone || áˈlôṵn || áˈlòṵn || àˈlóṵn
| alone || áˈlôṵn || áˈlòṵn || àˈlóṵn
|-
|-
| alone + Genitive clitic /ja/ || áˈlôṵnjà || áˈlòṵnjá || àˈlóṵnjà
| alone + Genitive clitic /ja/ || áˈlâṵn=jà || áˈlàṵn=já || àˈláṵn=jà
|-
|-
| all || áˈlòṳm || áˈlòṳm || àˈlǒṳm
| question || à̤h || à̤h || ǎ̤h
|-
|-
| all + Genitive clitic /ja/ || áˈlòṳmjà || áˈlòṳmjá || àˈlǒṳmjà
| question + Genitive clitic /ja/ || à̤h=jà || à̤h=já || ǎ̤h=jà
|}
|}


==Pronouns==
==Pronouns==
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/ˈsíʔtà ˈḛ̂nèmì/
/ˈsíʔtà ˈḛ̂nèm/


guardian enemy
guardian enemy
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/jéw ˈḛ̂nèmì/ phonetically [jéˈwḛ̂nèmì]
/jéw ˈḛ̂nèm/ phonetically [jéˈwḛ̂ːnèⁿ]


2PS.INTR enemy
2PS.INTR enemy
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/jèḭ ˈḛ̂nèmì/ phonetically [jèḭ ˈḛ̂nèmì]
/jèḭ ˈḛ̂nèm/ phonetically [jèḭ ˈḛ̂ːnèⁿ]


2PS.INT.EMP enemy
2PS.INT.EMP enemy
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/kʰwèi̤ áˈlôṵn/
/dô̰g áˈlâṵn/


dog alone
dog alone
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as well as
as well as


/áˈlôṵn kʰwèi̤/
/áˈlâṵn dô̰g/


alone dog
alone dog
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However, the arguments of intransitive sentences can be freely deleted, so it is perfectly possible to have one word sentences e.g.
However, the arguments of intransitive sentences can be freely deleted, so it is perfectly possible to have one word sentences e.g.


/áˈlôṵn/
/áˈlâṵn/


alone
alone
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====With Postpositional Phrases====
====With Postpositional Phrases====


If we include a postpositional phrase in the sentence, it must come immediately before the verb (except for any pronouns) e.g. with the postpositional phrase /ˈkʰòʔnát=m̥á/ - "from Hkónat (a place name)", the verb /kúʔn/ - "to set off" and the noun /ˈḛ̂nèmì/ - "enemy", we can say:
If we include a postpositional phrase in the sentence, it must come immediately before the verb (except for any pronouns) e.g. with the postpositional phrase /ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á/ - "from the valley", the verb /déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ - "to set off" and the noun /ˈḛ̂nèm/ - "enemy", we can say:


/ˈkʰòʔnát=m̥á kúʔn ˈḛ̂nèmì/
/ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á déˈpʰâ̰ɾ ˈḛ̂nèm/


Hkónat=from depart enemy
valley=from depart enemy


The enemy departs from Hkónat.
The enemy departs from the valley.




or
or


/ˈḛ̂nèmì ˈkʰòʔnát=m̥á kúʔn/
/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/


enemy Hkónat=from depart
enemy valley=from depart


The enemy departs from Hkónat.
The enemy departs from the valley.




To say "A is located at / in / on etc. B", Kämpya uses the verb /tì̤/ e.g.
To say "A is located at / in / on etc. B", Kämpya uses the verb /éʔt/ e.g.


/ˈḛ̂nèmì ˈkʰòʔnát=ká tì̤/
/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=ká éʔt/


enemy Hkonat=LOC be.at
enemy valley=LOC be.at


The enemy is at Hkonat.
The enemy is at the valley.




Note that /tì̤/ cannot be used as a copula (to say something is something else). As discussed previously, in such a case, no verb is used at all.
Note that /éʔt/ cannot be used as a copula (to say something is something else). As discussed previously, in such a case, no verb is used at all.




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Unlike adverbs of place and other postpositional phrases which precede the verb, adverbs of manner and time follow it (and are placed in Tone Class 3) e.g.
Unlike adverbs of place and other postpositional phrases which precede the verb, adverbs of manner and time follow it (and are placed in Tone Class 3) e.g.


/kúʔn ˈlwéʔpìd tjǎ̤ŋ ˈḛ̂nèmì/
/déˈpʰâ̰ɾ ˈzwéʔpìd ˈjě̤tài ˈḛ̂nèm/


depart fast yesterday enemy
depart fast yesterday enemy
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The same subject pronouns as before are also used for intransitive sentences e.g.
The same subject pronouns as before are also used for intransitive sentences e.g.


/jéi kúʔn/
/jéi déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/


2PS depart
2PS depart
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However, the pronoun must immediately precede the verb so */kúʔn jéi/ is ungrammatical. And postpositional phrases cannot intervene between the pronoun and the verb, so */jéi ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn/ is ungrammatical. They must come before the pronoun, so it is only grammatical to say:
However, the pronoun must immediately precede the verb so */déˈpʰâ̰ɾ jéi/ is ungrammatical. And postpositional phrases cannot intervene between the pronoun and the verb, so */jéi ˈkʰóʔnàt=mà déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/ is ungrammatical. They must come before the pronoun, so it is only grammatical to say:


/ˈkʰòʔnát=m̥á jéi kúʔn/
/ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á jéi déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/


Hkónat=from 2PS depart
valley=from 2PS depart


You are setting off from ˈkʰóʔnàt.
You are setting off from the valley.




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In transitive sentences without pronouns, the basic word order is SVO, with the subject marked with the ergative clitic /-zu/ e.g.
In transitive sentences without pronouns, the basic word order is SVO, with the subject marked with the ergative clitic /-zu/ e.g.


/ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk gáʔɾ/
/dô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


dog=ERG bite lizard
dog=ERG bite lizard
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However, immediately after a monophthong with breathy or harsh voice (and thus necessarily a stressed vowel), the ergative clitic has the allomorph /-ɾu/ e.g.
However, immediately after a monophthong with breathy or harsh voice (and thus necessarily a stressed vowel), the ergative clitic has the allomorph /-ɾu/ e.g.


/ŋà̤=ɾù káiʔk gáʔɾ/
/kʰêḭ=ɾù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


fish=ERG bite lizard
cow=ERG bite lizard


It was the fish that bit the lizard.
It was the cow that bit the lizard.




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The come after the ergative noun, but before the verb (or any pronouns) e.g.
The come after the ergative noun, but before the verb (or any pronouns) e.g.


/ˈkʰwèi̤=zù pʰáˈzè̤t=ká káiʔk gáʔɾ/
/dô̰g=zù pʰò̤wét=ká ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


dog=ERG forest=LOC bite lizard
dog=ERG forest=LOC bite lizard
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However, Kämpya speakers very often topicalise either the subject or the object. The object is topicalised by moving it in front of the subject (i.e. making the sentence OSV) e.g.
However, Kämpya speakers very often topicalise either the subject or the object. The object is topicalised by moving it in front of the subject (i.e. making the sentence OSV) e.g.


/gáʔɾ kʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk/
/ˈlḭ̂zàd dô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn/


lizard dog=ERG bite
lizard dog=ERG bite
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The subject of a transitive sentence is topicalised by deleting the ergative marker e.g.
The subject of a transitive sentence is topicalised by deleting the ergative marker e.g.


/kʰwèi̤ káiʔk gáʔɾ/
/dô̰g ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


dog bite lizard
dog bite lizard
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The difference between this and /kʰwèi̤ ɾù káiʔk gáʔɾ/ (i.e. with the case marker), is that, in the sentence with the case marker, the "new information" being presented to the listener is that it was the dog that did the biting. Without the case marker, it is a sentence describing the dog, and the new information is that it bit the lizard. This is analagous to the difference between "ga" and "wa" in Japanese.
The difference between this and /dô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn lḭ̂zàd/ (i.e. with the case marker), is that, in the sentence with the case marker, the "new information" being presented to the listener is that it was the dog that did the biting. Without the case marker, it is a sentence describing the dog, and the new information is that it bit the lizard. This is analagous to the difference between "ga" and "wa" in Japanese.




Also note that topicalising both the subject and object is ungrammatical i.e. we cannot say  */gáʔɾ kʰwèi̤ káiʔk/ or anything like that.
Also note that topicalising both the subject and object is ungrammatical i.e. we cannot say  */lḭ̂zàd dô̰g ˈbíʔtèn/ or anything like that.
 


====With Pronouns====
====With Pronouns====
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The (alienable) genitive pronouns discussed earlier can also be the subject of transitive verbs e.g.
The (alienable) genitive pronouns discussed earlier can also be the subject of transitive verbs e.g.


/jô̰ káiʔk gáʔɾ/
/jô̰ ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


2PS.ERG bite lizard
2PS.ERG bite lizard
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As before, the object can be fronted as a topic e.g.
As before, the object can be fronted as a topic e.g.


/gáʔɾ jô̰ káiʔk/
/ˈlḭ̂zàd jô̰ ˈbíʔtèn/


lizard 2PS.ERG bite
lizard 2PS.ERG bite
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/pʰáˈzè̤t=ká jô̰ káiʔk gáʔɾ/
/pʰò̤wét=ká jô̰ ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


forest=LOC 2PS.ERG bite lizard
forest=LOC 2PS.ERG bite lizard
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/kʰwèi̤ ŋí=káiʔk/
/dô̰g ŋí=ˈbíʔtèn/


dog 2PS.ACC=bite
dog 2PS.ACC=bite
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or
or


/ŋí=káiʔk kʰwèi̤/
/ŋí=ˈbíʔtèn dô̰g/


2PS.ACC=bite dog
2PS.ACC=bite dog
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You will be bitten by the dog.
You will be bitten by the dog.


Using the ergative form /kʰwèi̤=zù/ is ungrammatical here.
Using the ergative form /dô̰g=zù/ is ungrammatical here.




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jéi=swí=káiʔk
jéi=swí=ˈbíʔtèn


2PS.INTR=3PS.ACC=bite
2PS.INTR=3PS.ACC=bite
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It would be ungrammatical to say */jô̰ swí=káiʔk/.
It would be ungrammatical to say */jô̰ swí=bíʔtèn/.




====Reciprocal Voice====
====Reciprocal Voice====


This takes a transitive verb and turns it into an intransitive verb meaning "do ... to each other / one another". It is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the verb, and putting it as a particle in the object pronoun "slot" e.g. /ˈdè̤sì/ - "to speak" -> /dé ˈdè̤sì/ - "to speak to each other".
This takes a transitive verb and turns it into an intransitive verb meaning "do ... to each other / one another". It is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the verb, and putting it as a particle in the object pronoun "slot" e.g. /píʔh/ - "to speak" -> /píˈpíʔh/ - "to speak to each other".


However coda consonants and the second elements of diphthongs are deleted e.g. /káiʔk/ - "to bite" -> /ká káiʔk/ - "to bite each other".
However coda consonants and the second elements of diphthongs are deleted e.g. /ˈbíʔtèn/ - "to bite" -> /bíˈbíʔtèn/ - "to bite each other".


Also if the onset of the first syllable contains an aspirated consonant, the aspiration is lost in the reduplication e.g. /sʰwè̤/ - "to pull" -> /sé sʰwè̤/ - "to pull each other".
Also if the onset of the first syllable contains an aspirated consonant, the aspiration is lost in the reduplication e.g. /pʰṵ̂/ - "to pull" -> /púˈpʰṵ̂/ - "to pull each other".


If the onset of the first syllable contains a voiceless nasal, the it becomes voiced in the reduplication e.g. - /m̥â̰n/ "to correct" -> /má m̥â̰n/ - "to correct each other". Likewise, if the onset of the first syllable contains /h/, it is lost in the reduplication e.g. /hwêg/ - "to play" -> /wé hwêg/ - "to play with each other".
If the onset of the first syllable contains a voiceless nasal, the it becomes voiced in the reduplication e.g. - /ˈm̥ô̰jù/ "to entertain" -> /móˈm̥ô̰jù/ - "to entertain each other". Likewise, if the onset of the first syllable contains /h/, it is lost in the reduplication e.g. /hléʔp/ - "to slap" -> /léˈhléʔp/ - "to slap each other".




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It is perfectly acceptable to delete the subject of a transitive sentence e.g.
It is perfectly acceptable to delete the subject of a transitive sentence e.g.


/káiʔk gáʔɾ/
/ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


bite lizard
bite lizard
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/gáʔɾ káiʔk/
/ˈlḭ̂zàd ˈbíʔtèn/


lizard bite
lizard bite
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To delete the object of a transitive sentence, the antipassive voice is used [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipassive_voice]. This is done with the clitic /θu-/. It goes in the same syntactic "slot" as an object pronoun would e.g.
To delete the object of a transitive sentence, the antipassive voice is used [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipassive_voice]. This is done with the clitic /θu-/. It goes in the same syntactic "slot" as an object pronoun would e.g.


/kʰwèi̤ θú=káiʔk/
/dô̰g θú=ˈbíʔtèn/


dog ANTIP=bite
dog ANTIP=bite
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However, if followed by a vowel, the form of the clitic is /θw-/ e.g.
However, if followed by a vowel, the form of the clitic is /θw-/ e.g.


/kʰwèi̤ θw=áhlôṵn/
/dô̰g θw=álâṵn/


dog ANTIP=abandon
dog ANTIP=abandon
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The deleted object can be re-introduced at the end of the sentence using the dative clitic /-àuŋ/ (note that this does not change the tone class of the noun) e.g.
The deleted object can be re-introduced at the end of the sentence using the dative clitic /-àuŋ/ (note that this does not change the tone class of the noun) e.g.


/kʰwèi̤ θú=káiʔk gáʔɾ=àuŋ/
/dô̰g θú=ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/


dog ANTIP=bite lizard=DAT
dog ANTIP=bite lizard=DAT
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At first glance, this may seem pointless, as we could have quite easily have said:
At first glance, this may seem pointless, as we could have quite easily have said:


/ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk gáʔɾ/
/dô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


dog=ERG bite lizard
dog=ERG bite lizard
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However, the difference is that Kämpya has ergative syntax. Whatever argument of the verb is in the absolutive case is the syntactic pivot [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_pivot]. In a normal transitive sentence, this is the object of the verb. But, by using the antipassive voice, the subject of the transitive verb becomes the syntactic pivot. If we combine the two sentences above with the verb /pjèi̤/ - "to flee", the meaning becomes very different:
However, the difference is that Kämpya has ergative syntax. Whatever argument of the verb is in the absolutive case is the syntactic pivot [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_pivot]. In a normal transitive sentence, this is the object of the verb. But, by using the antipassive voice, the subject of the transitive verb becomes the syntactic pivot. If we combine the two sentences above with the verb /áˈwâḭ/ - "to flee", the meaning becomes very different:


/kʰwèi̤ θú=káiʔk gáʔɾ=àuŋ pjèi̤/
/dô̰g θú=ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ áˈwâḭ/


dog ANTIP=bite lizard=DAT flee
dog ANTIP=bite lizard=DAT flee
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vs.
vs.


/ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk gáʔɾ pjèi̤/
/dô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd áˈwâḭ/


dog=ERG bite lizard flee
dog=ERG bite lizard flee
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Note that the dative clitic has the allomorph /jàuŋ/ after a vowel e.g.
Note that the dative clitic has the allomorph /jàuŋ/ after a vowel e.g.


/gáʔɾ θú=káiʔk kʰwèi̤=jàuŋ/
/ˈlḭ̂zàd θú=ˈbíʔtèn kʰêḭ=jàuŋ/


lizard ANTIP=bite dog=DAT
lizard ANTIP=bite cow=DAT


The lizard bit the dog.
The lizard bit the cow.




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For verbs such as "give", "sell", "send" etc. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditransitive], the normal situation is to have the donor marked in the ergative case in the usual position (i.e before the verb and any postpositional phrases), the theme (whatever is being given / sold etc. to someone) directly after it, and marked with the secundative postposition /-ti/, and the recipient in the absolutive case either after the verb or topicalised at the beginning of the sentence e.g.
For verbs such as "give", "sell", "send" etc. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditransitive], the normal situation is to have the donor marked in the ergative case in the usual position (i.e before the verb and any postpositional phrases), the theme (whatever is being given / sold etc. to someone) directly after it, and marked with the secundative postposition /-ti/, and the recipient in the absolutive case either after the verb or topicalised at the beginning of the sentence e.g.


/ˈsíʔtà=zù áˈjòṳ=tí gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/
/ˈsíʔtà=zù bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b dô̰g/


guardian=ERG bone=SEC give dog
guardian=ERG bone=SEC give dog
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or
or


/kʰwèi̤ ˈsíʔtà=zù áˈjòṳ=tí gḭ̂b/
/dô̰g ˈsíʔtà=zù wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b/


dog guardian=ERG bone=SEC give
dog guardian=ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give


The dog was given a bone by the guardian.
The dog was given a bone by the guardian.
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The ergative argument can be topicalised in the same way e.g.
The ergative argument can be topicalised in the same way e.g.


/ˈsíʔtà áˈjòṳ=tí gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/
/ˈsíʔtà wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b dô̰g/


guardian bone=SEC give dog
guardian INDEF=bone=SEC give dog


The guardian gave the bone to the dog.
The guardian gave the bone to the dog.
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It is also perfectly possible to put a ditransitive sentence in the antipassive voice e.g.
It is also perfectly possible to put a ditransitive sentence in the antipassive voice e.g.


/ˈsíʔtà áˈjòṳ=tí θú=gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤=jàuŋ/
/ˈsíʔtà bàṵn=tí θú=gḭ̂b dô̰g=àuŋ/


guardian bone=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT
guardian bone=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT
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Postpositional phrases usually come after the theme (i.e. whatever takes the secundative case) e.g.
Postpositional phrases usually come after the theme (i.e. whatever takes the secundative case) e.g.


/ˈsíʔtà=zù áˈjòṳ=tí pʰáˈzè̤t=ká gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/
/ˈsíʔtà=zù bàṵn=tí pʰò̤wét=ká gḭ̂b dô̰g/


guardian=ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog
guardian=ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog
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Immediately after a monophthong with breathy voice (and thus necessarily a vowel in an open syllable that has stress), an inital /t/ in clitics lenites to /ɾ/. For example, the secundative clitic /ti/ becomes /ɾi/ e.g.
Immediately after a monophthong with breathy voice (and thus necessarily a vowel in an open syllable that has stress), an inital /t/ in clitics lenites to /ɾ/. For example, the secundative clitic /ti/ becomes /ɾi/ e.g.


/ˈsíʔtà ŋà̤=ɾí gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/
/ˈsíʔtà gwà̤=ɾí gḭ̂b dô̰g/


guardian fish=SEC give dog
guardian grass=SEC give dog


The guardian gave the fish to the dog.
The guardian gave the cow to the dog.




Immediately after a monophthong with harsh voice, /t/ also lenites to /ɾ/. However, it also triggers a phonation shift on the vowel from harsh to glottalised e.g. the noun meaning "animal fat" is /áˈsʰḭ̀/ in Tone Class 2. It normally has harsh voice, but it combines with the secundative clitic to form /áˈsʰìʔ=ɾí/, as in:
Immediately after a monophthong with harsh voice, /t/ also lenites to /ɾ/. However, it also triggers a phonation shift on the vowel from harsh to glottalised e.g. the noun meaning "cow" is /kʰèḭ/ in Tone Class 2. It normally has harsh voice, but it combines with the secundative clitic to form /kʰèiʔ=ɾí/, as in:


/ˈsíʔtà áˈsʰìʔ=ɾí θú=gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤=jàuŋ/
/ˈsíʔtà kʰèiʔ=ɾí θú=gḭ̂b dô̰g=àuŋ/


guardian fat=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT
guardian cow=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT


The guardian gave the fat to the dog.
The guardian gave the cow to the dog.




In similar situations, /p/ lenites to /ⱱ/. For example, the instrumental postposition /piŋ/ likewise becomes /ⱱiŋ/ e.g. /ˈdè̤sí/ - "words" becomes /ˈdè̤sí=píŋ/ - "using words", but /ŋà̤/ - "fish" becomes /ˈŋà̤=ⱱíŋ/ - "using fish", and words with harsh voice on the final vowel such as /áˈsʰḭ̀/ - "animal fat", become /áˈsʰìʔ=ⱱíŋ/ - "using animal fat".
In similar situations, /p/ lenites to /ⱱ/. For example, the instrumental postposition /piŋ/ likewise becomes /ⱱiŋ/ e.g. /pìʔh/ - "words" becomes /ˈpìʔh=píŋ/ - "using words", but /gwà̤/ - "grass" becomes /gwà̤=ⱱíŋ/ - "using grass", and words with harsh voice on the final vowel such as /kʰèḭ/ - "cow", become /kʰèiʔ=ⱱíŋ/ - "using cows".




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! Gloss !! Base Form !! Form with /-gei/
! Gloss !! Base Form !! Form with /-gei/
|-
|-
| child|| kʰlè̤ || klè̤=héi
| class || kʰlà̤ || klà̤=héi
|-
|-
| snare || n̥ḛ̀ || nḛ̀=héi
| snare || n̥ḛ̀ || nḛ̀=héi
Line 716: Line 713:




/áˈjòṳ=tí pʰáˈzè̤t=ká jô̰ gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/
/bàṵn=tí pʰò̤wét=ká jô̰ gḭ̂b dô̰g/


bone=SEC forest=LOC 2PS.ERG give dog
bone=SEC forest=LOC 2PS.ERG give dog
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/jô̰ áˈjòṳ=tí pʰáˈzè̤t=ká gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/
/jô̰ bàṵn=tí pʰò̤wét=ká gḭ̂b dô̰g/


2PS.ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog
2PS.ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog
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This creates a small amount of amiguity, since /jô̰ áˈjòṳ=tí/ can also be read as "your bone (alienable)". Thus the above sentence could also be read as "your bone (alienable) was given to the dog in the forest".
This creates a small amount of amiguity, since /jô̰ bàṵn=tí/ can also be read as "your bone (alienable)". Thus the above sentence could also be read as "your bone (alienable) was given to the dog in the forest".




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===Applicative Voice===
===Applicative Voice===


To topicalise a noun in a postpositional phrase, Kämpya uses applicative constructions [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applicative_voice]. These are formed by first shifting the noun in the absolutive case to the end of the sentence (and marking it with the dative clitic /-àuŋ/). In turn, the noun that the postposition was attached to goes into the absolutive case, and the postposition is placed after the verb as a clitic e.g. from the sentence:
To topicalise a noun in a postpositional phrase, Kämpya uses applicative constructions [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applicative_voice]. These are formed by first shifting the noun in the absolutive case to the end of the sentence (and marking it with the dative clitic /-àuŋ/). In turn, the noun that the postposition was attached to goes into the absolutive case (and changes to Tone Class 1), and the postposition is placed after the verb as a clitic e.g. from the sentence:


/ˈkʰwèi̤=zù pʰáˈzè̤t=ká káiʔk gáʔɾ/
/ˈdô̰g=zù pʰò̤wét=ká ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


dog=ERG forest=LOC bite lizard
dog=ERG forest=LOC bite lizard
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we can apply an applicative transformation to get:
we can apply an applicative transformation to get:


/pʰáˈzè̤t ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk=kà gáʔɾ=àuŋ/
/pʰò̤wèt ˈdô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn=kà ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/


forest dog=ERG bite=LOC lizard=DAT
forest dog=ERG bite=LOC lizard=DAT
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As another example, the sentence
As another example, the sentence


/ˈḛ̂nèmì ˈkʰòʔnát=m̥á kúʔn/
/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/


enemy Hkónat=from depart
enemy valley=from depart


The enemy departed from Hkónat.
The enemy departed from the valley.




becomes the following:
becomes the following:


/ˈkʰóʔnàt kúʔn=m̥à ˈḛ̂nèmì=jàuŋ/
/ˈbwḛ̂lì déˈpʰâ̰ɾ=m̥à ˈḛ̂nèm=àuŋ/


Hkónat depart=from enemy=DAT
valley depart=from enemy=DAT


From Hkónat, the enemy departed.
From the valley, the enemy departed.


Note here the tone change from /ˈkʰòʔnát/ (in a postpositional phrase and thus Tone Class 2) to /ˈkʰóʔnàt/ (in Tone Class 1 like most nouns). We cannot see this in the previous example because the word for "forest" is /pʰáˈzè̤t/ in both Tone Class 1 and Tone Class 2.
 
Note here the tone change from /ˈkʰòʔnát/ (in a postpositional phrase and thus Tone Class 2) to /ˈkʰóʔnàt/ (in Tone Class 1 like most nouns). The same thing happened with the word for "forest" changing from /pʰò̤wét/ to /pʰò̤wèt/.




Likewise, in ditransitive sentences, the theme (i.e. whatever is given by the donor to the recipient) can also be topicalised by the same process e.g.
Likewise, in ditransitive sentences, the theme (i.e. whatever is given by the donor to the recipient) can also be topicalised by the same process e.g.


/kʰwèi̤ ˈsíʔtà=zù áˈjòṳ=tí gḭ̂b/
/dô̰g ˈsíʔtà=zù wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b/


dog guardian=ERG bone=SEC give
dog guardian=ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give


The dog was given a bone by the guardian.
The dog was given a bone by the guardian.
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becomes
becomes


/áˈjòṳ ˈsíʔtà=zù ˈgḭ̂b=tì ˈkʰwèi̤=jàuŋ/
/bâṵn ˈsíʔtà=zù ˈgḭ̂b=tì ˈdô̰g=àuŋ/


bone guardian=ERG give=SEC dog=DAT
bone guardian=ERG give=SEC dog=DAT
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When a pronoun is the object of the verb to be put into the applicative voice, the subject is put into the dative case instead e.g. when we apply the applicative voice to
When a pronoun is the object of the verb to be put into the applicative voice, the subject is put into the dative case instead e.g. when we apply the applicative voice to


/kʰwèi̤ pʰáˈzè̤t=ká ŋí=ˈkáiʔk/
/dô̰g pʰò̤wét=ká ŋí=ˈbíʔtèn/


dog forest=LOC 2PS.ACC=bite
dog forest=LOC 2PS.ACC=bite
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we get
we get


/pʰáˈzè̤t ŋí=káiʔk=kà kʰwèi̤=jàuŋ/
/pʰò̤wèt ŋí=ˈbíʔtèn=kà dô̰g=àuŋ/


forest 2PS.ACC=bite=LOC dog=DAT
forest 2PS.ACC=bite=LOC dog=DAT
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This is clearly a cliticisation process, since adverbs can come before the particle but after the verb e.g.
This is clearly a cliticisation process, since adverbs can come before the particle but after the verb e.g.


/pʰáˈzè̤t ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk ˈtjǎ̤ŋ=kà ˈgáʔɾ=àuŋ/
/pʰò̤wèt ˈdô̰g=zù bíʔtèn ˈˈjě̤tài=kà ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/


forest dog=ERG bite yesterday.ADV=LOC lizard=DAT
forest dog=ERG bite yesterday.ADV=LOC lizard=DAT
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When an adjective modifies a noun, Kämpya makes a distinction between restrictive and non-restrictive (descriptive) adjectives [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness]. It does this by putting restrictive adjectives in Tone Class 2, and placing them before the noun they modify e.g.
When an adjective modifies a noun, Kämpya makes a distinction between restrictive and non-restrictive (descriptive) adjectives [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness]. It does this by putting restrictive adjectives in Tone Class 2, and placing them before the noun they modify e.g.


/ˈlwèʔpíd kʰwèi̤/
/ˈlwèʔpíd dô̰g/


fast.REST dog
fast.REST dog
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Descriptive (non-restrictive) adjectives are in Tone Class 3 and follow the noun they modify e.g.
Descriptive (non-restrictive) adjectives are in Tone Class 3 and follow the noun they modify e.g.


/kʰwèi̤ˈlwéʔpìd/
/dô̰gˈlwéʔpìd/


dog fast.DESC
dog fast.DESC
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or
or


/sôṵ ˈjḛ́làu/
/sôṵlà ˈjḛ́làu/


sun yellow.DESC
sun yellow.DESC
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In the last case, it would never make any sense to say /ˈjḛ̀láu sôṵ/, unless for some reason we were disambiguating between multiple suns.
In the last case, it would never make any sense to say /ˈjḛ̀láu sôṵlà/, unless for some reason we were disambiguating between multiple suns.




===Articles===
===Articles===


There are no definite articles, but there is an indefinite article clitic. It occupies the demonstrative syntactic "slot" and has the allomorphs /ti-/ before a consonant and /it-/ before a vowel e.g.
There are no definite articles, but there is an indefinite article clitic. It occupies the demonstrative syntactic "slot" and has the allomorphs /wá-/ before a consonant and /wán-/ before a vowel e.g.




/tí=kʰwèi̤/
/wá=dô̰g/


INDEF=dog
INDEF=dog
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/ít=áˈtâṵŋ/
/wá=ˈḛ̂nèm/


INDEF=feather
INDEF=enemy


a feather
an enemy




Kämpya nouns are not inflected for singular or plural, but when they take the indefinite article, they are only ever singular, so the above examples could never mean "some dogs" or "some feathers".
Kämpya nouns are not inflected for singular or plural, but when they take the indefinite article, they are only ever singular, so the above examples could never mean "some dogs" or "some enemies".


It is important to distinguish the indefinite article from the word for one /tìʔ/. The indefinite article is a clitic, which has no stress and is phonologically part of whatever word follows it i.e. it will have plain High Pitch no matter whether it is followed by a noun or (restrictive) adjective. On the other hand, the numeral /tìʔ/ - "one" is phonologically a separate word. In terms of the tonal morphology, it (like all other numerals) belongs to category 2, and is thus pronounced with Low Pitch.
It is important to distinguish the indefinite article from the word for one /wà̰n/. The indefinite article is a clitic, which has no stress and is phonologically part of whatever word follows it i.e. it will have plain High Pitch no matter whether it is followed by a noun or (restrictive) adjective. On the other hand, the numeral /wà̰n/ - "one" is phonologically a separate word. In terms of the tonal morphology, it (like all other numerals) belongs to category 2, and is thus pronounced with Low Pitch.


Compare:
Compare:


/tí=kʰwèi̤/
/wá=dô̰g/


INDEF=dog
INDEF=dog
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with
with


/tìʔ kʰwèi̤/
/wà̰n dô̰g/


one dog
one dog
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Also, the numeral for one does not "reverse" (i.e. undergo metathesis) when the next syllable begins with a vowel e.g.
The numeral for "one" (or any other numerals) cannot be used with the indefinite article, so */wá=wà̰n dô̰g/ is ungrammatical.
 
 
/ít=áˈtâṵŋ/
 
INDEF=feather
 
a feather
 
 
vs.
 
/tìʔ áˈtâṵŋ/
 
one feather
 
one feather
 
 
The numeral for "one" (or any other numerals) cannot be used with the indefinite article, so */tí=tìʔ áˈtâṵŋ/ is ungrammatical.


However, (restrictive) adjectives can intervene between the indefinite article and the noun e.g.
However, (restrictive) adjectives can intervene between the indefinite article and the noun e.g.




/tí=ˈjḛ̀láu áˈtâṵŋ/
/wá=ˈjḛ̀láu dô̰g/


INDEF=yellow.REST feather
INDEF=yellow.REST dog


a yellow feather
a yellow dog




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Kämpya's system of demonstratives is more complex than English. Unlike English which only makes a two-way distinction between "this" and "that", Kämpya makes a five-way contrast between "this" (on the same level as the speaker), "this" (above / uphill from the speaker), "this" (below / downhill from the speaker), "that" (far from the speaker but still visible) and "that" (invisible to the speaker). The distinction between uphill and downhill objects is particularly relevant for most Kämpya speakers, since they mostly live along a mountainous coastline. Dialects spoken in flatter areas tend to rapidly simplify the system.
Kämpya's system of demonstratives is more complex than English. Unlike English which only makes a two-way distinction between "this" and "that", Kämpya makes a five-way contrast between "this" (on the same level as the speaker), "this" (above / uphill from the speaker), "this" (below / downhill from the speaker), "that" (far from the speaker but still visible) and "that" (invisible to the speaker). The distinction between uphill and downhill objects is particularly relevant for most Kämpya speakers, since they mostly live along a mountainous coastline. Dialects spoken in flatter areas tend to simplify the system.




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For example "this mountain" is /dá ˈmjáuʔnàn/, since a mountain is a place. But "this dog" is /dà̰ kʰwèi̤/, since a dog is not a place.
For example "this mountain" is /dá ˈmjáuʔnàn/, since a mountain is a place. But "this dog" is /dà̰ dô̰g/, since a dog is not a place.




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|}
|}


*/hóu-/ has the allomorph /*hów-/ before a vowel. Before a word containing an aspirated consonant, a voiceless nasal or another /h/, the initial /h/ is dropped e.g. /óu=pʰáˈzè̤t/ - "that forest", not */hóu=pʰáˈzè̤t/. Under similar conditions, the initial /h/ in /hlàn/ is lost, as well as the aspiration in /t(ʰ)ék/.
*/hóu-/ has the allomorph /*hów-/ before a vowel. Before a word containing an aspirated consonant, a voiceless nasal or another /h/, the initial /h/ is dropped e.g. /óu=pʰò̤wèt/ - "that forest", not */hóu=pʰò̤wèt/. Under similar conditions, the initial /h/ in /hlàn/ is lost, as well as the aspiration in /t(ʰ)ék/.


===Possession===
===Possession===
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Kämpya distinguishes alienable and inalienable possession. In both cases, possessors are marked with the cliticised case marker /ja/, and come before the noun they possess. But inalienable possessors are in Tone Class 2 e.g.
Kämpya distinguishes alienable and inalienable possession. In both cases, possessors are marked with the cliticised case marker /ja/, and come before the noun they possess. But inalienable possessors are in Tone Class 2 e.g.


/kʰwèi̤=já áˈjòṳ/
/dò̰g=já bâṵn/


dog=GEN.INALIENABLE bone
dog=GEN.INALIENABLE bone
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While alienable possessors are in Tone Class 1 e.g.
While alienable possessors are in Tone Class 1 e.g.


/kʰwèi̤=jà áˈjòṳ/
/dô̰g=jà bâṵn/


dog=GEN.ALIENABLE bone
dog=GEN.ALIENABLE bone
Line 995: Line 974:




/kʰwèi̤=jà dà̰ áˈjòṳ/
/dô̰g=jà dà̰ bâṵn/


dog=GEN.ALIENABLE this bone
dog=GEN.ALIENABLE this bone


This bone of the dog's (literally "the dog's this bone").
This bone of the dog's (literally "the dog's this bone").


===Relative Clauses===
===Relative Clauses===
Line 1,005: Line 985:
In the same way as with adjectives, Kämpya places relative clauses before the head noun if they are restrictive, and after the noun if they are non-restrictive e.g.
In the same way as with adjectives, Kämpya places relative clauses before the head noun if they are restrictive, and after the noun if they are non-restrictive e.g.


/gáʔɾ=zù káiʔk kʰwèi̤ pjèi̤/
/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔtèn dô̰g áˈwâḭ/


lizard=ERG bite dog flee
lizard=ERG bite dog flee
Line 1,014: Line 994:
Or, using a non-restrictive relative clause:
Or, using a non-restrictive relative clause:


/kʰwèi̤ gáʔɾ=zù káiʔk pjèi̤/
/dô̰g ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔtèn áˈwâḭ/


dog lizard=ERG bite flee
dog lizard=ERG bite flee
Line 1,024: Line 1,004:




/θú=káiʔk gáʔɾ pjèi̤/
/θú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd áˈwâḭ/


ANTIP=bite lizard flee
ANTIP=bite lizard flee
Line 1,033: Line 1,013:
Or in a non-restrictive relative clause:
Or in a non-restrictive relative clause:


/gáʔɾ θú=káiʔk pjèi̤/
/ˈlḭ̂zàd θú=bíʔtèn áˈwâḭ/


lizard ANTIP=bite flee
lizard ANTIP=bite flee
Line 1,043: Line 1,023:




/gáʔɾ=zù káiʔk=kà pʰáˈzè̤t nóuʔp/
/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔtèn=kà pʰò̤wèt m̥ôṵ/


lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest small
lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest small
Line 1,053: Line 1,033:




/pʰáˈzè̤t gáʔɾ=zù káiʔk=kà nóuʔp/
/pʰò̤wèt ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔtèn=kà m̥ôṵ/


forest lizard=ERG bite=LOC small
forest lizard=ERG bite=LOC small
Line 1,065: Line 1,045:




/θú=káiʔk gáʔɾ kʰwèi̤=jàuŋ pjèi̤/
/θú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd dô̰g=àuŋ áˈwâḭ/


ANTIP=bite lizard dog=DAT flee
ANTIP=bite lizard dog=DAT flee


The lizard that had bitten the dog fled. (not */θú=káiʔk kʰwèi̤=jàuŋ gáʔɾ pjèi̤/)
The lizard that had bitten the dog fled. (not */θú=bíʔtèn dô̰g=àuŋ ˈlḭ̂zàd áˈwâḭ/)




Line 1,075: Line 1,055:




/gáʔɾ=zù káiʔk=kà pʰáˈzè̤t kʰwèi̤=jàuŋ nóuʔp/
/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔtèn=kà pʰò̤wèt dô̰g=àuŋ m̥ôṵ/


lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest dog=DAT small
lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest dog=DAT small


The forest that the lizard bit the dog in is small. (not */gáʔɾ=zù káiʔk=kà kʰwèi̤=jàuŋ pʰáˈzè̤t nóuʔp/)
The forest that the lizard bit the dog in is small. (not */ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔtèn=kà dô̰g=àuŋ pʰò̤wèt m̥ôṵ/)




Line 1,091: Line 1,071:
The basic way to negate something is to place the clitic /na/ immediately before it e.g. from the sentence
The basic way to negate something is to place the clitic /na/ immediately before it e.g. from the sentence


/ŋí=káiʔk kʰwèi̤/
/ŋí=bíʔtèn dô̰g/


2PS.ACC=bite dog.
2PS.ACC=bite dog.
Line 1,100: Line 1,080:
We can say
We can say


/ŋí=ná=káiʔk kʰwèi̤/
/ŋí=ná=bíʔtèn dô̰g/


2PS.ACC=NEG=bite dog
2PS.ACC=NEG=bite dog
Line 1,109: Line 1,089:
as well as
as well as


/ná=ŋí=káiʔk kʰwèi̤/
/ná=ŋí=bíʔtèn dô̰g/


NEG=2PS.ACC=bite dog
NEG=2PS.ACC=bite dog
Line 1,118: Line 1,098:
and
and


/ŋí=káiʔk ná=kʰwèi̤/
/ŋí=bíʔtèn ná=dô̰g/


2PS.ACC=bite NEG=dog
2PS.ACC=bite NEG=dog
Line 1,125: Line 1,105:




However, when a noun is topicalised, it cannot be attached to /na/. So */ná́=kʰwèi̤ ŋí=káiʔk/ is ungrammatical.
However, when a noun is topicalised, it cannot be attached to /na/. So */ná́=dô̰g ŋí=bíʔtèn/ is ungrammatical.




As we can see, /na/ can attach to either nouns or verbs. It can also attach to adjectives e.g.
As we can see, /na/ can attach to either nouns or verbs. It can also attach to adjectives e.g.


/ŋí=káiʔk ná=nòuʔp kʰwèi̤/
/ŋí=bíʔtèn ná=m̥ôṵ dô̰g/


2PS.ACC=bite NEG=small.REST dog
2PS.ACC=bite NEG=small.REST dog
Line 1,140: Line 1,120:
And adverbs e.g.
And adverbs e.g.


/ŋí=káiʔk nà=néʔk kʰwèi̤/
/ŋí=bíʔtèn nà=déiʔp dô̰g/


2PS.ACC=bite NEG=deep.ADV dog
2PS.ACC=bite NEG=deep.ADV dog
Line 1,150: Line 1,130:
However, if the word after /na/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g.
However, if the word after /na/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g.


/ŋí=náw=áˈlôṵn kʰwèi̤/
/ŋí=náw=áˈlôṵn dô̰g/


2PS.ACC=NEG=abandon dog
2PS.ACC=NEG=abandon dog
Line 1,162: Line 1,142:




/ái=lét=kúʔn/
/ái=lét=déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/


1PS.EXCL=NEC=depart
1PS.EXCL=NEC=depart
Line 1,172: Line 1,152:




/wéi=lét=kúʔn/
/wéi=lét=déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/


1PS.INCL=NEC=depart
1PS.INCL=NEC=depart
Line 1,182: Line 1,162:




/jéi=lét=kúʔn/
/jéi=lét=déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/


2PS=NEC=depart
2PS=NEC=depart
Line 1,192: Line 1,172:




/jéi=kúʔn lèt=ˈlwéʔpìd/
/jéi=déˈpʰâ̰ɾ lèt=ˈlwéʔpìd/


2PS=depart NEC=fast
2PS=depart NEC=fast
Line 1,212: Line 1,192:
This pattern can also be used for transitive verbs
This pattern can also be used for transitive verbs


/jô̰ lét=kàiʔk nâ̰ kʰwèi̤/
/jô̰ lét=bíʔtèn nâ̰ dô̰g/


2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog
2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog
Line 1,221: Line 1,201:
It is also perfectly possible to front the argument of /nâ̰/ e.g.
It is also perfectly possible to front the argument of /nâ̰/ e.g.


/kʰwèi̤ jô̰ lét=kàiʔk nâ̰/
/dô̰g jô̰ lét=bíʔtèn nâ̰/


dog 2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH
dog 2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH
Line 1,230: Line 1,210:
Other nouns can be used apart from the 2nd person pronouns e.g.
Other nouns can be used apart from the 2nd person pronouns e.g.


/ˈsíʔtà=zù lét=kàiʔk nâ̰ kʰwèi̤/
/ˈsíʔtà=zù lét=bíʔtèn nâ̰ dô̰g/


guardian=ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog
guardian=ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog
Line 1,242: Line 1,222:




/ái=wáná=kúʔn/
/ái=wáná=déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/


1PS.EXCL.INTR=OPT=depart
1PS.EXCL.INTR=OPT=depart
Line 1,249: Line 1,229:




/ŋí=wáná=kàiʔk kʰwèi̤/
/ŋí=wáná=bíʔtèn dô̰g/


2PS.ACC=OPT=bite dog
2PS.ACC=OPT=bite dog


I want you to be bitten by a dog.
I want you to be bitten by the dog.




/ŋí=kàiʔk wáná=kʰwèi̤/
/ŋí=bíʔtèn wáná=dô̰g/


2PS.ACC bite OPT=dog
2PS.ACC bite OPT=dog


I want you to be bitten by a '''dog''' (and not another animal).
I want you to be bitten by the '''dog''' (and not another animal).




/ŋí=kàiʔk wáná=nòuʔp kʰwèi̤/
/ŋí=bíʔtèn wáná=m̥ôṵ dô̰g/


2PS.ACC bite OPT=small.REST dog
2PS.ACC bite OPT=small.REST dog


I want you to be bitten by a '''small''' dog (and not a big one).
I want you to be bitten by the '''small''' dog (and not a big one).




Line 1,275: Line 1,255:




/ái=káu=kúʔn/
/ái=káu=déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/


1PS.EXCL.INTR=COND=depart
1PS.EXCL.INTR=COND=depart
Line 1,282: Line 1,262:




/ái=kúʔn kò=ˈlwéʔpìd/
/ái=déˈpʰâ̰ɾ kò=ˈlwéʔpìd/


1PS.EXCL.INTR depart COND=fast
1PS.EXCL.INTR depart COND=fast
Line 1,292: Line 1,272:




/jéi=wáná=kúʔn áj=káw=áˈlôṵn/
/jéi=wáná=déˈpʰâ̰ɾ áj=káw=áˈlôṵn/


2PS.INTR=OPT=depart COND=1PS.EXCL=alone
2PS.INTR=OPT=depart COND=1PS.EXCL=alone
Line 1,304: Line 1,284:




/jéi=nóu=kúʔn/
/jéi=nóu=déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/


2PS.INTR=HYP=depart
2PS.INTR=HYP=depart
Line 1,314: Line 1,294:




/jéi=nóu=kúʔn áj=káw=áˈlôṵn/
/jéi=nóu=déˈpʰâ̰ɾ áj=káw=áˈlôṵn/


2PS.INTR=HYP=depart COND=1PS.EXCL=alone
2PS.INTR=HYP=depart COND=1PS.EXCL=alone
Line 1,321: Line 1,301:




===Sensory Evidential===
===Direct Evidential===


If a speaker is reporting something that they have experienced, then no clitic is used e.g.
If a speaker is reporting something that they have experienced, then no clitic is used e.g.




/kʰwèi̤ áˈlôṵn/
/dô̰g áˈlôṵn/


dog alone
dog alone
Line 1,337: Line 1,317:
If the speaker is reporting information that someone else told them, the proclitic /hi/ (/hizw/ before a vowel) is used e.g.
If the speaker is reporting information that someone else told them, the proclitic /hi/ (/hizw/ before a vowel) is used e.g.


/kʰwèi̤ hízw=áˈlôṵn/
/dô̰g hízw=áˈlôṵn/


dog REP=alone
dog REP=alone
Line 1,344: Line 1,324:




/áˈlôṵn hí=kʰwèi̤/
/áˈlôṵn hí=dô̰g/


alone REP=dog
alone REP=dog
Line 1,355: Line 1,335:
If the speaker is arriving at a judgment based on some kind of direct physical evidence, then the proclitic /ge/ is used (/ges/ before a vowel) e.g.
If the speaker is arriving at a judgment based on some kind of direct physical evidence, then the proclitic /ge/ is used (/ges/ before a vowel) e.g.


/kʰwèi̤ gés=áˈlôṵn/
/dô̰g gés=áˈlôṵn/


dog INFR=alone
dog INFR=alone
Line 1,366: Line 1,346:
This is used when the speaker is making an assertion based on their experience with similar situations, or when (at least in their judgement), the situation is general knowledge. It uses the proclitic /hle/ (/hel/ before a vowel) e.g.
This is used when the speaker is making an assertion based on their experience with similar situations, or when (at least in their judgement), the situation is general knowledge. It uses the proclitic /hle/ (/hel/ before a vowel) e.g.


/sôṵ hél=éˈmḛ̂hè/
/sôṵlà hél=áʔp/


sun ASS=rise
sun ASS=rise
Line 1,376: Line 1,356:




/sôṵ éˈmḛ̂hè/
/sôṵlà áʔp/


sun rise
sun rise


The sun has risen (the speaker has seen it).
The sun has risen (the speaker has seen it).


===Interrogative Mood===
===Interrogative Mood===
Line 1,387: Line 1,368:




/ŋí=dú=káiʔk kʰwèi̤/
/ŋí=dú=bíʔtèn dô̰g/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
Line 1,396: Line 1,377:
as well as
as well as


/dú=ŋí=káiʔk kʰwèi̤/
/dú=ŋí=bíʔtèn dô̰g/


POLQ=2PS.ACC=bite dog
POLQ=2PS.ACC=bite dog
Line 1,405: Line 1,386:
and
and


/ŋí=káiʔk dú=kʰwèi̤/
/ŋí=bíʔtèn dú=dô̰g/


2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=dog
2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=dog
Line 1,414: Line 1,395:
Like with /na/, /du/ can also attach to adjectives e.g.
Like with /na/, /du/ can also attach to adjectives e.g.


/ŋí=káiʔk dú=nòuʔp kʰwèi̤/
/ŋí=bíʔtèn dú=m̥òṵ dô̰g/


2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=small.REST dog
2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=small.REST dog
Line 1,423: Line 1,404:
And adverbs e.g.
And adverbs e.g.


/ŋí=káiʔk dù=néʔk kʰwèi̤/
/ŋí=bíʔtèn dù=déiʔp dô̰g/


2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=deep.ADV dog
2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=deep.ADV dog
Line 1,432: Line 1,413:
However, if the word after /du/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g.
However, if the word after /du/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g.


/ŋí=dúw=áˈlôṵn kʰwèi̤/
/ŋí=dúw=áˈlôṵn dô̰g/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=abandon dog
2PS.ACC=POLQ=abandon dog
Line 1,444: Line 1,425:




A) /kʰwèi̤ dú=káiʔk gáʔɾ/
A) /dô̰g dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
Line 1,464: Line 1,445:




A) /kʰwèi̤ dú=káiʔk gáʔɾ/
A) /dô̰g dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
Line 1,471: Line 1,452:




B) /káiʔk/
B) /bíʔtèn/


bite
bite
Line 1,481: Line 1,462:




A) /kʰwèi̤ dú=káiʔk gáʔɾ/
A) /dô̰g dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
Line 1,498: Line 1,479:




A) /kʰwèi̤ dú=káiʔk gáʔɾ/
A) /dô̰g dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
Line 1,515: Line 1,496:




A) /kʰwèi̤ dú=káiʔk gáʔɾ/
A) /dô̰g dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
Line 1,532: Line 1,513:




A) /jó=mjà̤ jô̰ báˈsjàʔp dú=hóuʔt/
A) /jó=wòṳ jô̰ báˈsjàʔp dú=tóʔp/


2PS.GEN=wife 2PS.ERG beat.INF POLQ=stop
2PS.GEN=wife 2PS.ERG beat.INF POLQ=stop
Line 1,549: Line 1,530:




A) /kʰwèi̤ dú=káiʔk gáʔɾ/
A) /dô̰g dú=bíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog
Line 1,568: Line 1,549:
These are formed by using interrogative pronouns. There is no distinction between "who" and "what" e.g.
These are formed by using interrogative pronouns. There is no distinction between "who" and "what" e.g.


/báj=ˈḛ̂nèmì/
/báj=ˈḛ̂nèm/


Q.INTR=enemy
Q.INTR=enemy
Line 1,577: Line 1,558:
or
or


/ˈkʰòʔnát=m̥á bá=ˈkúʔn/
/ˈbwḛ̀lí=m̥á bá=ˈdéˈpʰâ̰ɾ/


Hkonat=from Q.INTR=depart
Hkonat=from Q.INTR=depart


Who / What departed from Hkonat?
Who / What departed from the valley?




/zwé=ˈkáiʔk gáʔɾ/
/zwé=ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


Q.ERG=bite lizard
Q.ERG=bite lizard
Line 1,591: Line 1,572:




/ké=ˈkáiʔk gáʔɾ/
/ké=ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


Q.ACC=bite lizard
Q.ACC=bite lizard
Line 1,598: Line 1,579:




/ˈsíʔtà ˈkèʔ=ɾí θú=gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤=jàuŋ/
/ˈsíʔtà ˈkèʔ=ɾí θú=gḭ̂b dô̰g=àuŋ/


guardian Q.ACC=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT
guardian Q.ACC=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT
Line 1,607: Line 1,588:
When English would use a word such as "where" or "when", Kämpya instead uses /kḛ̀/ (the accusative emphatic interrogative pronoun) with a postposition e.g.
When English would use a word such as "where" or "when", Kämpya instead uses /kḛ̀/ (the accusative emphatic interrogative pronoun) with a postposition e.g.


/ˈḛ̂nèmì ˈkḛ̀=m̥á kúʔn/
/ˈḛ̂nèm ˈkḛ̀=m̥á déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/


enemy Q.ACC=from depart
enemy Q.ACC=from depart
Line 1,614: Line 1,595:




/ˈkʰwèi̤=zù ˈkḛ̀=wé káiʔk gáʔɾ/
/dô̰g=zù ˈkḛ̀=wé ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


dog=ERG Q.ACC=TEM bite lizard
dog=ERG Q.ACC=TEM bite lizard
Line 1,621: Line 1,602:




/ˈkʰwèi̤=zù ˈkèʔ=ⱱíŋ káiʔk gáʔɾ/
/dô̰g=zù ˈkèʔ=ⱱíŋ ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


dog=ERG Q.ACC=INS bite lizard
dog=ERG Q.ACC=INS bite lizard
Line 1,628: Line 1,609:




/ˈkʰwèi̤=zù ˈkèʔ=há káiʔk gáʔɾ/
/dô̰g=zù ˈkèʔ=há ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


dog=ERG Q.ACC=LOC bite lizard
dog=ERG Q.ACC=LOC bite lizard
Line 1,639: Line 1,620:
Kämpya has no word meaning "whose". Instead it is necessary to ask "Who has ...?", combined with a relative clause e.g.
Kämpya has no word meaning "whose". Instead it is necessary to ask "Who has ...?", combined with a relative clause e.g.


/ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk gáʔɾ zwé=ˈhḛ̂b/
/dô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd zwé=ˈhḛ̂b/


dog=ERG bite lizard Q.ERG=have
dog=ERG bite lizard Q.ERG=have
Line 1,648: Line 1,629:
or
or


/θú=ˈkáiʔk kʰwèi̤ ˈgáʔɾ=àuŋ zwé=ˈhḛ̂b/
/θú=ˈbíʔtèn dô̰g ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ zwé=ˈhḛ̂b/


ANTIP=bite dog lizard=DAT Q.ERG=have
ANTIP=bite dog lizard=DAT Q.ERG=have
Line 1,659: Line 1,640:
To ask questions like "Which lizard did the dog bite?", attach the clitic bá- (or báj- before a vowel) to the noun being asked about e.g.
To ask questions like "Which lizard did the dog bite?", attach the clitic bá- (or báj- before a vowel) to the noun being asked about e.g.


/ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk bá=ˈgáʔɾ/
/dô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn bá=ˈlḭ̂zàd/


dog=ERG bite Q.INTR=lizard
dog=ERG bite Q.INTR=lizard
Line 1,668: Line 1,649:
However, bá- can only attach to a noun in the absolutive case. To ask about the subject of a transitive verb, it is necessary to antipassivise the verb. e.g.
However, bá- can only attach to a noun in the absolutive case. To ask about the subject of a transitive verb, it is necessary to antipassivise the verb. e.g.


/θú=ˈkáiʔk bá=kʰwèi̤ ˈgáʔɾ=àuŋ/
/θú=ˈbíʔtèn bá=dô̰g ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/


ANTIP=bite Q.INTR=dog lizard=DAT
ANTIP=bite Q.INTR=dog lizard=DAT
Line 1,675: Line 1,656:




Attaching the clitic to a noun in the ergative case is ungrammatical e.g. */bá=ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk gáʔɾ/. Also the clitic cannot attach to a topicalised noun e.g. */bá=kʰwèi̤ θú=ˈkáiʔk ˈgáʔɾ=àuŋ/.
Attaching the clitic to a noun in the ergative case is ungrammatical e.g. */bá=dô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn lḭ̂zàd/. Also the clitic cannot attach to a topicalised noun e.g. */bá=dô̰g θú=ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/.




To ask about the object of a postposition, an applicative construction is needed e.g.
To ask about the object of a postposition, an applicative construction is needed e.g.


/gáʔɾ=zù káiʔk=kà bá=pʰáˈzè̤t ˈkʰwèi̤=jàuŋ/
/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù ˈbíʔtèn=kà bá=pʰò̤wèt ˈdô̰g=àuŋ/


lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest dog=DAT which
lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest dog=DAT which
Line 1,704: Line 1,685:
For example, from the sentence:
For example, from the sentence:


/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù hí=ˈsâ̰pè áˈlòṳm/
/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù hí=ˈsâ̰pè míʔnà/


mother=ERG REP=know everyone
mother=ERG REP=know everyone
Line 1,722: Line 1,703:
If there is a subordinate clause, then the accusative pronoun is replaced with /nó/ e.g.
If there is a subordinate clause, then the accusative pronoun is replaced with /nó/ e.g.


/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk kʰlè̤/
/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite child
mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite lizard


I've heard the mother knows the dog bit the child.
I've heard the mother knows the dog bit the lizard.




If the superordinate clause's absolutive argument is also the topic of the subordinate clause, then it does not need to be mentioned twice e.g.  
If the superordinate clause's absolutive argument is also the topic of the subordinate clause, then it does not need to be mentioned twice e.g.  


/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk/
/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn/


mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite
mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite
Line 1,738: Line 1,719:




It would be redundant to say something like ?/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk mùˈhḛ̂/.
It would be redundant to say something like ?/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn mùˈhḛ̂/.


Another example where the subordinate clause is the topic of a transitive sentence:
/ŋá=hí=pínjáˈpèi̤ múˈhḛ̂ ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk kʰlè̤/
SBRD.ERG=REP=teach mother dog=ERG bite child
Literally "that the dog bit the child taught the mother, I'm told", but perhaps a better translation would be "I've heard that the mother learned from the dog having bitten the child".
Like before, if the superordinate clause's absolutive argument is also the topic of the subordinate clause, then it does not need to be mentioned twice e.g.
/ŋá=hí=pínjáˈpèi̤ múˈhḛ̂ ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk/
SBRD.ERG=REP=teach mother dog=ERG bite
That the dog bit the mother taught her (the mother), I'm told.
And another example using an intransitive verb (in this case, one that would be an adjective in English):
/sí=hí=ˈlwéʔpìd ˈḛ̂nèmì kúʔn tjǎ̤ŋ/
SBRD.INTR=fast enemy depart yesterday.ADV
I hear that it was fast for the enemy to have departed yesterday (usually they apparently take more time).




And another example using a postposition:
And another example using a postposition:


/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí ˈdè̤sì kʰlè̤ ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk gáʔɾ/
/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí píʔh kʰḭ̂d ˈdô̰g=zù ˈbíʔtèn ˈlḭ̂zàd/


mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child dog=ERG bite lizard
mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child dog=ERG bite lizard
Line 1,779: Line 1,734:
And as before, the absolutive argument of the superordinate clause can be the topic of the subordinate clause e.g.
And as before, the absolutive argument of the superordinate clause can be the topic of the subordinate clause e.g.


/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí ˈdè̤sì kʰlè̤ ít=áˈjòṳ=tí lét=gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/
/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí píʔh kʰḭ̂d wá=áˈjòṳ=tí lét=gḭ̂b dô̰g/


mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog
mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog
Line 1,786: Line 1,741:




/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=ˈdè̤sì ˈkʰlè̤=jàuŋ ít=áˈjòṳ=tí lét=gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/
/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=ˈdè̤sì ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ wá=bàṵn=tí lét=gḭ̂b dô̰g/


mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT  INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog
mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT  INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog
Line 1,796: Line 1,751:




/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=ˈdè̤sì ˈkʰlè̤=jàuŋ ít=áˈjòṳ=tí gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/
/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=píʔh ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b dô̰g/


mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT  INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT  INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
Line 1,803: Line 1,758:




/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=ˈdè̤sì ˈkʰlè̤=jàuŋ ít=áˈjòṳ=tí hí=gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/
/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=píʔh ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ wá=bàṵn=tí hí=gḭ̂b dô̰g/


mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT  INDEF=bone=SEC REP=give dog
mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT  INDEF=bone=SEC REP=give dog
Line 1,816: Line 1,771:
So if the above 2 sentences take ðjíʔ, then they become:
So if the above 2 sentences take ðjíʔ, then they become:


/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí ˈdè̤sì kʰlè̤ ðjíʔ ít=áˈjòṳ=tí gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/
/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí píʔh ˈkʰḭ̂d ðjíʔ wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b dô̰g/


mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
Line 1,823: Line 1,778:




/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=ˈdè̤sì ˈkʰlè̤=jàuŋ ðjíʔ ít=áˈjòṳ=tí gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/
/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=ˈpíʔh ˈkʰḭ̂d=àuŋ ðjíʔ wá=bàṵn=tí gḭ̂b dô̰g/


mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog
Line 1,835: Line 1,790:




/kʰlè̤ ˈnòʔ=ɾí mí=ˈdè̤sì ˈḛ̂nèmì kúʔn/
/ˈkʰḭ̂d ˈnòʔ=ɾí mí=ˈpíʔh ˈḛ̂nèm déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/


child SBRD.ACC 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak enemy depart
child SBRD.ACC 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak enemy depart
Line 1,845: Line 1,800:




/kʰlè̤ ˈnòʔ=ɾí mí=ˈdè̤sì ˈḛ̂nèmì hí=kúʔn/
/ˈkʰḭ̂d ˈnòʔ=ɾí mí=ˈpíʔh ˈḛ̂nèm hí=déˈpʰâ̰ɾ/


child SBRD.ACC 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak enemy REP=depart
child SBRD.ACC 1PS.EXCL.ACC=speak enemy REP=depart


The child told me the enemy departed (but I didn't see it, I just heard about it).
The child told me the enemy departed (but I didn't see it, I just heard about it).


==Comparative Constructions==
==Comparative Constructions==
Line 1,855: Line 1,811:
To say "more than ...", Kämpya speakers say ... /téŋ/, where /téŋ/ is a postpositional clitic that also means "above" e.g.
To say "more than ...", Kämpya speakers say ... /téŋ/, where /téŋ/ is a postpositional clitic that also means "above" e.g.


/kʰwèi̤ ˈgàʔɾ=téŋ lwéʔpìd/
/dô̰g ˈlḭ̀zád=téŋ lwéʔpìd/


dog.TOP lizard=above fast
dog.TOP lizard=above fast


Dogs are faster than lizards (literally "Dogs are fast above lizards").
Dogs are faster than lizards (literally "Dogs are fast above lizards").
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