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| Antarctican is the most widely spoken language on the continent of Antarctica in the far future, at a time when | | Antarctican is the most widely spoken language on the continent of Antarctica in the far future, at a time when |
| runaway global warming has melted the icecaps and rendered most of the rest of | | runaway global warming has melted the icecaps and rendered most of the rest of |
| the word uninhabitable. It has been influenced by a variety of modern-day | | the word uninhabitable. It evolved from [[Proto-Antarctican]], which in turn evolved from a mixture of a wide variety of modern-day languages, among them English, Spanish, Japanese and many East Asian languages. |
| languages, among them English, Spanish, Japanese and many East Asian languages. | |
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| It has a | | It has a |
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| real marking of plurality of nouns. | | real marking of plurality of nouns. |
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| In the verbal morphology, focus and transitivity are clearly marked. Verbs also | | In the verbal morphology, transitivity is clearly marked. Verbs also |
| inflect for person and voice. Tense and aspect are much less important. | | inflect for person and voice. Tense and aspect are much less important. |
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| The | | The |
| pronunciation of each phoneme is listed in the tables below, followed by its | | pronunciation of each phoneme is listed in the tables below, preceded by its |
| romanisation in brackets. | | romanisation. |
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| There are 11 monophthongs: | | There are 11 monophthongs: |
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| |- | | |- |
| ! style="" |Close-mid | | ! style="" |Close-mid |
| |'''ie''' /e/ | | |'''e''' /e/ |
| |'''e''' /ɘ/ | | |'''oe''' /ɘ/ |
| | '''uo''' /o/ | | | '''o''' /o/ |
| |- | | |- |
| ! style="" |Open-mid | | ! style="" |Open-mid |
| | '''ae''' /ɛ/ | | | '''ae''' /ɛ/ |
| |'''oe''' /ɜ/ | | |'''ao''' /ɜ/ |
| |'''o''' /ɔ/ | | |'''õ''' /ɔ/ |
| |- | | |- |
| ! style="" |Open | | ! style="" |Open |
| |'''a''' /a/ | | |'''a''' /a/ |
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| | '''ao''' /ɒ/ | | | '''ã''' /ɒ/ |
| |} | | |} |
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| And there are 17 diphthongs. 8 of these end in [j], and another 9 end in [w]: | | And there are 16 diphthongs. 8 of these end in [j], and another 8 end in [w]: |
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| {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;" | | {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;" |
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| ! style="" |Close-mid | | ! style="" |Close-mid |
| |'''iey''' /ej/ | | |'''ey''' /ej/ |
| |'''ey''' /ɘj/ | | |'''oey''' /ɘi/ |
| | '''uoy''' /oj/ | | | '''oy''' /oj/ |
| |- | | |- |
| ! style="" |Open-mid | | ! style="" |Open-mid |
| | '''aey''' /ɛj/ | | | '''aey''' /ɛj/ |
| |'''oey''' /ɜj/ | | |'''aoy''' /ɜj/ |
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| ! style="" |Close-mid | | ! style="" |Close-mid |
| |'''iew''' /ew/ | | |'''ew''' /ew/ |
| |'''ew''' /ɘw/ | | |'''oew''' /ɘu/ |
| | '''uow''' /ow/ | | | '''ow''' /ou/ |
| |- | | |- |
| ! style="" |Open-mid | | ! style="" |Open-mid |
| | '''aew''' /ɛw/ | | | '''aew''' /ɛw/ |
| |'''oew''' /ɜw/ | | |'''aow''' /ɜw/ |
| |'''ow''' /ɔw/ | | |'''õw''' /ɔw/ |
| |- | | |- |
| ! style="" |Open | | ! style="" |Open |
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| *kuow /kou/ - something absorbed in something else, absolutive | | *kow /kou/ - something absorbed in something else, absolutive |
| *kuuow /koːu/ - a frozen object, absolutive | | *koow /koːu/ - a frozen object, absolutive |
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| ====Vowel phonation==== | | ====Vowel Phonation==== |
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| Antarctican also has a pitch register system (like Burmese and Vietnamese). Modal, tense or breathy voice can occur on either short or long vowels. Vowels with tense voice (marked with a glottal stop after the syllable e.g. /aʔ/) are pronounced with a high or rising pitch, and vowels with breathy voice (marked with a voiced /h/ after the syllable e.g. /aɦ/) are pronounced with a low or falling pitch. This distinction is phonemic e.g. | | Antarctican also has a pitch register system (like Burmese and Vietnamese). Modal, tense or breathy voice can occur on either short or long vowels. Vowels with tense voice (marked with a small pharyngeal stop after the syllable e.g. /aˤ/) are pronounced with a high or rising pitch, and vowels with breathy voice (marked with a small voiced /h/ after the syllable e.g. /aʱ/) are pronounced with a low or falling pitch. This distinction is phonemic e.g. |
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| *kuow /kou/ - something absorbed in something else, absolutive | | *kow /kou/ - something absorbed in something else, absolutive |
| *kúow /kouʔ/ - bigot, absolutive | | *ków /kouˤ/ - bigot, absolutive |
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| Tense voice cannot occur on high vowels /i/, /ɨ/, /u/, nor on diphthongs beginning with these vowels. Breathy voice cannot occur on low vowels /a/, /ɒ/, nor on diphthongs beginning with these vowels. | | Tense voice cannot occur on high vowels /i/, /ɨ/, /u/, nor on diphthongs beginning with these vowels. Breathy voice cannot occur on low vowels /a/, /ɒ/, nor on diphthongs beginning with these vowels. |
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| | The vowel õ /ɔ/ cannot take breathy voice, and when it takes tense voice, it is marked with a circumflex accent i.e. ô. |
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| ká /kaʔ/ - coconut milk, absolutive | | ká /kaˤ/ - coconut milk, absolutive |
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| 'ká /kaʔ/ - fence, absolutive | | 'ká /ˤkaˤ/ - fence, absolutive |
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| waká /wakaʔ/ - his / her coconut milk, absolutive | | waká /wakaˤ/ - his / her coconut milk, absolutive |
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| 'wáká /waʔkaʔ/ - his / her fence, absolutive | | 'wáká /ˤwaˤkaˤ/ - his / her fence, absolutive |
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| Words beginning with a glottal stop only ever have modal floating phonation e.g. | | Words beginning with a glottal stop only ever have modal floating phonation e.g. |
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| ámáelái /ʔaʔmɛʔlaiʔ/ - prey, absolutive | | ámáelái /ʔaˤmɛˤlaiˤ/ - prey, absolutive |
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| wa-ámáelái /waʔaʔmɛʔlaiʔ/ - his / her prey, absolutive (never wá-ámáelái) | | wa-ámáelái /waʔaˤmɛˤlaiˤ/ - his / her prey, absolutive (never wá-ámáelái) |
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| ====Vowel Mutation==== | | ====Vowel Mutation==== |
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| When a process such as the above changes the phonation of a vowel, often its quality changes as well. E.g. the possessive prefix for inclusive "we" is yiew- /jeu/, however, when it acquires tense voice, it becomes 'yáew- /jɛuʔ/ e.g. | | When a process such as the above changes the phonation of a vowel, often its quality changes as well. E.g. the possessive prefix for inclusive "we" is yew- /jeu/, however, when it acquires tense voice, it becomes 'yáew- /ˤjɛuˤ/ e.g. |
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| yiewká /jeukaʔ/ - our (including you) coconut milk, absolutive
| | yewká /jeukaˤ/ - our (including you) coconut milk, absolutive |
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| 'yáewká /jɛuʔkaʔ/ - our (including you) fence, absolutive | | 'yáewká /ˤjɛuˤkaˤ/ - our (including you) fence, absolutive |
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| Also, the quality of a modally voiced vowel sometimes changes if the next vowel also has modal voice (this also depends on whether the intervening consonant is voice or voiceless). In the case of the prefix yiew- /jeu/, this changes to yew- /jɘu/ if the intervening consonant is voiceless (other than a glottal stop) e.g. | | Also, the quality of a modally voiced vowel sometimes changes if the next vowel also has modal voice (this also depends on whether the intervening consonant is voice or voiceless). In the case of the prefix yew- /jeu/, this changes to yoew- /jɘu/ if the intervening consonant is voiceless (other than a glottal stop) e.g. |
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| ton /tɔɴ/ - change (as in coins, money), absolutive
| | tõn /tɔɴ/ - change (as in coins, money), absolutive |
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| yewton /jɘutɔɴ/ - our (including you) change, absolutive
| | yoewtõn /jɘutɔɴ/ - our (including you) change, absolutive |
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| ! Tense voice !! Breathy voice !! !! Modal, normal !! Modal, before a voiced consonant followed by another modal vowel !! Modal, before a voiceless consonant followed by another modal vowel | | ! Tense voice !! Breathy voice !! !! Modal, normal !! Modal, before a voiced consonant followed by another modal vowel !! Modal, before a voiceless consonant followed by another modal vowel |
| |- | | |- |
| | íey || ùe || || i || i || ue
| | | éy /eiˤ/ || ùe /ɨʱ/ || || i /i/ || i /i/ || ue /ɨ/ |
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| | éy || ùey || || ii || ii || uue | |
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| | áe / áae || è / èe || || ie / iie || ie / iie || e / ee
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| | á / áa || òe / òoe || || a / aa || a / aa || ae / aae | |
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| | úow || ù || || u || uo || u
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| | éw || ùew || || uu || uow || uu
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| | óe || ùo || || o || ao || o
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| | áey / áaey || èy / èey || || iey / iiey || iey / iiey|| ey / eey
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| | áy / áay || òey / òoey || || ay / aay || ay / aay|| aey / aaey
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| | úoy / úuoy || ùy / ùuy || || uy / uuy || uoy / uuoy|| uy / uuy
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| | áew / áaew || èw / èew || || iew / iiew || iew / iiew|| ew / eew | | | óey /ɘiˤ/ || ùey /ɨʱ/ || || ii /iː/ || ii /iː/ || uue /ɨː/ |
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| | áw / áaw || òew / òoew || || aw / aaw || aw / aaw|| aew / aaew | |
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| | ów / óow || ùow / ùuow || || uow / uuow || ow/ oow|| uow / uuow
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| |}
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| ====Phonation restrictions====
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| However, not every vowel can have every kind of phonation e.g. tense voice cannot occur on high vowels /i/, /ɨ/, /u/, nor on diphthongs beginning with these vowels. Similarly, breathy voice cannot occur on low vowels /a/, /ɒ/, nor on front vowels, nor on diphthongs beginning with these vowels. The permissible combinations of vowel quality and phonation are listed below:
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| {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 650px; text-align:center;"
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| |+'''Monophthong phonation'''
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| |- | | |- |
| ! style="width: 90px; "|
| | | áe ~ áae /ɛ(ː)ˤ/ || òe ~ òoe /ɘ(ː)ʱ/ || || e ~ ee /e(ː)/ || e ~ ee /e(ː)/ || oe ~ ooe /ɘ(ː)/ |
| ! style="width: 90px; "|Voice
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| ! style="width: 90px; " |Front
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| ! style="width: 90px; " |Central
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| ! style="width: 90px; " |Back
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| ! rowspan="2"|Close
| | | á ~ áa /a(ː)ˤ/ || ào ~ àao /ɜ(ː)ʱ/ || || a ~ aa /a(ː) || a ~ aa /a(ː)/ || ae ~ aae /ɛ(ː)/ |
| ! style="" |Modal
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''i''' /i/ | |
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| | style="background-color: lightblue;"|'''ue''' /ɨ/ from /i/ | |
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''u''' /u/ | |
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| ! style="" |Breathy
| | | ów /ouˤ/ || ù /uʱ/ || || u /u/ || o /o/ || u /u/ |
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''ùe''' /ɨɦ/
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''ù''' /uɦ/ | |
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| ! rowspan="3"|Close-mid
| | | óew /ɘuˤ/ || ùew /ɨuʱ/ || || uu /uː/ || ow /ou/ || uu /uː/ |
| ! style="" |Modal
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''ie''' /e/ | |
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| | style="background-color: lightblue;"|'''e''' /ɘ/ from /e/ | |
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| | style="background-color: pink;"| '''uo''' /o/ from /u/ | |
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| ! style="" |Tense
| | | áo /ɜˤ/ || ò /oʱ/ || || õ /ɔ/ || ã /ɒ/ || õ /ɔ/ |
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| | style="background-color: orange;"|'''íe''' /eʔ/ | |
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| | style="background-color: orange;"|'''é''' /ɘʔ/ | |
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| | style="background-color: orange;"| '''úo''' /oʔ/ | |
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| ! style="" |Breathy
| | | áey ~ áaey /ɛ(ː)iˤ/ || òey ~ òoey /ɘ(ː)iʱ/ || || ey ~ eey /e(ː)i/ || ey ~ eey /e(ː)i/ || oey ~ ooey /ɘ(ː)i/ |
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''è''' /ɘɦ/ | |
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"| '''ùo''' /oɦ/ | |
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| ! rowspan="3"|Open-mid
| | | áy ~ áay /a(ː)iˤ/ || àoy ~ àaoy /ɜ(ː)iʱ/ || || ay ~ aay /a(ː)i/ || ay ~ aay /a(ː)i/ || aey ~ aaey /ɛ(ː)i/ |
| ! style="" |Modal
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| | style="background-color: lightblue;"| '''ae''' /ɛ/ from /a/ | |
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''o''' /ɔ/ | |
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| ! style="" |Tense
| | | óy ~ óoy /o(ː)iˤ/ || ùy ~ ùuy /u(ː)iˤ/ || || uy ~ uuy /u(ː)i/ || oy ~ ooy /o(ː)i/ || uy ~ uuy /u(ː)i/ |
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"| '''áe''' /ɛʔ/
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''óe''' /ɜʔ/ | |
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| | style="background-color: orange;"|'''ó''' /ɔʔ/ | |
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| ! style="" |Breathy
| | | áew ~ áaew /ɛ(ː)uˤ/ || òew ~ òoew /ɘ(ː)uʱ/ || || ew ~ eew /e(ː)u/ || ew ~ eew /e(ː)u/ || oew ~ ooew /ɘ(ː)u/ |
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''òe''' /ɜɦ/ | |
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| ! rowspan="2"|Open
| | | áw ~ áaw /a(ː)uˤ/ || àow ~ àaow /ɜ(ː)uʱ/ || || aw ~ aaw /a(ː)u/ || aw ~ aaw /a(ː)u/ || aew ~ aaew /ɛ(ː)u/ |
| ! style="" |Modal
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''a''' /a/ | |
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| | style="background-color: pink;"| '''ao''' /ɒ/ from /ɔ/ | |
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| ! style="" |Tense
| | | ôw ~ ôow /ɔ(ː)wˤ/ || òw ~ òow /o(ː)uʱ/ || || ow ~ oow /o(ː)u/ || õw ~ õow /ɔ(ː)u/ || ow ~ oow /o(ː)u/ |
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''á''' /aʔ/ | |
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| |} | | |} |
| <br/>
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| *Vowels in green are found everywhere.
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| *Vowels in pink are phonemic at the end of words, where they mark ergative case, and are allophones elsewhere. They occur before another syllable beginning with a voiced consonant followed by a modally voiced vowel. The vowel that they are an allophone of is indicated afterwards.
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| *Vowels in blue are phonemic at the end of words, where they mark comitative case, and are allophones elsewhere. They occur before another syllable beginning with a voiceless consonant followed by a modally voiced vowel. The vowel that they are an allophone of is indicated afterwards.
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| *Vowels in orange are only found in reduplications.
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| Antarctican uses reduplication in its morphology, however it only partially reduplicates diphthongs, reducing them to monophthongs in the reduplicated syllable e.g.
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| *'kúowntátu /kouɴʔtaʔtu/ – acquaintance, absolutive
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| *'kúokúowntátu /koʔkouɴʔtaʔtu/ – acquaintances (of each other), absolutive
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| When such diphthongs are truncated, it is always only the first part of it that is preserved e.g. /eiʔ/ and /euʔ/ both shorten to /eiʔ/. /oiʔ/ and /ouʔ/ both shorten to /oʔ/ etc.
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| Vowels marked with an asterisk do not contrast for length.
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| There are similar restrictions on diphthongs:
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| {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 650px; text-align:center;"
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| |+'''Diphthong phonation /j/'''
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| ! style="width: 90px; "|
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| ! style="width: 90px; "|Voice
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| ! style="width: 90px; " |Front
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| ! style="width: 90px; " |Central
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| ! style="width: 90px; " |Back
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| ! rowspan="2"|Close
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| ! style="" |Modal
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''uy''' /ui/
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| ! style="" |Breathy
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''ùey''' /ɨiɦ/
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''ùy''' /uiɦ/
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| ! rowspan="3"|Close-mid
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| ! style="" |Modal
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''iey''' /ei/
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| | style="background-color: lightblue;"|'''ey''' /ɘi/
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| | style="background-color: pink;"| '''uoy''' /oi/
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| ! style="" |Tense
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''íey''' /eiʔ/
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''éy''' /ɘiʔ/
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"| '''úoy''' /oiʔ/
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| ! style="" |Breathy
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''èy''' /ɘiɦ/
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| ! rowspan="3"|Open-mid
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| ! style="" |Modal
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| | style="background-color: lightblue;"| '''aey''' /ɛi/
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| ! style="" |Tense
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"| '''áey''' /ɛiʔ/
| | ====Phonation Restrictions==== |
| | | However, not every vowel can have every kind of phonation e.g. tense voice cannot occur on high vowels /i/, /ɨ/, /u/, nor on diphthongs beginning with these vowels. Similarly, breathy voice cannot occur on low vowels /a/, /ɒ/, nor on front vowels, nor on diphthongs beginning with these vowels. The permissible combinations of vowel quality and phonation are listed in detail here ([[Antarctican/Phonation restrictions]]): |
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| ! style="" |Breathy
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''òey''' /ɜiɦ/
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| ! rowspan="2"|Open
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| ! style="" |Modal
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''ay''' /ai/
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| ! style="" |Tense
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''áy''' /aiʔ/
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| |}
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| Same applies to the remaining diphthongs:
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| {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 650px; text-align:center;"
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| |+'''Diphthong phonation /w/'''
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| |-
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| ! style="width: 90px; "|
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| ! style="width: 90px; "|Voice
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| ! style="width: 90px; " |Front
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| ! style="width: 90px; " |Central
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| ! style="width: 90px; " |Back
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| ! rowspan="2"|Close
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| ! style="" |Modal
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| ! style="" |Breathy
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| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''ùew''' /ɨuɦ/
| |
| | |
| |
| |
| |-
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| ! rowspan="3"|Close-mid
| |
| ! style="" |Modal
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| | |
| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''iew''' /ew/
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| | |
| | style="background-color: lightblue;"|'''ew''' /ɘu/
| |
| | |
| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"| '''uow''' /ou/
| |
| |-
| |
| ! style="" |Tense
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| | |
| |
| |
| | |
| |
| |
| | |
| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"| '''úow''' /ouʔ/
| |
| |-
| |
| ! style="" |Breathy
| |
| | |
| |
| |
| | |
| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''èw''' /ɘuɦ/
| |
| | |
| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''ùow '''/ouɦ/
| |
| |-
| |
| ! rowspan="3"|Open-mid
| |
| ! style="" |Modal
| |
| | |
| | style="background-color: lightblue;"| '''aew''' /ɛu/
| |
| | |
| |
| |
| | |
| | style="background-color: pink;"|'''ow''' /ɔu/
| |
| |-
| |
| ! style="" |Tense
| |
| | |
| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"| '''áew''' /ɛuʔ/
| |
| | |
| |
| |
| | |
| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''ów''' /ɔuʔ/
| |
| |-
| |
| ! style="" |Breathy
| |
| | |
| |
| |
| | |
| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''òew''' /ɜuɦ/
| |
| | |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| ! rowspan="2"|Open
| |
| ! style="" |Modal
| |
| | |
| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''aw''' /au/
| |
| | |
| |
| |
| | |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| ! style="" |Tense
| |
| | |
| | style="background-color: lightgreen;"|'''áw''' /auʔ/
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| | |
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| | |
| |
| |
| |}
| |
|
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|
| ===Consonants=== | | ===Consonants=== |
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| |- align="center" | | |- align="center" |
| ! rowspan="3"|Stops/Affricate | | ! rowspan="3"|Stops/Affricates |
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| !<small>ejective</small> | | !<small>ejective</small> |
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| ! rowspan="3"|Fricatives/Affricates | | ! rowspan="2"|Fricatives |
| !<small>ejective</small>
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| |'''tqs '''/ts' ~ s'/
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| !<small>voiceless</small> | | !<small>voiceless</small> |
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| |'''fy '''/fʲ/ | | |'''fy '''/fʲ/ |
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| |'''s''' /s ~ ts/ | | |'''s''' /s/ |
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| |'''hl '''/ɬ/ | | |'''hl '''/ɬ/ |
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| !<small>voiced</small> | | !<small>voiced</small> |
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| |'''z''' /z ~ dz/ | | |'''z''' /z/ |
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| *Consonants separated with a tilde (~) are not separate phonemes but are either allophones or in free variation e.g. /s ~ ts/ indicates that there is a single phoneme that can either be pronounced [s] or [ts]. The most common pronunciation is always listed first. | | *Consonants separated with a tilde (~) are not separate phonemes but are either allophones or in free variation e.g. /ɟ ~ dʑ/ indicates that there is a single phoneme that can either be pronounced [ɟ] or [dʑ]. The most common pronunciation is always listed first. |
| *The glottal stop is unmarked word initially (since all words must begin with consonants), and is marked by a hyphen elsewhere. | | *The glottal stop is unmarked word initially (since all words must begin with consonants), and is marked by a hyphen elsewhere. |
| *Prestopped nasals e.g. /tn/, /pm/ etc., pattern as voiceless and as nasals (and thus sonorants) in terms of the phonology. They are only found between syllables with modal vowel phonation (or modal voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word). | | *Prestopped nasals e.g. /tn/, /pm/ etc., pattern as voiceless and as nasals (and thus sonorants) in terms of the phonology. They are only found between syllables with modal vowel phonation (or modal voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word). |
| *The placeless nasal /ɴ/ is only found at the end of syllables. Before a glottal stop or at the end of a phrase, it nasalises the preceding vowel. Otherwise it assimilates to the same place of articulation as the following consonant e.g. it becomes [n] before /d/, [m] before /b/ etc. | | *The placeless nasal /ɴ/ is only found at the end of syllables. Before a glottal stop or at the end of a phrase, it nasalises the preceding vowel. Otherwise it assimilates to the same place of articulation as the following consonant e.g. it becomes [n] before /d/, [m] before /b/ etc. |
| *Voiced obstruents (stops, fricatives and affricates) are only found in three cases. | | *Voiced obstruents (stops, fricatives and affricates) are only found in four cases. |
| :#Separating two syllables with modal voice (or a modal voice floating phonation if at the start of a word). | | :#Separating two syllables with modal voice (or a modal voice floating phonation if at the start of a word). |
| :#After a syllable containing breathy phonation (or a breathy voice floating phonation if at the start of a word) and before a syllable containing modal phonation. | | :#After a syllable containing breathy phonation (or a breathy voice floating phonation if at the start of a word) and before a syllable containing modal phonation. |
| :#Separating two syllables with breathy voice (or a breathy voice floating phonation if at the start of a word). In this case they are pronounced with breathy voice, like the murmured/voiced aspirated consonants of many Indian languages. | | :#Separating two syllables with breathy voice (or a breathy voice floating phonation if at the start of a word). In this case they are pronounced with breathy voice, like the murmured/voiced aspirated consonants of many Indian languages. |
| *Non-alveolar fricatives are only found separating two syllables with modal voice (or modal voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word), or separating two syllables with tense voice (or tense voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word). | | :#/z/ can also be found before vowels with tense voice. |
| | *Fricatives other than /s/ and /z/ (spirant / non-sibilant fricatives) are only found separating two syllables with modal voice (or modal voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word), or separating two syllables with tense voice (or tense voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word). |
| *Ejectives are only ever found separating two syllables with tense voice (or tense voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word). | | *Ejectives are only ever found separating two syllables with tense voice (or tense voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word). |
| *The velar nasals /kŋ/ and /ŋ/ never occur at the beginning of words. | | *The velar nasals /kŋ/ and /ŋ/ never occur at the beginning of words. |
| *The alveolar stops /t/ and /d/, and the velar fricative /χ/ are never found before /i/ and /ɨ/ (with any phonation), nor before tense voice /eʔ/ and /ɘʔ/, nor before diphthongs starting with these. | | *The alveolar stops /t/ and /d/, and the velar fricative /χ/ are never found before /i/ and /ɨ/ (with any phonation), nor before tense voice /eˤ/ and /ɘˤ/, nor before diphthongs starting with these. |
| *The phoneme /l/ is pronounced as a palatal lateral [ʎ] before a high vowel, [ɹ] before a vowel with tense voice (high vowels cannot have tense voice), and [l] elsewhere. | | *The phoneme /l/ is pronounced as a palatal lateral [ʎ] before a high vowel, [ɹ] before a vowel with tense voice (high vowels cannot have tense voice), and [l] elsewhere. |
| | *Unpalatalised labial consonants can be velarised or doubly-articulated consonants (e.g. /p/ can be pronounced as [pˠ] or [kp]). This is especially the case with /w/ and before front vowels). |
|
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| For example, the antipassive voice is formed by an infix that comes after the first consonant of a word. For words that begin with a hard consonant, the infix is '''am''' /am/ (which contains a hard consonant) e.g. | | For example, the antipassive voice is formed by an infix that comes after the first consonant of a word. For words that begin with a hard consonant, the infix is '''am''' /am/ (which contains a hard consonant) e.g. |
|
| |
|
| *ziitlòeji /ziːtɬɜɦɟi/ - to know (a person), verb-focus | | *zuutlòeji /zuːtɬɘʱɟi/ - to know (a person), indirect |
| *zamiitlòeji /zamiːtɬɜɦɟi/ - to know (a person), verb-focus, antipassive | | *zamuutlòeji /zamuːtɬɘʱɟi/ - to know (a person), indirect, antipassive |
|
| |
|
| However, if the word begins with a soft consonant, the infix is '''iemy''' /emʲ/ e.g. | | However, if the word begins with a soft consonant, the infix is '''emy''' /emʲ/ e.g. |
|
| |
|
| *pyiquu /pʲiʔuː/ - to purify, verb-focus | | *pyi-uu /pʲiʔuː/ - to purify, indirect |
| *pyiemyiquu /pʲemʲiʔuː/ - to purify, verb-focus, antipassive | | *pyemyi-uu /pʲemʲiʔuː/ - to purify, indirect, antipassive |
| *hli-o /ɬiʔɔ/ - to perform, verb-focus | | *hli-õ /ɬiʔɔ/ - to perform, indirect |
| *hliemyi-o /ɬemʲiʔɔ/ - to perform, verb-focus, antipassive (not *(hliemi-o) /ɬmiʔɔ/) | | *hlemyi-õ /ɬemʲiʔɔ/ - to perform, indirect, antipassive (not *(hlemi-õ) /ɬmiʔɔ/) |
|
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| ===Phonotactics=== | | ===Phonotactics=== |
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| ==Distribution and Dialects== | | ==Distribution and Dialects== |
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|
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| Antarctican is spoken across a large continent, by a diversity of cultures. As would be expected, there is significant dialectical variation within the language. The differences are most pronounced in the vocabulary, less in the morphology, and even less in the syntax and phonology. | | Antarctican is spoken across a large continent, by a diversity of cultures. As would be expected, there is significant dialectical variation within the language. The differences are most pronounced in the vocabulary, less in the morphology, and even less in the syntax and phonology. |
|
| |
|
| | | Most speakers of Antarctican will also be bilingual in a second language that is only spoken in their local region. Typically, Antarctican will be used in more formal situations, and the local language used with family and friends. However, it is very common for regional varieties of Antarctican to borrow words from other local languages (which will typically have many similar features to Antarctican due to the [[Antarctican Sprachbund]]). |
| Most speakers of Antarctican will also be bilingual in a second language that is only spoken in their local region. Typically, Antarctican will be used in more formal situations, and the local language used with family and friends. However, it is very common for regional varieties of Antarctican to borrow words from other local languages. | |
| | |
| | |
| ===The Antarctican Sprachbund===
| |
| As mentioned before, it is much less common for regional varieties of Antarctican to differ in their syntax and phonology. This is because the local languages of Antarctica form a very strong Sprachbund {{lg|Sprachbund}}, which have converged to have very similar phonologies and syntactic systems. Some examples of these areal features are:
| |
| | |
| | |
| ====Phonology====
| |
| | |
| | |
| *A pitch register system {{lg|Register}}.
| |
| *Consonant voicing only being phonemic under certain specific conditions. In particular, a total lack of phonemic voicing of non-coronal fricatives.
| |
| *Some kind of fortis / lenis contrast in obstruents, which often interacts with the pitch register system in some way. This contrast may be glottalisation (ejective or implosive), gemination or aspiration.
| |
| *Two sets of nasal consonants (this can be plain vs. prestopped, or involve a voicing contrast).
| |
| *A very restricted range of syllable shapes.
| |
| | |
| | |
| ====Morphology====
| |
| | |
| | |
| *Ergative-absolutive cas marking on nouns (if any is present at all).
| |
| *A complete lack of number agreement on verbs, and no comprehensive marking of plurality on nouns (only ever specific categories of nouns).
| |
| *Tense and aspect are not consistently marked on verbs, if they are marked at all.
| |
| *A lack of infinitive verb forms. Antarctican languages use a variety of ways to compensate for this.
| |
| *Transitivity marked on verbs.
| |
| | |
| | |
| ====Syntax====
| |
| *Syntactic ergativity.
| |
| *Topic-comment structure to sentences.
| |
| *Inclusive and exclusive 'we', with no distinction made between exclusive 'we' and 'I'.
| |
| *Head initial syntax.
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|
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|
| ==Noun Morphology== | | ==Noun Morphology== |
| | | {{Main|Antarctican Nouns}} |
| Nouns inflect for case (via suffixation or changing the final vowel of the word), and possession (via prefixes) | | Nouns inflect for case either through suffixation or a change of the final vowel, and possession (via prefixes). Unlike many European languages nouns do not inflect for either gender or number. |
| | | ==Verb / Adjective Morphology== |
| ===Case===
| | {{Main|Antarctican Verbs}} |
| | | There is no distinction between adjectives and verbs in Antarctican. Instead of attributive adjectives like “good”, “bad”, “strong”, |
| Nouns decline into three cases, Absolutive, Ergative and Comitative. Absolutive case is unmarked while the other two use vowel changes on the final vowel and/or suffixes. Nouns can also take demonstrative and possessive prefixes.
| | “weak”, there are descriptive verbs meaning “to be good”, “to be bad” and so on. |
| | |
| ====Ergative case====
| |
| How this case is formed depends on the phonation and frontness of the final vowel in the word.
| |
| | |
| =====Modally voiced final vowel=====
| |
| '''Final vowel is a back vowel'''
| |
| | |
| In this case, lower the back vowel e.g.
| |
| | |
| *ton /tɔɴ/ - change (as in coins, money), absolutive
| |
| *taon /tɒɴ/ - change, ergative
| |
| | |
| *duoliiengun /doleːŋuɴ/ - dragon, absolutive
| |
| *duoliienguon /doleːŋoɴ/ - dragon, ergative
| |
| | |
| If the final vowel is a diphthong that begins with a back vowel, then the start of the diphthong is lowered e.g.
| |
| | |
| *paehuown /pɛχouɴ/ - dust, absolutive
| |
| *paehown /pɛχɔuɴ/ - dust, ergative
| |
| *yuenpiluy - /jɨɴpilui/ - employee, absolutive
| |
| *yuenpiluoy /jɨɴpiloi/ - employee, ergative
| |
| | |
| | |
| '''Final vowel is not a back vowel'''
| |
| | |
| In this case the ergative suffix is '''–n''' /ɴ/, or '''–ga''' /ga/ if the noun already ended in '''–n''' e.g.*zivie /ziɥe/ - boat, absolutive
| |
| *zivien /ziɥeɴ/ - boat, ergative
| |
| *myaewntayn /mʲɛuɴtaiɴ/ - mountain, absolutive
| |
| *myaewntayn-ga / mʲɛuɴtaiɴga/ - mountain, ergative
| |
| | |
| =====Final vowel has breathy or tense voice=====
| |
| For nouns where the vowel of the last syllable has breathy or tense voice, the situation is more complicated. They all take ergative suffixes of the form C V ɴ, where C is a consonant and V is a vowel. V is almost always /i/, except after /t/ or /d/, when it is /u/. However it is not possible to predict C, as shown by the examples below:
| |
| | |
| *tieyláae /teilɛʔː/ - shirt, absolutive
| |
| *tieyláaesin /teilɛʔːsiɴ / - shirt, ergative
| |
| *píey /peiʔ/ - book, absolutive
| |
| *píeykin /peiʔkiɴ/ - book, ergative
| |
| *`kùe /kɨɦ/ - goods, absolutive
| |
| *`kùezin /kɨɦziɴ/ - goods, ergative
| |
| *`rè /ʁɘɦ/ - red object, absolutive
| |
| *`rèdun /ʁɘɦduɴ/ – red object, ergative
| |
| *'kúow /kouʔ/ - cup, absolutive
| |
| *'kúowpin */kouʔpiɴ/ - cup, ergative
| |
| *píeylánkáe /peiʔlaɴʔkɛʔ/ - blanket, absolutive
| |
| *píeylánkáetun /peiʔlaɴʔkɛʔtuɴ/ - blanket, ergative
| |
| *wùerù /wɨɦʁuɦ/- frog, absolutive
| |
| *wùerùgin /wɨɦʁuɦgiɴ/ - frog, ergative
| |
| | |
| While it may seem that the consonant inserted before the –in (or –un) suffix is random, there are some patterns. Firstly, the inserted consonant is always an obstruent (oral stop, affricate or fricative), and never a sonorant (nasal or approximant). Secondly, observe that, when the final vowel of the absolutive stem has tense voice, the inserted consonant is always voiceless, while if the final vowel of the absolutive stem has breathy voice, the inserted consonant is always voiced. These two rules hold across the language.
| |
| | |
| Also, for readers with knowledge of whatever language Antarctican borrowed the particular noun stem from, note that the “inserted” consonant almost perfectly corresponds with the consonant at the end of the word e.g. the word for “frog”, (''wùerù'' /wɨɦʁuɦ/ in the absolutive case), is in fact descended from the English word “frog”. However, Antarctican does not like final consonants, so the final “g” was lost in the absolutive form. However in the ergative form, there is another vowel following the “g”, so it “reappears”, and the ergative form of the word is ''wùerùgin'' /wɨɦʁuɦgiɴ/. A similar story happens with the “t” in the word for “blanket”, which is also derived from English.
| |
| | |
| ====Stem changes====
| |
| However, for some of the nouns with breathy or tense voice on the final vowel of the absolutive stem, there are changes in the stem when they take the ergative suffix. These involve a change in vowel phonation to modal voice, and often a change in vowel quality (as given by the table in the phonology section). e.g.
| |
| | |
| 'tùen /tɨɴɦ/- wound caused by a sting (e.g. a bee or a jellyfish), absolutive
| |
| | |
| 'tin-gin /tiɴgiɴ/ - wound caused by a sting (e.g. a bee or a jellyfish), ergative (not *tùen-gin)
| |
| | |
| | |
| As a rule,
| |
| if the final vowel undergoes a change, and the second last vowel has the same
| |
| voicing as the final vowel, then they both change e.g.
| |
| | |
| ùylèn /ʔuiɦlɘɴɦ/ - island, absolutive
| |
| | |
| uoyliendun
| |
| /ʔoileɴduɴ/ - island, ergative (not *qùilèndun)
| |
| | |
| | |
| tùrèen
| |
| /tuɦʁɘːɴɦ/ - fashionable items, absolutive
| |
| | |
| tuoriiendun
| |
| /toʁeːɴduɴ/ - fashionable items, ergative
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| | |
|
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| | |
| If there
| |
| are even more consecutive syllables with the same voicing on the vowel, then
| |
| this rule applies to every single one of them e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| ámáeláy /ʔaʔmɛʔlaiʔ/ - prey, absolutive
| |
| | |
| amielaeykin /ʔamelɛikiɴ/ - prey, ergative
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| There are many, many other nouns that decline according to this pattern.
| |
| Almost all of the nouns that end in /ɴ/ or contain a long vowel in the final
| |
| syllable undergo vowel changes in the stem e.g.
| |
| | |
| 'táen /tɛɴʔ/ - weather, absolutive
| |
| | |
| 'tenchin /tɘɴciɴ/ - weather, ergative
| |
| | |
| | |
| kòoe /kɜɦː/ - membership card, absolutive
| |
| | |
| kaadun /kaːduɴ/ - membership card, ergative
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| However, the converse is not true. For nouns
| |
| with non-modally voiced final vowels, but that do not end in /ɴ/ or a long
| |
| vowel, some undergo vowel changes e.g.
| |
| | |
| ùenòe /ʔɨɦnɜɦ/ - eel, absolutive
| |
| | |
| inajin /ʔinaɟiɴ/ - eel, ergative
| |
| | |
| | |
| While others do not e.g.
| |
| | |
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| `kùe /kɨɦ/ - goods, absolutive
| |
| | |
| `kùezin /kɨɦziɴ/ - goods, ergative
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| | |
|
| |
| | |
| There are
| |
| some nouns that have identical absolutive forms, but are distinguished in the
| |
| ergative e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| 'ká /kaʔ/ - fence, absolutive
| |
| | |
| kaechin /kɛciɴ/ - fence, ergative
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| ká /kaʔ/ - coconut milk, absolutive
| |
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| kátlin /katɬiɴ/ coconut milk, ergative
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|
| |
| | |
| <h5>Obstruent Voicing</h5>
| |
| | |
| If the
| |
| absolutive form has a voiceless obstruent (oral stop, affricate or fricative),
| |
| that separates two syllables with breathy voice (or a breathy voice floating phonation if word initial), when the breathy voiced vowels acquire modal voice in the ergative form,
| |
| the voiceless obstruent does too, becoming modally voiced e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| `pùelùe /pɨɦlɨɦ/ - bridge, absolutive
| |
| | |
| bilidlin /bilidɮiɴ/ - bridge, ergative
| |
| | |
| | |
| `pòey /pɜiɦ/ - baby, absolutive
| |
| | |
| baybyin /baibʲiɴ/ - baby, ergative
| |
| | |
| | |
| `nyùewsùeylèn /ɲɨuɦsɨɦiɦlɘɴɦ/ - New Zealand, absolutive
| |
| | |
| nyuuziiliendun /ɲuːziːleɴduɴ/ - New Zealand, ergative
| |
| | |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| If the
| |
| absolutive form of a noun has a voiceless obstruent (oral stop, affricate or fricative),
| |
| that is preceded by a syllable with a modally voiced vowel, and is followed by
| |
| a vowel with tense voice, if this tense voiced vowel becomes modally voiced in
| |
| the ergative form, then the voiceless obstruent before it acquires modal voice
| |
| too e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| yíeysitlíeynyíey /jeiʔsitɬeiʔɲeiʔ/ - mutton, absolutive
| |
| | |
| yíeysidlinyuekin /jeiʔsidɮiɲɨkiɴ/ - mutton, ergative
| |
| | |
| | |
| Here we can
| |
| see that the /tɬ/ in the absolutive form has changed to /dɮ/ in the
| |
| ergative form.
| |
| | |
| | |
| For word initial voiceless obstruents followed by tense voiced vowels in the absolutive
| |
| form, which change to modal voice vowels in the ergative form, sometimes this change
| |
| also occurs e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| támá /taʔmaʔ/- victim of a scam / swindle, absolutive
| |
| | |
| damaesin /damɛsiɴ/ - victim of a scam / swindle, ergative
| |
| | |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| <h5>Sonorant Devoicing</h5>
| |
| | |
| Another
| |
| similar pattern occurs in sonorants. If, in the absolutive form, they are
| |
| preceded by a syllable with a modally voiced vowel (or modal voice floating phonation if word initial), and followed by a breathy
| |
| or tense voiced vowel that changes in the ergative (to have modal voice), then the sonorant becomes
| |
| devoiced. /w/ becomes /f/, /l/ becomes /ɬ/, /j/ becomes /ç/, and /ʁ/
| |
| becomes /χ/, voiced nasals become prestopped e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| yuuwíey /juːweiʔ/ - clothes, absolutive
| |
| | |
| yuufekin /juːfɘkiɴ/ - clothes, ergative
| |
| | |
| | |
| aetienòelùn /ʔɛtenɜɦluɴɦ/ - heart, absolutive
| |
| | |
| aetetnaluonzin /ʔɛtɘtnaloɴziɴ/ - heart, ergative
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| <h5>De-Ejectivisation</h5>
| |
| | |
| There are some Antarctican nouns that have ejectives in the absolutive form. As required by the phonotactics, they have tense voiced vowels both before and after (possibly with /ɴ/ intervening). However, sometimes in the ergative form, the tense voiced vowel after the ejective becomes modally voiced. In this case, the airstream mechanism changes from glottalic egressive (ejective) to pulmonic egressive (normal) e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| 'kqúow
| |
| /kʼouʔ/ - a small amount, absolutive
| |
| | |
| 'kuhli /\kuɬi/ - a small amount, ergative
| |
| | |
| | |
| ráetqúowlíeykuetu /ʁɛʔtʼoleiʔkɨtu/ - something self-limiting, absolutive
| |
| | |
| ráetuoluekuetu /ʁɛʔtolɨkɨtu/ something self-limiting, ergative
| |
| | |
| | |
| 'kíeychqíey /keiʔcʼeiʔ/ - a female name, absolutive
| |
| | |
| 'kíeychuekin /keiʔcɨkiɴ/ - a female name, ergative
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| ====Comitative Case==== | |
| | |
| How this is formed also depends on the frontness and phonation of the final vowel:
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| =====Last Vowel of Abs. Form has Modal Voice=====
| |
| | |
| ======Last Vowel of Abs. Form is not a Back Vowel======
| |
| | |
| In this
| |
| case, take the absolutive form, raise /a/ to /ɛ/ and centralise any other
| |
| front vowels e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| zivie /ziɥe/
| |
| - boat, absolutive
| |
| | |
| zive /ziɥɘ/
| |
| - boat, comitative
| |
| | |
| | |
| myaewntayn
| |
| /mʲɛuɴtaiɴ/ - mountain, absolutive
| |
| | |
| myaewntaeyn
| |
| /mʲɛuɴtɛiɴ/ - mountain, comitative
| |
| | |
| | |
| agiriey /ʔagiʁei/ - agreement, absolutive
| |
| | |
| agirey /ʔagiʁɘi/ - agreement, comitative
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| ======Last Vowel of Abs. Form is a Back Vowel======
| |
| | |
| In this
| |
| case, take the absolutive form, and suffix /pmu/ e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| ton /tɔɴ/- change (as in coins, money), absolutive
| |
| | |
| tonpmu /tɔɴpmu/ - change (as in coins, money), comitative
| |
| | |
| | |
| duoliiengun /doleːŋuɴ/ - dragon, absolutive
| |
| | |
| duoliiengunpmu /doleːŋuɴpmu/ - dragon, comitative
| |
| | |
| | |
| paehuown /pɛχouɴ/ - dust, absolutive
| |
| | |
| paehuownpmu /pɛχouɴpmu/ - dust, comitative
| |
| | |
| | |
| yuenpiluy - /jɨɴpiluipmu/ - employee, absolutive
| |
| | |
| yuenpiluypmu - /jɨɴpiluipmu/ - employee, comitative
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| =====Other Cases=====
| |
| | |
| If the last vowel of the absolutive form has tense or breathy voice, the comitative is formed differently. Here, it is formed by taking the ergative, deleting any final /ɴ/ or
| |
| /ga/ that had been inserted as a suffix, and then suffixing /ʔu/ e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| 'tùen /sitɨɴɦ/ - wound caused by a sting (e.g. a bee or a jellyfish), absolutive
| |
| | |
| 'tin-gin /sɨtiɴgiɴ/ - wound caused by a sting (e.g. a bee or a jellyfish), ergative
| |
| | |
| 'tin-gi-u /sɨtiɴgiʔu/ - wound caused by a sting, comitative
| |
| | |
| | |
| tieyláae
| |
| /teilɛʔː/ - shirt, absolutive
| |
| | |
| tieyláaesin
| |
| /teilɛʔːsiɴ / - shirt, ergative
| |
| | |
| tieyláaesi-u /teilɛʔːsiʔu/ - shirt, comitative
| |
| | |
| | |
| píey /peiʔ/ - book, absolutive
| |
| | |
| píeykin /peiʔkiɴ/ - book, ergative
| |
| | |
| píeyki-u /peiʔkiʔu/ - book, comitative
| |
| | |
| | |
| `kùe /kɨɦ/ - goods, absolutive
| |
| | |
| `kùezin /kɨɦziɴ/ - goods, ergative
| |
| | |
| `kùezi-u /kɨɦziʔu/ - goods, comitative
| |
| | |
| | |
| `rè /ʁɘɦ/ - red object, absolutive
| |
| | |
| `rèdun /ʁɘɦduɴ/ – red object, ergative
| |
| | |
| `rèdu-u /ʁɘɦduʔu/ – red object, comitative
| |
| | |
| | |
| 'kúow /kouʔ/ - cup, absolutive
| |
| | |
| 'kúowpin /kouʔpiɴ/ - cup, ergative
| |
| | |
| 'kúowpi-u /kouʔpiʔu/ - cup, comitative
| |
| | |
| | |
| píeylánkáe /peiʔlaɴʔkɛʔ/ - blanket, absolutive
| |
| | |
| píeylánkáetun /peiʔlaɴʔkɛʔtuɴ/ - blanket, comitative
| |
| | |
| píeylánkáetu-u /peiʔlaɴʔkɛʔtuʔu/ - blanket, ergative
| |
| | |
| | |
| wùerù /wɨɦʁuɦ/ - frog, absolutive
| |
| | |
| wùerùgin /wɨɦʁuɦgiʔu/ - frog, ergative
| |
| | |
| wùerùgiqu /wɨɦʁuɦgiɴ/ - frog, comitative
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| <h3>Pronominal Possession</h3>
| |
| | |
| Where
| |
| English would use possessive pronouns (“my”, “your”), Antarctican uses
| |
| possessive prefixes. The base forms of each are listed in the table below:
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable" | |
| |-
| |
| ! Prefix !! Usage
| |
| |-
| |
| | myi- /mʲi/ || 1st person singular, 1st person exclusive plural
| |
| |-
| |
| | yiew- /jeu/ || 1st person inclusive plural
| |
| |-
| |
| | ti- /ti/ || 2nd person
| |
| |-
| |
| | wa- /wa/ || 3rd person, topicalised
| |
| |-
| |
| | si- /si/ || 3rd person, non-topicalised
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| | |
| So, in the absolutive
| |
| case, “my clothes” or “our clothes” (not including you) would be myiyuuwíey /mʲijuːweiʔ/, “your clothes” would be tiyuuwíey /tijuːweiʔ/ etc.
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| <h4>Phonation Spreading</h4>
| |
| | |
| However, if the noun has a floating phonation, this will spread onto the prefix, and often cause a vowel change in it as well (see the table in the phonology section for a list of changes) e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| 'kánkúow /kaɴʔkouʔ/ - prisoner, absolutive
| |
| | |
| 'myíeykán-kúow /mʲeiʔkaɴʔkouʔ/ - my prisoner, absolutive (not *myikán-kúow)
| |
| | |
| 'tíeykán-kúow /teiʔkaɴʔkouʔ/ - your prisoner, absolutive (not *tikán-kúow)
| |
| | |
| | |
| `pùelùe /pɨɦlɨɦ/ - bridge, absolutive
| |
| | |
| `myùepùelùe /mʲɨɦpɨɦlɨɦ/ - my bridge, absolutive (not *myipùelùe)
| |
| | |
| tùepùelùe /tɨɦpɨɦlɨɦ/ - your bridge, absolutive (not *tipùelùe)
| |
| | |
| =====Loss of Floating Phonation=====
| |
| | |
| However, if, in the ergative form, the first vowel changes to no longer have breathy or
| |
| tense voice (i.e. it now has modal voice), then, if the floating phonation was the same as the what used to be on the vowel, then it is lost too e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| 'kánkúow /kaɴʔkouʔ/ - prisoner, absolutive
| |
| | |
| kaen-gukin /kɛɴgukiɴ/ - prisoner, ergative
| |
| | |
| 'myíeykán-kúow /mʲeiʔkaɴʔkouʔ/ - my prisoner, absolutive
| |
| | |
| myuekaen-gukin /mʲɨkɛɴgukiɴ/ - my prisoner, ergative
| |
| | |
| | |
| `pùelùe /pɨɦlɨɦ/- bridge, absolutive
| |
| | |
| bilidlin /bilidɮiɴ/ - bridge, ergative
| |
| | |
| `myùepùelùe /mʲɨɦpɨɦlɨɦ/ - my bridge, absolutive
| |
| | |
| myibilidlin /mʲibilidɮiɴ/ - my bridge, ergative
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| There are two exceptions to the above rule. The first is if the word begins with an ejective, in which case the ejectiveness is lost, but the floating phonation remains e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| 'kqúow
| |
| /kʼouʔ/ - a small amount, absolutive
| |
| | |
| 'kuhli /kuɬi/ - a small amount, ergative
| |
| | |
| myíeykuhli /mʲeiʔkuɬi/ - my small amount, ergative
| |
| | |
| | |
| The second is for words that begin with consonant pronounced with breathy voice (voiced consonant before a breathy voiced vowel) e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| `byùe /bʲɨɦ/ - mouth, absolutive
| |
| | |
| `byijin /bʲiɟiɴ/ - mouth, ergative
| |
| | |
| myùebyùe /mʲɨɦbʲɨɦ/ - my mouth, absolutive
| |
| | |
| `myùebyijin /mʲɨɦbʲiɟiɴ/ - my mouth, ergative
| |
| | |
| | |
| <h5>Prediction of Floating Phonation</h5>
| |
| | |
| As a rule, whether or not a noun has floating phonation cannot be
| |
| predicted. The only time when it is possible to do so is for absolutive nouns,
| |
| if, in the ergative form, the first vowel loses its
| |
| breathy or tense phonation and becomes modally voiced. In this case, the rules
| |
| are given below:
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| <h6>Sonorant Initial Stem</h6>
| |
| | |
| If the
| |
| absolutive stem begins with a sonorant (nasal or approximant), and that
| |
| sonorant becomes devoiced when the vowel after it acquires modal voice in the
| |
| ergative form, then there is only ever modal floating phonation before it in both cases e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| mòoe /mɜɦː/ - betel nut, absolutive
| |
| | |
| pmaagin /pmaːgiɴ/ - betel nut, ergative
| |
| | |
| myimòoe /mʲimɜɦː/ - my betel nut, absolutive
| |
| | |
| | |
| Otherwise,
| |
| if a word begins with a sonorant, then it always has floating phonation that is the same as that on the first vowel e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| 'máláeyáa /maʔlɛʔjaʔː/ - manners, absolutive
| |
| | |
| malieyaaetun /malejɛːtuɴ/ - manners, ergative
| |
| | |
| | |
| 'myíeymáláeyáa /mʲeiʔmaʔlɛʔjaʔː/ - my manners, absolutive
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| <h6>Stem starts with /s/</h6>
| |
| | |
| If the absolutive
| |
| stem begins with /s/, it can never have tense floating phonation
| |
| e.g.
| |
| | |
| sásaechin /saʔsɛciɴ/ - stab wound, absolutive
| |
| | |
| myisásaechin /mʲisaʔsaɛciɴ/ - my stab wound, absolutive
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| In the case
| |
| of absolutive nouns with breathy voice on the first vowel, if, in the ergative
| |
| form, the initial /s/ becomes voiced /z/, then the word has breathy floating phonation e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| `sòemùe /sɜɦmɨɦ/ - (major) wife, absolutive
| |
| | |
| zamibyin /zamibʲiɴ/ - (major) wife, ergative
| |
| | |
| `myùesòemùe /mʲɨɦsɜɦmɨɦ/ - my (major) wife, absolutive (not *myisòemùe)
| |
| | |
| | |
| But if, in
| |
| the ergative form, the first vowel acquires modal voice but the initial
| |
| consonant stays as voiceless /s/, then in both the absolutive form and the ergative, there is floating modal phonation e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| sòepyùe /sɜɦpʲɨɦ/ - speech (as in words, not a formal speech), absolutive
| |
| | |
| sabyishin /sabʲiçiɴ/ - speech (as in words, not a formal speech), ergative
| |
| | |
| myisòepyùe /mʲisɜɦpʲɨɦ/ - my speech (as in words, not a formal speech), absolutive
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| <h6>Other stems</h6>
| |
| | |
| If the
| |
| absolutive stem begins with another obstruent (oral stop, affricate or
| |
| fricative) followed by a vowel with tense voice, and that obstruent stays voiceless even when followed by a modally
| |
| voiced vowel (in the ergative form), then the absolutive form has tense floating phonation e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| 'kánkúow /kaɴʔkouʔ/ - prisoner, absolutive
| |
| | |
| kan-gukin /kaɴgukiɴ/ - prisoner, ergative
| |
| | |
| 'myíeykán-kúow /mʲeiʔkaɴʔkouʔ/ - my prisoner, absolutive
| |
| | |
| | |
| 'táen /tɛɴʔ/ - weather, absolutive
| |
| | |
| tenchin /tɘɴciɴ/ - weather, ergative
| |
| | |
| 'myíeytáen /mʲeiʔtɛɴʔ/ - my weather, absolutive
| |
| | |
| | |
| But if the obstruent becomes voiced, then there is only ever floating modal phonation e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| támá /taʔmaʔ/ - victim of a scam / swindle, absolutive
| |
| | |
| damaesin /damaɛsiɴ/ - victim of a scam / swindle, ergative
| |
| | |
| myitámá /mʲitaʔmaʔ/ - my victim of a scam / swindle, absolutive
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| And vice versa, if the absolutive form of a noun begins with a voicless obstruent followed by a breathy voiced vowel, and that vowel becomes voiced in the ergative form, then the absolutive form has floating breathy phonation e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| `pùelùe /pɨɦlɨɦ/ - bridge, absolutive
| |
| | |
| bilidlin /bilidɮiɴ/ - bridge, ergative
| |
| | |
| `myùepùelùe /mʲɨɦpɨɦlɨɦ/ - my bridge, absolutive
| |
| | |
| | |
| `pòey /pɜiɦ/- baby, absolutive
| |
| | |
| baybyin /baibʲiɴ/ - baby, ergative
| |
| | |
| `myùepòey /mʲɨɦpɜiɦ/ - my baby, absolutive
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| And if the
| |
| obstruent stays voiceless in the ergative form, then there is only ever floating modal phonation e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| pòey /pɜiɦ/ - page, absolutive
| |
| | |
| paydlin /paidɮiɴ/ - page, ergative
| |
| | |
| myipòey /mʲipɜiɦ/ - my page, absolutive
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| <h4>Nasalisation of Velar Initials</h4>
| |
| | |
| For some nouns that begin with /k/ or /g/, often it changes to /ŋ/ when
| |
| the noun takes a prefix. e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| gali /gali/ - hole, absolutive
| |
| | |
| myingali /mʲiŋali/ - my hole, absolutive
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| In such a case, if the first vowel has tense or breathy voice, then it also has a floating phonation that is the same e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| `kùe /kɨɦ/ - goods, absolutive
| |
| | |
| `myùengùe /mʲɨɦŋɨɦ/ - my goods, absolutive
| |
| | |
| | |
| 'kíeyváy /keiʔɥaiʔ/ - tongue, absolutive
| |
| | |
| 'myíeyngíeyváy /mʲeiʔŋeiʔɥaiʔ/ - my tongue, absolutive
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| | |
| <h3>Possession by a Noun</h3>
| |
| | |
| Antarctican
| |
| distinguishes alienable and inalienable [[Linguistics:Possession|possession]]. Both are marked with prefixes on the possessed noun. These are wiey- for alienable possession and nu- for inalienable possession (the possessor always takes the absolutive case). Note that floating phonation affects these prefixes in the same way as any other:
| |
| | |
| | |
| `kùeròetùu /kɨɦʁɜɦtuɦː/ - bone, absolutive
| |
| | |
| yini /jini/ - dog, absolutive
| |
| | |
| `weykùeròetùu yini /wɘiɦkɨɦʁɜɦtuɦː jini/ - the
| |
| dog’s bone, absolutive, alienable (i.e. the one that it eats, buries etc.)
| |
| | |
| `nùkùeròetùu yini /nuɦkɨɦʁɜɦtuɦː jini/ - the dog’s bone,
| |
| absolutive, inalienable (i.e. the one that is a part of it)
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| Where
| |
| English would compound nouns together, or use one to modify another.
| |
| Antarctican uses the alienable possessive construction e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| aaehaan
| |
| /ʔɛːχaːɴ/ - food, absolutive
| |
| | |
| wiey-aaehaan yini /weiʔɛːχaːɴ jini/ - dog food,
| |
| absolutive
| |
| | |
| | |
| <h3>Reciprocal Possession</h3>
| |
| | |
| In Antarctican, there is no singular vs. plural marking. However, some nouns that imply
| |
| a relationship (e.g. friend, brother, enemy, coworker), have special forms to
| |
| indicate a pair or group of people / things where that relationship is
| |
| reciprocal e.g. where English would say “They are friends / brothers / enemies
| |
| / coworkers (of each other)”.
| |
| | |
| These forms
| |
| are generally constructed by reduplicating the first syllable of the noun, in
| |
| the same “slot” where possession would be marked e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| biraza /biʁaza/ - brother, absolutive
| |
| | |
| bibiraza /bibiʁaza/ - brothers (of each other), absolutive
| |
| | |
| | |
| yieruoy /jeʁoi/ - ally, absolutive
| |
| | |
| yieyieruoy /jejeʁoi/ - allies (of each other), absolutive
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| However, the inserted syllable cannot have a long vowel, a diphthong, or end in /ɴ/.
| |
| If it would do so then it is truncated e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| duuolaa /doːlaː/ - coworker, absolutive
| |
| | |
| duoduuolaa /dodoːlaː/ - coworkers (of each other), absolutive
| |
| | |
| | |
| nayba /naiba/ - neighbour, absolutive
| |
| | |
| nanayba /nanaiba/ - neighbours (of each other), absolutive
| |
| | |
| | |
| 'kúowntátu /kouɴʔtaʔtu/ – acquaintance, absolutive
| |
| | |
| 'kúokúowntátu /koʔkouɴʔtaʔtu/– acquaintances (of each other), absolutive
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| The voicing of the vowel of the reduplication is determined by what floating phonation the noun has e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| sátuozii /saʔtoziː/ – enemy, absolutive
| |
| | |
| myisátuozii /mʲisaʔtoziː/ – my enemy, absolutive
| |
| | |
| sasátuozii /sasaʔtoziː/ - enemies (of each other), absolutive
| |
| | |
| | |
| `rùy /ʁuiɦ/- rival, absolutive
| |
| | |
| `myùerùy /mʲɨɦʁuiɦ/ - my rival, absolutive
| |
| | |
| `rùrùy /ʁuɦʁuiɦ/ - rivals (of each other), absolutive
| |
| | |
| | |
| firiendun /fiʁeɴduɴ/ – friend, ergative
| |
| | |
| myuefiriendun /mʲɨfiʁeɴduɴ/ – my friend, ergative
| |
| | |
| fuefiriendun /fɨfiʁeɴduɴ/ – friends (of each other), ergative
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| A few nouns have irregular reciprocal possessive forms e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| wùerèn /wɨɦʀɘɴɦ/ - friend, absolutive
| |
| | |
| fiwùerèn /fiwɨɦʀɘɴɦ/ - friends (of each other), absolutive
| |
| | |
| These arise from when the first vowel has breathy or tense voice, but the first consonant is underlyingly a voiced obstruent or a prestopped nasal. These can only occur before modally voiced vowels, and are thus modified before the vowel with breathy or tense voice. But if word has floating modal phonation, then the vowel there will have modal voice and the underlying consonant will surface there.
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| <h2>Verb / Adjective Morphology</h2>
| |
| | |
| There is no distinction between adjectives | |
| and verbs in Antarctican. Instead of adjectives like “good”, “bad”, “strong”, | |
| “weak”, there are verbs meaning “to be good”, “to be bad” etc. | |
| | |
| Verbs inflect for whether they are putting focus on themselves or on nouns in the sentence (done via changing the end of the root). They also take infixes to indicate pronominal objects and voice changes (which is conflated with aspect marking). As well as this, they take prefixes to indicate pronominal subjects (which is conflated with tense marking).
| |
| | |
| <h3>Focus</h3>
| |
| | |
| Verbs have a root form, from which various
| |
| other base forms are derived. The two most important of these base forms are
| |
| the verb-focus base and the noun-focus base. Below is a list of verb roots with their
| |
| corresponding verb-focus and noun-focus bases:
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| duolieegi /doleːgi/ - to drag,
| |
| intransitive, root
| |
| | |
| duoliieju /doleːɟu/ - to drag,
| |
| intransitive, verb-focus
| |
| | |
| `tùlèezi /tuɦlɘɦːzi/ –
| |
| to drag, intransitive, noun-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| `rèdu /ʁɘdu/ - red, root
| |
| | |
| `rèdla /ʁɘɦdɮa/ - red,
| |
| verb-focus
| |
| | |
| `rèdù /ʁɘɦduɦ/ - red,
| |
| noun-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| 'kiraeypyi /kiʁɛipʲi/
| |
| - to become scraped, root
| |
| | |
| 'kiraeypyu /kiʁɛipʲu/
| |
| - to become scraped, verb-focus
| |
| | |
| 'kiraypùe /kiʁa;ipɨɦ/
| |
| - to become scraped, noun-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| <h4>Verb-Focus Base</h4>
| |
| | |
| This is used to put focus on the verb ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_(linguistics) ) i.e. when the most important "new" information that is being communicated to the listener is the action being done in the verb, rather than the nouns that are doing it or it is being done to.
| |
| How it is formed from the root is regular, but the rules are somewhat complex
| |
| and depend on whether the last syllable of the base begins with a soft or hard
| |
| consonant:
| |
| | |
| <h5>Final Consonant is Soft</h5>
| |
| | |
| If the final consonant (not including any
| |
| placeless nasal /ɴ/) is soft, infix -iq-/iʔ/ immediately after it
| |
| e.g.
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| hlo /ɬɔ/ - to perform, root
| |
| | |
| hli-o /ɬiʔɔ/ - to perform,
| |
| verb-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| However, many vowels shift when this
| |
| happens e.g.
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| íeypyii /ʔeiʔpʲiː/ -
| |
| to spit out, root
| |
| | |
| íeypyi-iiey /ʔeiʔpʲiʔeːi/
| |
| - to spit out, verb-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| inyieliie /ʔiɲeleː/ - to
| |
| pierce, root
| |
| | |
| inyieli-aa /ʔiɲeliʔaː/
| |
| - to pierce, verb-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| kivieluun /kiɥeluːɴ/ - to
| |
| die, root
| |
| | |
| kivieli-iewn /kiɥeliʔeuɴ/ -
| |
| to die, verb-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| These vowel shifts are all in a roughly
| |
| anti-clockwise directions around the vowel space. The shifts are listed below:
| |
| | |
| i /i/ -> ie /e/
| |
| | |
| ii /iː/ -> iey /ei/
| |
| | |
| ie /e/ -> a /a/
| |
| | |
| iie /eː/ -> aa /aː/
| |
| | |
| a /a/ -> u /u/
| |
| | |
| aa /aː/ -> uu /uː/
| |
| | |
| u /u/ -> i /i/
| |
| | |
| uu /uː/ -> iew /eu/
| |
| | |
| iey /ei/ -> ay /ai/
| |
| | |
| iiey /eːi/ -> aay /aːi/
| |
| | |
| ay /ai/ -> uy /ui/
| |
| | |
| aay /aːi/ -> uuy /uːi/
| |
| | |
| uy /ui/ -> ii /iː/
| |
| | |
| iew /eu/ -> aw /au/
| |
| | |
| iiew /eːu/ -> aaw /aːu/
| |
| | |
| aw /au/ -> uow /ou/
| |
| | |
| aaw /aːu/ -> uuow /oːu/
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| <h5>Final Consonant is Hard</h5>
| |
| | |
| If the final consonant (not including any
| |
| placeless nasal /ɴ/) is hard, change it to be soft e.g.
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| yuentuoro /jɨɴtoʁɔ/ -
| |
| to introduce oneself, root
| |
| | |
| yuentuolo /jɨɴtolɔ/ - to
| |
| introduce oneself, verb-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| However, many vowels shift when this
| |
| happens e.g.
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| nangariew /naŋaʁeu/ - to flow,
| |
| root
| |
| | |
| nangaluu /naŋaluː/ - to flow,
| |
| verb-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| 'kirami /kiʁami/ - to swell
| |
| up, root
| |
| | |
| 'kiramyu /kiʁamʲu/ - to
| |
| swell up, verb-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| imuepu /ʔimɨpu/ - to sit down,
| |
| root
| |
| | |
| imuepya /ʔimɨpʲa/ - to sit
| |
| down, verb-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| These vowel changes are often the reverse
| |
| of what happens if the final vowel of the stem is a soft consonant. The vowel
| |
| shifts are all roughly clockwise around the vowel space, and are listed below:
| |
| | |
| i /i/ -> u /u/
| |
| | |
| u /u/ -> a /a/
| |
| | |
| uu /uː/ -> aa /aː/
| |
| | |
| a /a/ -> ie /e/
| |
| | |
| aa /aː/ -> iie /eː/
| |
| | |
| ie /e/ -> i /i/ * For some words only,
| |
| see below.
| |
| | |
| iie /eː/ -> ii /iː/
| |
| | |
| ii /iː/ -> uy /ui/
| |
| | |
| uy /ui/ -> ay /ai/
| |
| | |
| uuy /uːi/ -> aay /aːi/
| |
| | |
| ay /ai/ -> iey /ei/
| |
| | |
| aay /aːi/ -> iiey /eːi/
| |
| | |
| iey /ei/ -> ii /iː/
| |
| | |
| iiey /eːi/ -> ii /iː/
| |
| | |
| uow /ou/ -> aw /au/
| |
| | |
| uuow /oːu/ -> aaw /aːu/
| |
| | |
| aw /au/ -> iew /eu/
| |
| | |
| aaw /aːu/ -> iiew /eːu/
| |
| | |
| iew /eu/ -> uu /uː/
| |
| | |
| iiew /eːu/ -> uu /uː/
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| <h6>Vowel Phonation Changes</h6>
| |
| | |
| A few verb stems that end in a hard consonant
| |
| and ie /e/ behave differently. If the consonant is an obstruent and the
| |
| vowel is short, has modal voice and not followed by -n /ɴ/, then the
| |
| syllable is deleted and voice put onto the preceding syllable(s). This voice is breathy if the deleted obstruent was voiced, and tense if it was voiceless e.g.
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| nuetuozie /nɨtoze/ - to be fed on, root
| |
| | |
| nitù /nituɦ/ - to be fed on, verb-focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| sibetie /sibɘte/ - to all be present, root
| |
| | |
| sipáe /sipɛʔ/ - to all be present, verb-focus (remember that Antarctican does not like voiced obstruents before vowels with breathy voice).
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| The breathy voice “spreads” backwards
| |
| through the word, changing vowel phonation with it, until it hits a voiceless
| |
| obstruent or prestopped nasal e.g.
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| maduozie /madoze/ - to give birth,
| |
| intransitive, root
| |
| | |
| `mòetù /mɜɦtuɦ/ - to give
| |
| birth, intransitive, verb-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| nyiibie /ɲiːbe/ - to snow, root
| |
| | |
| `nyùue /ɲɨːɦ/ - to snow,
| |
| verb-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| san-gizie /saɴgize/ - to bleed, root
| |
| | |
| sòen-gùe /sɜɦɴgɨɦ/
| |
| - to bleed, verb-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| Tense voice "spreads" backwards in a similar way, except that it passes through voiceless stops and not through voiced stops, fricatives, or prestopped nasals e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| daraekie /daʁɛke/ - to cover, root
| |
| | |
| tárá /taʔʁaʔ/ - to cover, verb-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| | |
| <h4>Noun-Focus Base</h4>
| |
| | |
| This is used to put focus on the (non-topicalised)
| |
| noun(s) in the sentence.
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| <h5>Regular Formation</h5>
| |
| | |
| The default way of forming it is by putting
| |
| breathy voice on the final vowel of the base, and changing the vowel quality in
| |
| the same way as normal e.g.
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| íeypyii /ʔeiʔpʲiː/ -
| |
| to spit out, root
| |
| | |
| íeypyùey /ʔeiʔpʲɨiɦ/
| |
| - to spit out, noun-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| This breathy voice “spreads” to the left
| |
| until it hits a voiceless obstruent or a prestopped nasal e.g.
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| guowpieyiie /goupejeː/ - to suffer a
| |
| setback, root
| |
| | |
| guowpèyèe /goupɘɦjɘːɦ/
| |
| - to suffer a setback, noun-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| inyieliie /ʔiɲeleː/ - to
| |
| pierce, root
| |
| | |
| ùenyèlèe /ʔɨɦɲɘɦleː/
| |
| - to pierce, noun-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| kivieluun /kiɥeluːɴ/ - to
| |
| die, root
| |
| | |
| kùevèlùun /kɨɦɥɘɦluːɴɦ/
| |
| - to die, noun-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| Remember that Antarctican only permits
| |
| voiced obstruents, prestopped nasals, and fricatives other than /s/, before vowels
| |
| with modal voice. So if this vowel phonation change would produce such a
| |
| forbidden sequence, then the consonant changes e.g.
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| hlo /ɬɔ/ - to perform, root
| |
| | |
| lò /lɔɦ/ - to perform, noun-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| These changes do not affect phonation
| |
| spreading though, as we can see from:
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| maduozie /madoze/ - to give birth,
| |
| intransitive, root
| |
| | |
| `mòetùsè /mɜɦtuɦsɘɦ/
| |
| - to give birth, intransitive, noun-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| nyiibie /ɲiːbe/ - to snow, root
| |
| | |
| `nyùeypè /ɲɨipɘɦ/ - to
| |
| snow, noun-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| san-gizie /saɴgize/ - to bleed, root
| |
| | |
| sòenkùesè /sɜɴɦkɨɦsɜɦ/
| |
| - to bleed, noun-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| When a consonant such as a voiceless
| |
| obstruent or prestopped nasal blocks the phonation spreading, if the vowel
| |
| preceding it is /ɨ/ or /ɘ/ with modal voice (or a diphthong beginning
| |
| with one), then fronts to /i/ or /e/ respectively e.g.
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| yuentuoro /jɨɴtoʁɔ/ -
| |
| to introduce oneself, root
| |
| | |
| yintùrò /jiɴtuɦʁɔɦ/
| |
| - to introduce oneself, noun-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| imuepu /ʔimɨpu/ - to sit down, root
| |
| | |
| imipù /ʔimipuɦ/ - to sit down, noun-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| nuetuozie /nitoze/ - to be fed on, root
| |
| | |
| nitùsè /nituɦsɘɦ/ - to be
| |
| fed on, noun-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| pensaa /pɘɴsaː/ - to be lost
| |
| in deep thought, root
| |
| | |
| piensòoe /peɴsɜːɦ/ - to
| |
| be lost in deep thought, noun-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| If the vowel is /ɛ/, or a diphthong
| |
| starting with /ɛ/, before the blocking consonant, then it lowers to /a/
| |
| e.g.
| |
| | |
| 'kiraeypi /kiʁɛipi/ - to
| |
| become scraped, root
| |
| | |
| 'kiraypùe /kiʁaipɨɦ/
| |
| - to become scraped, noun-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| <h5>Final Syllable Replacement</h5>
| |
| | |
| In addition to this, some verbs lose their
| |
| final syllable, which is replaced with –zi e.g.
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| duolieegi /doleːgi/ - to drag,
| |
| intransitive, root
| |
| | |
| tùlèezi /tuɦlɘːɦzi/ –
| |
| to drag, intransitive, noun-focus (-gùe has been replaced with -zi).
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| bilidli /bilidɮi/ - to make it across,
| |
| root
| |
| | |
| pùelùezi /pɨɦlɨɦzi/ -
| |
| to make it across, noun-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| This process happens under well defined
| |
| conditions. Both of the last two syllables of the verb root must have modal
| |
| voice. Also the final vowel must be a short /i/ and not followed by a nasal
| |
| vowel. The consonant immediately before this must be a voiced obstruent. And,
| |
| in the proto-language, the verb root must have had pitch-accent on any syllable
| |
| other than the final one.
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| <h3>Restrictive / Non-Restrictive Modifiers</h3>
| |
| | |
| When verbs / adjectives are used as modifiers, the verb-focus form is used when the modifier
| |
| is non restrictive ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness ), and the
| |
| noun-focus form is used when the modifier is restrictive e.g. from the work tieyláae
| |
| /teilɛʔː/ - shirt, we can say:
| |
| | |
| tieyláae `rèdla /teilɛːʔ ʁɘɦdɮa/ – a red shirt
| |
| (non-restrictive)
| |
| | |
| tieyláae `rèdù /teilɛːʔ ʁɘɦduɦ/ – the red shirt
| |
| (restrictive)
| |
| | |
| | |
| <h3>Verbalisation</h3>
| |
| | |
| Antarctican has a very productive process
| |
| for to convert a noun N into an intransitive verb root meaning “to become N” /
| |
| “to be N / to do what N does”. How this is done depends on the voicing of the
| |
| last vowel of the absolutive form of the noun
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| <h4>Last Vowel of Abs. Form has Modal Voice</h4>
| |
| | |
| In this case, the verb root is identical to
| |
| the absolutive form e.g.
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| zivie /ziɥe/ - boat, absolutive
| |
| | |
| zivie /ziɥe/ - to be a boat, verb root
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| buraza /buʁaza/ - brother, absolutive
| |
| | |
| buraza /buʁaza/ - to be a brother, verb
| |
| root
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| yuenpiluy - /jɨɴpilui/ -
| |
| employee, absolutive
| |
| | |
| yuenpiluy - /jɨɴpilui/ -
| |
| employee, verb root
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| <h4>Other Cases</h4>
| |
| | |
| However, if the final vowel of the
| |
| absolutive form has tense or breathy voice, the verb stem is formed from the
| |
| ergative form of the noun, minus any final –n e.g.
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| ùylèn /ʔuiɦlɜɴɦ/
| |
| - island, absolutive
| |
| | |
| uoyliendun /ʔoileɴdun/ - island,
| |
| ergative
| |
| | |
| uoyliendu /ʔoileɴdu/ - to be an
| |
| island, verb root
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| píey /peiʔ/ - book, absolutive
| |
| | |
| píeykin /peiʔkiɴ/ - book,
| |
| ergative
| |
| | |
| píeyki /peiʔki/ - to be a book, verb root
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| támá /taʔmaʔ/ - victim of a scam
| |
| / swindle, absolutive
| |
| | |
| damaesin /damɛsiɴ/ - victim of a
| |
| scam / swindle, ergative
| |
| | |
| damaesi /damɛsi/ - to be a victim of a
| |
| scam / swindle, verb root
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| mòoe /mɜɦː/ - betel nut,
| |
| absolutive
| |
| | |
| pmaagin /pmaːgiɴ/ - betel nut,
| |
| ergative
| |
| | |
| pmaagi /pmaːgi/ - to be a betel nut, verb
| |
| stem
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| `pùelùe /pɨɦlɨɦ/ - bridge, absolutive
| |
| | |
| bilidlin /bilidɮiɴ/ - bridge,
| |
| ergative
| |
| | |
| bilidli /bilidɮi/ - to be bridge / to
| |
| make it across, verb stem
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| `pòey /pɜiɦ/ - baby, absolutive
| |
| | |
| baybyin /baibʲiɴ/ - baby,
| |
| ergative
| |
| | |
| baybyi /baibʲi/ - to be a baby, verb
| |
| stem
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| pòey /pɜiɦ/ - page, absolutive
| |
| | |
| paydlin /paidɮiɴ/ - page,
| |
| ergative
| |
| | |
| paydli /paidɮi/ - to be a page, verb
| |
| stem
| |
| | |
| <h3>Transitivity</h3>
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| Whether a verb is transitive or intransitive {{lg|Transitivity}} is very important in Antarctican syntax. Unlike English, where a verb such as "drag" can either be used transitively (as in the sentence "He was dragging his pants along the ground"), or intransitively (as in the sentence "His pants were dragging along the ground"), Antarctican uses distinct verb roots for each case e.g.
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| duoliieju /doleːɟu/ - to drag, intransitive, verb-focus (as in "his pants were dragging along the ground")
| |
| | |
| dliieju
| |
| /dɮeːɟu/ - to drag, transitive, verb-focus (as in "he was dragging his pants along the ground")
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| `tùlèezi /tuɦlɘɦːzi/ – to drag, intransitive,
| |
| noun-focus
| |
| | |
| `tlèezi
| |
| /tɬɘɦːzi/– to drag, transitive, noun-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| Very
| |
| commonly, transitive roots are formed from intransitive roots by deletion of
| |
| the first vowel and the second consonant. And if, out of the first and second
| |
| consonants, one was soft and the other hard, the first consonant is changed to
| |
| agree in hardness / softness with the second (deleted) consonant e.g.
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| duolieegi /doleːgi/ - to drag, intransitive, root
| |
| | |
| dlieegi /dɮeːgi/ - to drag, intransitive, root
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| shinari
| |
| /çinaʁi/ - to twist, intransitive, root
| |
| | |
| hari
| |
| /χaʁi/ - to twist, transitive, root
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| The transitive roots are then inflected for focus e.g.
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| shinari
| |
| /çinaʁi/ - to twist, intransitive, root
| |
| | |
| shinali /çinali/ - to twist, intransitive, verb-focus
| |
| | |
| yùenòerùe
| |
| /jɨɦnɜɦʁɨɦ/ - to twist, intransitive,
| |
| noun-focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
| | |
| hari
| |
| /χaʁi/ - to twist, transitive, root
| |
| | |
| hali
| |
| /χali/ - to twist, transitive, verb-focus
| |
| | |
| ròerùe
| |
| /ʁɜɦʁɨɦ/ - to twist, transitive, noun-focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| <h3>Voice and Object Marking</h3>
| |
| | |
| Grammatical voice is very important in
| |
| Antarctican. It is conflated with pronominal object marking, both only
| |
| affecting transitive verbs and usually using infixes that come immediately after
| |
| the first consonant of the verb base. As with elsewhere in the language, these
| |
| are not differentiated for number, although there is an inclusive and exclusive
| |
| “us”.
| |
| | |
| <h4> Infixation </h4>
| |
| | |
| This is the default way of marking pronominal objects and grammatical voice. In each case there are two forms of the infix, one that contains a hard consonant that is used with verbs beginning
| |
| with hard consonants, and another that contains a soft consonant that is used
| |
| with verbs beginning with soft consonants. Note that there is no infix to mark 3rd person objects. Instead the antipassive voice is used. The infixes are listed below in pairs,
| |
| with the hard version coming first and then the soft version.
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |+Infixes for Voice and Object Pronouns
| |
| |-
| |
| |
| |
| |Hard Form
| |
| |Soft Form
| |
| |-
| |
| |1PS Exclusive
| |
| |iem
| |
| |imy
| |
| |-
| |
| |1PS Inclusive
| |
| |as
| |
| |iehl
| |
| |-
| |
| |2PS
| |
| |os
| |
| |ohl
| |
| |-
| |
| |who
| |
| |ar
| |
| |iel
| |
| |-
| |
| |what
| |
| |ab
| |
| |ieby
| |
| |-
| |
| |Reflexive
| |
| |ier
| |
| |il
| |
| |-
| |
| |Perfective Antipassive
| |
| |ut / úow(tq)s (see below)
| |
| |atl
| |
| |-
| |
| |Imperfective Antipassive
| |
| |am
| |
| |iemy
| |
| |-
| |
| |Superordinate
| |
| |át(q)
| |
| |áet(q)l
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| | |
| These come immediately after the first
| |
| consonant of the verb base e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| damaehlu /damɛɬu/ - to scam / swindle, verb-focus
| |
| | |
| dosamaehlu /dɔsamɛɬu/ - to scam / swindle you, verb-focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| damaehlu /damɛɬu/ - to scam, verb-focus
| |
| | |
| diemamaehlu /demɛɬu/ - to scam me / us (not including you), verb-focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| All of the usual rules about phonation
| |
| spreading apply e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| pyùu /pʲuːɦ/ - to purify, noun-focus
| |
| | |
| pyùemyùu /pʲɨɦmpʲuːɦ/ - to purify me / us (not including you, noun-focus
| |
| | |
| pyèlùu /pʲɘɦluːɦ/ - to purify who, noun-focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| The infixes with non-back vowels and
| |
| voiceless consonants also undergo vowel mutation if the following vowel has
| |
| modal voice. This is the exact same as has been described before for noun and verb prefixes e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| damaehlu /damɛɬu/ - to scam / swindle, verb-focus
| |
| | |
| daesamaehlu /dɛsamɛɬu/ - to scam / swindle us (including you), verb-focus
| |
| | |
| dieramaehlu /deʁamɛɬu/ - to scam / swindle oneself, verb-focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| If the first vowel of the verb base has
| |
| breathy or tense voice, and the infix inserted would contain /ɬ/ (which
| |
| can only occur before modal voice vowels), then it becomes /l/ and /tɬ/ respectively. However it
| |
| still blocks the spread of the voicing e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| pyùu /pʲuːɦ/ - to purify,
| |
| noun-focus
| |
| | |
| pyolùu /pʲɔluːɦ/ - to purify you, noun-focus
| |
| | |
| pyielùu /pʲeluːɦ/ - to purify
| |
| ourselves (including you), noun-focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| The last example this is distinct
| |
| from pyèlùu /pʲɘɦluːɦ/ - to purify who,
| |
| noun-focus, which has breathy voice spreading onto the infix.
| |
| | |
| Note that, for the purposes of the syntax, using any of these infixes turns a transitive verb into an intransitive verb. This means that the subject of such an infixed verb can no longer take ergative case e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| *yuenpiluy - /jɨɴpilui/ - employee, absolutive
| |
| *yuenpiluoy /jɨɴpiloi/ - employee, ergative
| |
| *sowdla - /sɨudɮ/ - soldier, absolutive
| |
| *damasùe - /damas#616;ɦ/ - to scam / swindle, noun-focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | yuenpiluoy || damasùe || sowdla
| |
| |-
| |
| | jɨɴpiloi || damas#616;ɦ || sɨudɮ
| |
| |-
| |
| |- employee-ERG || scam-NFCS || soldier-ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| An employee scammed a soldier
| |
| | |
| | |
| Above, we can see that the word for "employee" is in the ergative case, and must come before the verb. However, when the object is a pronoun, the word for "employee" must take the absolutive case e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | yuenpiluy || daesamasùe
| |
| |-
| |
| | jɨɴpilui || dɛsamas#616;ɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | employee-ABS || <1PS.INC.OBJ>scam-NFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| An employee scammed us (including you)
| |
| | |
| | |
| Antarctican also permits the subjects of intransitive verbs to come after the verb, so the following sentence is also grammatical (and perhaps more common):
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | daesamasùe || yuenpiluy
| |
| |-
| |
| | dɛsamas#616;ɦ || jɨɴpilui
| |
| |-
| |
| | <1PS.INC.OBJ>scam-NFCS || employee-ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| An employee scammed us (including you)
| |
| | |
| | |
| <h4>Antipassive Voice</h4>
| |
| | |
| | |
| Antarctican has extremely productive antipassivisation ({{lg|Antipassive_voice}}). There are two infixes, which depend on whether the verb has perfective or imperfective aspect.
| |
| | |
| | |
| <h5>Perfective Antipassive</h5>
| |
| | |
| This is used for when the action described by the verb is not viewed as having any internal structure ({{lg|Perfective_aspect}}). It can be used for past, present or future actions e.g.
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | duetamasùe || yuenpiluy
| |
| |-
| |
| | dɨtamas#616;ɦ || jɨɴpilui
| |
| |-
| |
| | <PFV.AP>scam-NFCS || employee-ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| An employee scammed / will scam (someone who does not need to be mentioned here).
| |
| | |
| | |
| However, remember that alveolar stops (e.g. /t/) can never occur before /i/ and /ʎ/ (with any phonation), nor before tense voice /eʔ/ and /ɘʔ/, nor before diphthongs starting with these. If a verb begins with a hard consonant followed by one of these vowels, a different infix is used, normally -úows- e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| inyieli-aa /ʔiɲeliʔaː/ - to pierce, verb-focus
| |
| | |
| úowsinyieli-aa /ʔouʔsiɲeliʔaː/ - to pierce, verb-focus, perfective antipassive
| |
| | |
| | |
| kivieliqiewn /kiɥeliʔeuɴ/ - to die, verb-focus
| |
| | |
| kúowsivieli-iewn /kouʔsiɥeliʔeuɴ/ - to die, verb-focus, perfective antipassive
| |
| | |
| | |
| sisíeychu /siseiʔcu/ - to stab, verb focus
| |
| | |
| súowsisíeychu /souʔsiseiʔcu/ - to stab, verb focus, perfective antipassive
| |
| | |
| | |
| However, if the first vowel of the verb root had tense voice, the ejective -tqs- is used instead e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| 'kátla /kaʔtɬa/ - to make someone's acquaintance, verb focus
| |
| | |
| 'kúowtqsátla /kouʔtsʼaʔtɬa/ - to make someone's acquaintance, verb-focus, perfective antipassive
| |
| | |
| | |
| íeypyi-iiey /ʔeiʔpʲiʔeːi/ - to spit out, verb-focus
| |
| | |
| úowtqsíeypyi-iiey /ʔouʔtsʼeiʔpʲiʔeːi/ - to spit out, verb-focus, perfective antipassive
| |
| | |
| | |
| <h5>Imperfective Antipassive</h5>
| |
| | |
| This is used for ongoing, habitual and repeated action ({{lg|Imperfective_aspect}}).
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | damamasùe || yuenpiluy
| |
| |-
| |
| | damamas#616;ɦ || jɨɴpilui
| |
| |-
| |
| | <IMPV.AP>scam-NFCS || employee-ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| An employee is / was / will be scamming (someone who does not need to be mentioned here).
| |
| | |
| | |
| <h4>Superordinate Voice</h4>
| |
| | |
| Like the antipassive, this also reduces a transitive verb's valency (the number of arguments it has, see here http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valency_(linguistics)) by one, and requires that its subject take the absolutive case. However, it requires some other verb to come afterwards to be subordinate to it e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| *wuonnyie /woɴɲe/ - to want (something), verb-focus
| |
| *wátuonnyie /waʔtoɴɲe/ - to want (to do something / something to happen), verb-focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| *chi-iin /ciʔiːɴ/ - to fear (something), verb-focus
| |
| *cháetli-iin /cɛtɬiʔiːɴ/ - to fear (that something will happen), verb-focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| So using the nouns below:
| |
| | |
| *yuenpiluy - /jɨɴpilui/ - employee, absolutive
| |
| *yuenpiluoy /jɨɴpiloi/ - employee, ergative
| |
| *sowdla - /sɨudɮ/ - soldier, absolutive
| |
| *sowdlan - /sɨudɮɴ/ - soldier, ergative
| |
| *nayba /naiba/ - neighbour, absolutive
| |
| *nayban /naibaɴ/ - neighbour, ergative
| |
| *ton /tɔɴ/ - change (as in coins, money), absolutive
| |
| *taon /tɒɴ/ - change, ergative
| |
| | |
| | |
| We can say:
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | yuenpiluoy || wuonnyie || ton
| |
| |-
| |
| | jɨɴpiloi || woɴɲe || tɔɴ
| |
| |-
| |
| | employee-ERG || want-VFCS || change-ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| An employee wants change.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | yuenpiluy || 'wátuonnyie || sowdla || damasùe
| |
| |-
| |
| | jɨɴpilui || waʔtoɴɲe || sɨudɮa || damasɨɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | employee-ABS || <SPR>want-VFCS || soldier-ABS || scam-NFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| An employee wants to scam a soldier.
| |
| | |
| | |
| Note that in the second sentence, the case for the word "employee" has changed from ergative to absolutive. And since Antarctican allows nouns in the absolutive case to also come after the verb, the following sentences would also be grammatical, and all mean roughly the same thing:
| |
| | |
| | |
| wátuonnyie yuenpiluoy sowdla damasùe
| |
| | |
| yuenpiluoy wátuonnyie damasùe sowdla
| |
| | |
| wátuonnyie yuenpiluoy damasùe sowdla
| |
| | |
| | |
| Similarly, using the verb meaning "to fear", we can say:
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | yuenpiluoy || chi-iin || sowdla
| |
| |-
| |
| | jɨɴpiloi || ciʔiːɴ || sɨudɮa
| |
| |-
| |
| | employee-ERG || fear-VFCS || soldier-ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| The employee fears the soldier
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | yuenpiluoy || 'cháetli-iin || sowdla || damasùe
| |
| |-
| |
| | jɨɴpiloi || cɛtɬiʔiːɴ || sɨudɮa || damasɨɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | employee-ERG || <SPR>fear-VFCS || soldier-ABS || scam-NFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| The employee fears he will scam / has scammed the soldier.
| |
| | |
| | |
| The words in this sentence can be ordered in the same fashion as before.
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | yuenpiluoy || 'cháetliqiin || sowdlan || damasùe
| |
| |-
| |
| | jɨɴpiloi || cɛtɬiʔiːɴ || sɨudɮaɴ || damasɨɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | employee-ERG || <SPR>fear-VFCS || soldier-ERG || scam-NFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| The employee fears the soldier will scam / has scammed him.
| |
| | |
| | |
| Here, while the word for "employee" can come after the verb meaning "to fear", the word for "soldier", cannot, since it takes the ergative case (as it is the subject of the transitive verb damasù meaning "to scam").
| |
| | |
| | |
| <h4>Vowel Replacement</h4>
| |
| | |
| All Antarctican verbs use infixation to mark 1st person exclusive objects, whom, what (as a direct object), reflexive objects, the imperfective antipassive, and the superordinate voice. However, there is a subset of verbs that use vowel replacement to mark 1st person inclusive objects, 2nd person objects, and the perfective antipassive.
| |
| | |
| These are verbs where either a) the first vowel is short, modally voiced /i/, the second vowel has breathy voice, and there is no nasal intervening (plain nasals, prestopped nasals, and the placeless nasal /ɴ/ all count) or b) the first vowel is short, modally voiced /ʎ/, which is immediately followed by a voiceless obstruent, without /ɴ/ intervening or c) the first vowel is short, modally voiced /ʎ/, which is immediately followed by an approximant and then a vowel with breathy voice, without /ɴ/ intervening
| |
| | |
| The vowel replacements depend on whether the verb begins with a hard or soft consonant, but are regular (and have tense voice) and given in the table below:
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |+Vowel Replacements for Voice and Object Pronouns
| |
| |-
| |
| |
| |
| |Hard Form
| |
| |Soft Form
| |
| |-
| |
| |1PS Inclusive
| |
| |á
| |
| |áe
| |
| |-
| |
| |2PS
| |
| |óe
| |
| |óe
| |
| |-
| |
| |Perfective Antipassive
| |
| |N/A use the -íeys- infix instead
| |
| |úow
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| | |
| For example:
| |
| | |
| | |
| sisíeychu /siseiʔcu/ - to stab, verb focus
| |
| | |
| sásíeychu /saʔseiʔcu/ - to stab us (including you), verb focus
| |
| | |
| sóesíeychu /sɜʔseiʔcu/ - to stab you, verb focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| Note that the perfective antipassive form is created using the infix -iéys- i.e. síeysisíeychu /seiʔsiseiʔcu/ - to stab, verb focus, perfective antipassive. It is only with verbs starting with soft consonants that vowel replacement is used.
| |
| | |
| | |
| Also note that, for the other persons and voices, infixation is used e.g.
| |
| | |
| siemisíeychu /semiseiʔcu/ - to stab me / us (not including you), verb focus
| |
| | |
| sierisíeychu /seʁiseiʔcu/ - to stab oneself, verb focus
| |
| | |
| sarisíeychu /saʁiseiʔcu/ - to stab who, verb focus
| |
| | |
| sabisíeychu /sabiseiʔcu/ - to stab what, verb focus
| |
| | |
| samisíeychu /samiseiʔcu/ - to stab, verb focus, imperfective antipassive
| |
| | |
| | |
| More examples:
| |
| | |
| | |
| kiròemùe /kiʁɜɦmɨɦ/ - to bite, verb focus
| |
| | |
| kimyiròemùe /kimʲiʁɜɦmɨɦ/ - to bite me / us (not including you), verb focus
| |
| | |
| 'káròemùe /kaʔʁɜɦmɨɦ/ - to bite us (including you), verb focus
| |
| | |
| 'kóeròemùe /kɜʔʁɜɦmɨɦ/ - to bite you, verb focus
| |
| | |
| kieriròemùe /keʁiʁɜɦmɨɦ/ - to bite oneself, verb focus
| |
| | |
| kariròemùe /kaʁiʁɜɦmɨɦ/ - to bite who, verb focus
| |
| | |
| kabiròemùe /kabiʁɜɦmɨɦ/ - to bite what, verb focus
| |
| | |
| 'kúowròemùe /kouʔʁɜɦmɨɦ/ - to bite, verb focus, perfective antipassive
| |
| | |
| kamiròemùe /kamiʁɜɦmɨɦ/ - to bite, verb focus, imperfective antipassive
| |
| | |
| | |
| shuetinju /çɨtiɴɟu/ - to count, verb focus
| |
| | |
| shimyuetinju /çimʲɨtiɴɟu/ - to count me / us (not including you), verb focus
| |
| | |
| yáetinju /jɛʔtiɴɟu/ - to count us (including you), verb focus
| |
| | |
| yóetinju /jɜʔtiɴɟu/ - to count you, verb focus
| |
| | |
| shiluetinju /çilɨtiɴɟu/ - to count oneself, verb focus
| |
| | |
| shieluetinju /çelɨtiɴɟu/ - to count who, verb focus
| |
| | |
| shiebyuetinju /çebʲɨtiɴɟu/ - to count what, verb focus
| |
| | |
| yúowtinju /jouʔtiɴɟu/ - to count, verb focus, perfective antipassive
| |
| | |
| shiemyuetinju /çemʲɨtiɴɟu/ - to count, verb focus, imperfective antipassive
| |
| | |
| | |
| (The /ç/ is lenited to /j/ when the vowel is replaced, since Antarctican does not like words starting with fricatives other than /s/ if the next vowel has tense voice.
| |
| | |
| | |
| <h4>Reciprocal Voice</h4>
| |
| | |
| One other voice that needs to be mentioned here is the reciprocal voice. This carries to meaning of "to do to each other / one another". It is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the verb base e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| wuonnyie /woɴɲe/ - to want, verb focus
| |
| | |
| wuowuonnyie /wowoɴɲe/ - to want each other, verb focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| darakè /daʁakɘɦ/ - to cover, noun-focus
| |
| | |
| dadarakè /dadaʁakɘɦ/ - to cover each other, noun-focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| shuetinju /çɨtiɴɟu/ - to count, verb focus
| |
| | |
| shueshuetinju /çɨçɨtiɴɟu/ - to count each other, verb focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| However, the reduplicated syllable cannot contain a long vowel, a diphthong, or the placeless nasal /ɴ/. If the first syllable of the verb base contains any of these, then it is truncated e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| ziitlòeji /ziːtɬɜɦɟi/ - to know (a person), verb-focus
| |
| | |
| ziziitlòeji /ziziːtɬɜɦɟi/ - to know each other, verb-focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| yinwùumùe /jiɴwuːɦmɨ/ - to turn in, noun-focus
| |
| | |
| yiyinwùumùe /jijiɴwuːɦmɨ/ - to turn each other in, noun-focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| kaaeykyu /kɛːi&k#690;u/ - to sell, verb-focus
| |
| | |
| kaekaaeykyu /kɛkɛːikʲu/ - to sell each other, verb-focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| The reduplicated syllable has whatever floating phonation is at the start of the word e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| 'kátla /kaʔtɬa/ - to make someone's acquaintance, verb focus
| |
| | |
| 'kákátla /kaʔkaʔtɬa/ - to make each other's acquaintance, verb focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| This may not be the same phonation as is on the first syllable of the word e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| 'kamyu /kamʲu/ - to inflate (someone's ego), verb-focus
| |
| | |
| 'kákamyu /kaʔkamʲu/ - to inflate each other('s ego), verb-focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| 'kaypùe /kaipɨɦ/ - to scrape, noun-focus
| |
| | |
| 'kákaypùe /kaʔkaipɨɦ/ - to scrape each other, noun-focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| Any changes to vowel quality that happen because of vowel phonation changes, also happen here e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| 'puytlù /puitɬuɦ/ - to pick a fight, noun-focus
| |
| | |
| 'púoyputlu /poiʔpuitɬuɦ/ - to pick a fight with each other, noun-focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| As well as all the other regular vowel quality changes that happen when a noun takes a prefix e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| hali /χali/ - to twist, transitive, verb-focus
| |
| | |
| haehali /χɛχali/ - to twist, transitive, verb-focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| As with reciprocal possession, a few verbs have irregular forms in the reciprocal voice e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| ròerùe /ʁɜɦʁɨɦ/ - to twist, transitive, noun-focus
| |
| | |
| haròerùe /χaʁɜɦʁɨɦ/ - to twist each other, transitive, noun-focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| Generally, if a noun has an irregular reciprocal possessive form, then any verbs derived from it will also have irregular reciprocal voice forms e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| wùerèn /wɨɦʀɘɴɦ/ - friend, absolutive
| |
| | |
| fiwùerèn /fiwɨɦʀɘɴɦ/ - friends (of each other), absolutive
| |
| | |
| | |
| wènzi /wɘɴɦ/ - to befriend, noun-focus
| |
| | |
| fiwènzi /fiwɘɴɦ/ - to befriend each other, noun-focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| These irregularities happen for the same reason in reciprocal verbs as they do in reciprocal nouns, namely because there is an underlying initial consonant that changes form to something else because it is before a vowel with breathy voice or tense voice (which prohibit some consonants from coming before it). However, if there is modal floating phonation, then the underlying forms can resurface in the reduplication.
| |
| | |
| | |
| <h3>Pronominal Subject Prefixes</h3>
| |
| | |
| Instead of using pronouns to indicate subject, Antarctican uses prefixes on verbs. Which prefix is used depends on the tense of the verb (normally unmarked). They do not inflect for number. They are listed in the table below:
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| ! !! Past !! Present !! Future
| |
| |-
| |
| | 1PS Exclusive || uy || uomyi || uow
| |
| |-
| |
| | 1PS Inclusive || chi || wie|| wi
| |
| |-
| |
| | 2PS || nyin || ya || yu
| |
| |-
| |
| | 3PS || day || die || daw
| |
| |-
| |
| | Who / What || wu || hiew || ri
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| | |
| Note that, for habitual actions in the present, the past tense is used. Also the present tense is used for imminent actions in the future (where English might use "about to").
| |
| | |
| | |
| ===Emphatic Forms===
| |
| | |
| All of the pronomnial affixes have emphatic forms that are generated by lengthening the vowel e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| chisòen-gùe /cisɜɦɴgɨɦ/ you bleed, verb-focus
| |
| | |
| chiisòen-gùe /ciːsɜɦɴgɨɦ/ you (emphatic) bleed, verb-focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| However, the emphatic forms cannot be used with noun-focus forms, so while chisòenkùesè /cisɜɴɦkɨɦsɜɦ/ - to bleed, noun-focus is grammatical, chiisòenkùesè /ciːsɜɴɦkɨɦsɜɦ/ would not be.
| |
| | |
| | |
| This lengthening can also be used on infixes marking objects e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| pyoli-uu /pʲɔliʔuː/ - purify you, verb focus
| |
| | |
| pyooli-uu /pʲɔːliʔuː/ - purify you (emphatic), verb focus
| |
| | |
| | |
| If an object would be formed by vowel replacement (instead of an infix), then the emphatic form is created by lengthening the first vowel e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| sisíeychu /siseiʔcu/ - to stab, verb focus
| |
| | |
| sóesíeychu /sɜʔseiʔcu/ - to stab you, verb focus
| |
| | |
| sóoesíeychu /sɜːʔseiʔcu/ - to stab you (emphatic), verb focus
| |
| | |
|
| |
|
| ==Syntax== | | ==Syntax== |
|
| |
|
| ===Basic Word Order===
| | While on the surface [[Antarctican Syntax]] may look superficially similar to English (i.e. they both permit SVO sentences and place relative clauses after the noun), it is actually is quite different from English, being topic-prominent and syntactically ergative. |
| | |
| Antarctican is a syntactically ergative ({{lg|Ergative absolutive_language}}), topic-prominent language ({{lg|Topic-prominent_language}}). The basic word order is (Topic) (Ergative Noun) Verb (Absolutive Noun). So in intransitive sentences the word order is either V-S or S-V (if the subject is topicalised) e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdla || kivieli-iewn
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮa || kiɥeliʔeuɴ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier.ABS || die.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| The soldier died.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | kivieli-iewn || sowdla
| |
| |-
| |
| | kiɥeliʔeuɴ || sɔudɮa
| |
| |-
| |
| | die.VFCS || soldier.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| A soldier died.
| |
| | |
| | |
| In transitive sentences, the possible word orders are S-V-O and O-S-V e.g.
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdlan || amielaykùe || wùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| A soldier is hunting frogs.
| |
| | |
| | |
| If we topicalise the object, the sentence becomes:
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | wùerù || sowdlan || amielaykùe
| |
| |-
| |
| | wɨɦʁuɦ || sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | frog.ABS || soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| The frogs are being hunted by a soldier.
| |
| | |
| | |
| In SVO sentences, it is also possible to topicalise the subject. This does not create any "visible" effect in the word order, however it does mean that the subject takes the absolutive case e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdla || amielaykùe || wùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier.ABS || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| The soldier is hunting frogs.
| |
| | |
| | |
| Note that sentence can only have one topic, so if the object of a transitive sentence is topicalised, then the subject cannot be (and must therefore stay in the ergative case). Hence utterances like "wùeru sowdla amielaykùe" are ungrammatical.
| |
| | |
| | |
| ===Topicalisation and Possession===
| |
| | |
| | |
| Antarctican has two 3rd person possessive prefixes that nouns can take, wa- and si-. They are not interchangable. When the possessor is the noun that has been taken up as the topic, wa- is used. If not, si- is used instead. Compare the following two sentences: | |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdla || amielaeychu || wawùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelɛicu || wawɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier.ABS || hunt.NFCS || TPCPOSS-frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| The soldier is hunting his frogs (i.e. the ones that the soldier owns).
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdla || amielaeychu || siwùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelɛicu || siwɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier.ABS || hunt.NFCS || 3POSS-frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| The soldier is hunting his / her frogs (that someone else other than the soldier owns).
| |
| | |
| | |
| In both cases above, the soldier has been taken up as the topic, indicated by putting it immediately before a transitive verb (indicating that it is the subject of that verb), while keeping it in the absolutive case. Hence, whenever wa- is used, it indicates something belonging to the topic (i.e. the soldier). However, when si- is used, it indicates something belonging to someone or something other than the topic.
| |
| | |
| | |
| Now look at sentences where the soldier has not been topicalised (indicated by keeping it in the ergative case):
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdlan || amielaykùe || wawùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wawɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || TPCPOSS-frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| A soldier is hunting his / her frogs (not belonging to the soldier, but to whoever / whatever has been taken up as a topic previously).
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdlan || amielaykùe || siwùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || siwɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || 3POSS-frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| A soldier is hunting his / her frogs (This sentence is ambiguous, but most likely the frogs belong to the soldier, and definitely not to whoever / whatever has been taken up as a topic previously).
| |
| | |
| | |
| Similar differences in meaning apply in OVS sentences (i.e. where the object of a transitive verb has been topicalised) e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sáaeynátqéy || waesowdlan || amielaeychu
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɛːiʔnaʔtʼɘiʔ || wɛsɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelɛicu
| |
| |-
| |
| | general.ABS || TPCPOSS-soldier-ERG || hunt.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| The general is being hunted by his (own) soldiers.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sáaeynátqéy || suesowdlan || amielaeychu
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɛːiʔnaʔtʼɘiʔ || sɨsɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelɛicu
| |
| |-
| |
| | general.ABS || 3POSS-soldier-ERG || hunt.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| The general is being hunted by his / her soldiers (not his own).
| |
| | |
| | |
| ====Implicit Topicalisation====
| |
| | |
| Whenever a noun is the object of a transitive verb or the subject of an intransitive verb, it is, by default, taken up as the topic for any verbs following it e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | byaenka || damaehlu || sowdla || wáetuow || kaen-guchi || wabiraza
| |
| |-
| |
| | bʲɛɴka || damɛɬu || sɨudɮ || wɛʔtou || kɛɴguci || wabiʁaza
| |
| |-
| |
| | banker.ABS || swindle.VFCS || soldier.ABS || occur during.NFCS || be a prisoner.VFCS || TPCPOSS-brother
| |
| |}
| |
| The banker swindled the soldier while his brother was in prison (the soldier's brother).
| |
| | |
| | |
| While the phrase "his brother" in English translation is ambiguous (since both the banker and the soldier can be male), in Antarctican is not. It can only mean "the soldier's brother" because, by being the object of a transitive verb, the soldier has been implicitly taken up as the topic for the next utterance, which uses the topic possessive prefix wa-. However, if we replace wa- with si- the non-topicalised possessive prefix, then the meaning changes:
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | byaenka || damaehlu || sowdla || wáetuow || kaen-guchi || sibiraza
| |
| |-
| |
| | bʲɛɴka || damɛɬu || sɨudɮ || wɛʔtou || kɛɴguci || sibiʁaza
| |
| |-
| |
| | banker.ABS || swindle.VFCS || soldier.ABS || occur during.NFCS || be a prisoner.VFCS || 3POSS-brother
| |
| |}
| |
| The banker swindled the soldier while his brother was in prison.
| |
| | |
| | |
| In this case, it is not the soldier's brother that is in prison (most likely the banker's brother).
| |
| | |
| | |
| ===Serial Verbs===
| |
| | |
| Antarctican often uses serial verb constructions.
| |
| | |
| ====Intransitive Verbs====
| |
| | |
| If a verb is intransitive, it is simple to serialise it by placing another verb after it e.g.
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdla || byuowchi-i || kivieli-iewn
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮa || bʲouciʔi || kiɥeliʔeuɴ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier.ABS || sick.VFCS || die.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| The soldier got sick and died.
| |
| | |
| | |
| The subject comes either immediately before the first verb (as above), or immediately after it e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | byuowchi-i || sowdla || kivieli-iewn
| |
| |-
| |
| | bʲouciʔi || sɔudɮa || kiɥeliʔeuɴ
| |
| |-
| |
| | sick.VFCS || soldier.ABS || die.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| The soldier got sick and died.
| |
| | |
| | |
| Of course, it is perfectly possible to string together three or more verbs e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdla || byuowchi-i || sòen-gùe || kivieli-iewn
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮa || bʲouciʔi || sɜɦɴgɨɦ || kiɥeliʔeuɴ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier.ABS || sick.VFCS || bleed.VFCS || die.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| The soldier got sick, bled, and died.
| |
| | |
| | |
| ====Transitive Verbs====
| |
| | |
| It is also perfectly possible to use transitive verbs in serial verb constructions, subject to the constraint that all of the verbs share the same noun '''absolutive argument''' (i.e. object for transitive verbs, subject for intransitive verbs). Take the following sentence:
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdlan || kiròemùesè || wùerù || kivieli-iewn
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || kiʁɜɦmɨɦsɘɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ || kiɥeliʔeuɴ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier-ERG || bite.NFCS || frog.ABS || die.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| A soldier bit a frog and it died.
| |
| | |
| | |
| This sentence can only ever mean that it was the frog that died. Topicalising the subject of the transitive verb (by putting it into the absolutive case) makes no difference to the meaning:
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdla || kiròemùesè || wùerù || kivieli-iewn
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮa || kiʁɜɦmɨɦsɘɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ || kiɥeliʔeuɴ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier.ABS || bite.NFCS || frog.ABS || die.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| The soldier bit a frog and it died.
| |
| | |
| | |
| Topicalising the object of the verb by putting it at the front of the sentence makes no difference either:
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | wùerù || sowdlan || kiròemùesè || kivieli-iewn
| |
| |-
| |
| | wɨɦʁuɦ || sɔudɮaɴ || kiʁɜɦmɨɦsɘɦ || kiɥeliʔeuɴ
| |
| |-
| |
| | frog.ABS || soldier-ERG || bite.NFCS || die.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| The frog was bitten by a soldier and (it) died.
| |
| | |
| | |
| =====Antipassivisation=====
| |
| | |
| To say things like "The soldier bit a frog and died" (as in it was the soldier that died), then the verb meaning "to bite" must be converted into an intransitive verb by putting it in the antipassive voice e.g.
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdla || 'kúowròemùe || kivieli-iewn
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮa || kouʔʁɜɦmɨɦ || kiɥeliʔeuɴ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier.ABS || <PFV.AP>bite.VFCS || die.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| The soldier bit it and died.
| |
| | |
| | |
| ======Patient Re-introduction======
| |
| If we want to re-introduce the frog into the sentence, it needs to come after both the antipassivised verb and the subject, take the ergative case, and be followed by the oblique marker '''nyùe''' e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | 'kúowròemùe || sowdla || wùerùgin || `nyùe || kivieli-iewn
| |
| |-
| |
| | kouʔʁɜɦmɨɦ || sɔudɮa || wɨɦʁuɦgiɴ || ɲɨɦ || kiɥeliʔeuɴ
| |
| |-
| |
| | <PFV.AP>bite.NFCS || soldier.ABS || frog-ERG || OBL || die.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| A soldier bit a frog and died.
| |
| | |
| | |
| The (now absolutive) argument of the verb can be topicalised by putting it at the front of the sentence e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdla || 'kúowròemùesè || wùerùgin || `nyùe || kivieli-iewn
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮa || kouʔʁɜɦmɨɦsɘɦ || wɨɦʁuɦgiɴ || ɲɨɦ || kiɥeliʔeuɴ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier.ABS || <PFV.AP>bite.VFCS || frog-ERG || OBL || die.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| The soldier bit a frog and died.
| |
| | |
| | |
| However, the noun that was re-introduced with `nyùe cannot be topicalised, so the following sentence is ungrammatical:
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | wùerùgin || `nyùe || sowdla || 'kúowròemùesè || kivieli-iewn
| |
| |-
| |
| | wɨɦʁuɦgiɴ || ɲɨɦ || sɔudɮa || kouʔʁɜɦmɨɦsɘɦ || kiɥeliʔeuɴ
| |
| |-
| |
| | frog-ERG || OBL || soldier.ABS || <PFV.AP>bite.VFCS || die.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| The soldier bit a frog and died. (ungrammatical)
| |
| | |
| | |
| ====Subject Pronominal Affixes====
| |
| | |
| Pronouns must be marked by prefixes on every single verb that they are the subject of in a serial verb construction e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | wuebyuowchi-i || wuekivieli-iewn
| |
| |-
| |
| | wɨbʲouciʔi || wɨkiɥeliʔeuɴ
| |
| |-
| |
| | 1PS.INC.SUBJ.FUT-sick.VFCS || 1PS.INC.SUBJ.FUT-die.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| We (including you) will get sick and die.
| |
| | |
| | |
| With transitive verbs, there is no need for antipassivisation if the subject is a pronoun e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | wuekiròemùe || wùerù || wuekivieli-iewn
| |
| |-
| |
| | wɨkiʁɜɦmɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ || wɨkiɥeliʔeuɴ
| |
| |-
| |
| | 1PS.INC.SUBJ.FUT- bite.VFCS || frog.ABS || 1PS.INC.SUBJ.FUT-die.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| We (including you) will bite a frog and die.
| |
| | |
| | |
| Leaving the pronominal prefix off a verb in a serial verb construction means that that pronoun is no longer the subject of that verb. This changes the meaning entirely e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | wuekiròemùe || wùerù || kivieli-iewn
| |
| |-
| |
| | wɨkiʁɜɦmɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ || kiɥeliʔeuɴ
| |
| |-
| |
| | 1PS.INC.SUBJ.FUT- bite.VFCS || frog.ABS || 1PS.INC.SUBJ.FUT-die.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| We (including you) will bite a frog and it will die.
| |
| | |
| | |
| Note that, if a transitive verb takes a subject pronominal affix, then it can never take antipassive voice.
| |
| | |
| | |
| ===Relative Clauses===
| |
| | |
| These follow the noun they modify. There are no relative pronouns or relativising particles. However, the accessibility hierarchy is very important in Antarctican ({{lg|Relative_clause#Accessibility_hierarchy}}). Only absolutive arguments (objects of transitive verbs and subjects of intransitive verbs) can be relativised. So the following two phrases are grammatical:
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | wùerù || kivieli-iewn
| |
| |-
| |
| | wɨɦʁuɦ || kiɥeliʔeuɴ
| |
| |-
| |
| | frog.ABS || die.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| The frog, which died.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | wùerù || sowdlan || amielaykùe
| |
| |-
| |
| | wɨɦʁuɦ || sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | frog.ABS || soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| The frogs the soldier hunted.
| |
| | |
| | |
| However, to say "the soldier that hunted frogs", the verb must be put into the antipassive voice e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdla || utamielaykùe || wùerù || `nyùe
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || ʔutamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ || ɲɨɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier.ABS || <PFV.AP>hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS || OBL
| |
| |}
| |
| The soldier that hunted frogs.
| |
| | |
| | |
| Once a transitive verb takes the antipassive voice, the oblique argument (i.e. what used to be its object) can be freely left out e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdla || utamielaykùe
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || ʔutamelaikɨɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier.ABS || <PFV.AP>hunt.NFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| The soldier that hunted.
| |
| | |
| | |
| ===Negation===
| |
| | |
| Negation in Antarctican is achieved by using one of two particles, no /nɔ/ (known as general negation) and nay /nai/ (known as specific negation).
| |
| | |
| ====The Particle no /nɔ/ (General Negation)====
| |
| | |
| The normal way to negate a sentence is to put this immediately before the verb e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdlan || amielaykùe || wùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| Soldiers are hunting frogs.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdlan || no || amielaykùe || wùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || nɔ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier-ERG || NEG.GEN || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| Soldiers aren't hunting frogs.
| |
| | |
| | |
| Either the noun-focus form of the verb (as above), or the verb-focus form can be used e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdlan || no || amielaeychu || wùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || nɔ || ʔamelɛicu || wɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier-ERG || NEG.GEN || hunt.VFCS || frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| Soldiers aren't hunting frogs.
| |
| | |
| | |
| The default position for the particle is immediately before the verb, however it can be moved to in front of a noun as well. Doing so puts emphasis on negating that noun e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | no || sowdlan || amielaykùe || wùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | nɔ || sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | NEG.GEN || soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| ''Soldiers'' aren't hunting frogs (but someone else is).
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdlan || amielaykùe || no || wùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || nɔ || wɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || NEG.GEN || frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| Soldiers aren't hunting ''frogs'' (but they are hunting something else).
| |
| | |
| | |
| Note that in both of the above cases, the noun-focus form is used. Using the verb focus form "amielaykùe" here would be ungrammatical.
| |
| | |
| | |
| Also note that, if a noun is topicalised, then the particle cannot occur before it. So the following sentence is ungrammatical:
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | no.GEN || sowdla || amielaykùe || wùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | nɔ || sɔudɮa || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | NEG.GEN || soldier.ABS || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| | |
| ====The Particle nay /nai/ (Specific Negation)====
| |
| | |
| This is always placed after a verb, which must be in the verb-focus form. It is used for negation with emphasis on the verb e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdla || amielaeychu || nay || wùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮa || ʔamelɛicu || nai || wɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier.ABS || hunt.VFCS || NEG.SPFC|| frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| Soldiers aren't ''hunting'' frogs (but they are doing something else to them).
| |
| | |
| | |
| It is also used for negating a verb in a relative clause e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | wùerù || kivieli-iewn || `rèdla
| |
| |-
| |
| | wɨɦʁuɦ || kiɥeliʔeuɴ || ʁɘɦdɮa
| |
| |-
| |
| | frog.ABS || die.VFCS || red.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| The frog, which died, was red.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | wùerù || kivieli-iewn || nay || `rèdla
| |
| |-
| |
| | wɨɦʁuɦ || kiɥeliʔeuɴ || nai || ʁɘɦdɮa
| |
| |-
| |
| | frog.ABS || die.VFCS || NEG.SPFC || red.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| The frog, which didn't die, was red.
| |
| | |
| | |
| And since Antarctican makes no distinction between adjectives and verbs, and hence no distinction between an attributive adjective (one describing a noun), and a verb in a relative clause, this particle is also used to negate adjectives when they are describing nouns e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdlan || amielaykùe || wùerù || `rèdla
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ || ʁɘɦdɮa
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS || red.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| Soldiers are hunting red frogs.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdlan || amielaykùe || wùerù || `rèdla || nay
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ || ʁɘɦdɮa || nai
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS || red.VFCS || NEG.SPFC
| |
| |}
| |
| Soldiers aren't hunting ''red'' frogs (maybe they're hunting another colour).
| |
| | |
| | |
| ===Polar Questions===
| |
| | |
| A Yes/No question is formed by using either the particle du /du/, or /ka/ /ka/. These are known as the general and specific interrogatives respectively, and the usage of them very closely parallels the /no/ and /nai/ negative particles.
| |
| | |
| | |
| ====The Particle du (General Interrogative)====
| |
| | |
| The normal way to ask a polar question is to put this immediately before the verb e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdlan || amielaykùe || wùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| Soldiers are hunting frogs.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdlan || du || amielaykùe || wùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || du || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier-ERG || INT.GEN || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| Are soldiers hunting frogs?
| |
| | |
| | |
| Either the noun-focus form of the verb (as above), or the verb-focus form can be used e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdlan || du || amielaeychu || wùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || du || ʔamelɛicu || wɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier-ERG || INT.GEN || hunt.VFCS || frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| Are soldiers hunting frogs?
| |
| | |
| | |
| The default position for the particle is immediately before the verb, however it can be moved to in front of a noun as well. Doing so puts emphasis on questioning that noun;s involvement in the event being described, rather than whether or not the event actually happened e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | du || sowdlan || amielaykùe || wùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | du || sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | INT.GEN || soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| Are ''soldiers'' hunting frogs (or is it someone else)?
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdlan || amielaykùe || du || wùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || du || wɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || INT.GEN || frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| Are soldiers hunting ''frogs'' (or something else)?
| |
| | |
| | |
| Note that in both of the above cases, the noun-focus form is used. Using the verb focus form "amielaykùe" here would be ungrammatical.
| |
| | |
| | |
| Also note that, if a noun is topicalised, then the particle cannot occur before it. So the following sentence is ungrammatical:
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | du || sowdla || amielaykùe || wùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | du || sɔudɮa || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | INT.GEN || soldier.ABS || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| | |
| ====The Particle ka (Specific Interrogative)====
| |
| | |
| This is always placed after a verb, which must be in the verb-focus form. It is used when the noun's involvement in the event is not in question, rather the question is about what the action was e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdla || amielaeychu || ka || wùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮa || ʔamelɛicu || ka || wɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier.ABS || hunt.VFCS || INT.SPFC || frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| Are soldiers ''hunting'' frogs (or doing something else to them)?
| |
| | |
| | |
| It is also used for questioning a verb in a relative clause e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | wùerù || kivieli-iewn || `rèdla
| |
| |-
| |
| | wɨɦʁuɦ || kiɥeliʔeuɴ || ʁɘɦdɮa
| |
| |-
| |
| | frog.ABS || die.VFCS || red.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| The frog, which died, was red.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | wùerù || kivieli-iewn || ka || `rèdla
| |
| |-
| |
| | wɨɦʁuɦ || kiɥeliʔeuɴ || ka || ʁɘɦdɮa
| |
| |-
| |
| | frog.ABS || die.VFCS || INT.SPFC || red.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| Was it the frog that died that was red?
| |
| | |
| | |
| And since Antarctican makes no distinction between adjectives and verbs, and hence no distinction between an attributive adjective (one describing a noun), and a verb in a relative clause, this particle is also used to question adjectives when they are describing nouns e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdlan || amielaykùe || wùerù || `rèdla
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ || ʁɘɦdɮa
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS || red.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| Soldiers are hunting red frogs.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdlan || amielaykùe || wùerù || `rèdla || ka
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ || ʁɘɦdɮa || ka
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS || red.VFCS || INT.SPFC
| |
| |}
| |
| Are soldiers hunting ''red'' frogs (or another colour)?
| |
| | |
| | |
| ===Other Questions===
| |
| | |
| There are a whole host of other question particles in Antarctican, all of which have general and specific forms which follow the same syntactic rules as above.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Interrogative !! General !! Specific
| |
| |-
| |
| | Where / Which || duku || tuovi
| |
| |-
| |
| | When || tùownká || taensi
| |
| |-
| |
| | How (asking for a description) || duonna || chuowan
| |
| |-
| |
| | How much / How many / To what extent || kùey || chetnay
| |
| |-
| |
| | Why || tówta || tanmay
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| | |
| Below are some example questions using the words for "where":
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdlan || duku || amielaykùe || wùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || duku || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier-ERG || where.GEN || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| Where are soldiers are hunting frogs?
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | duku || sowdlan || amielaykùe || wùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | duku || sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | where.GEN || soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| Soldiers from where are hunting frogs?
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdlan || amielaykùe || duku || wùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ|| ʔamelaikɨɦ || duku || wɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || where.GEN || frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| Soldiers are hunting frogs from where?
| |
| | |
| | |
| As a specific interrogative particle, tuovi puts emphasis on a particular part of the question e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdla || amielaeychu || tuovi || wùerù
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮa || ʔamelɛicu || tuɥi || wɨɦʁuɦ
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier.ABS || hunt.VFCS || where.SPFC || frog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| Where are the soldiers ''hunting'' frogs (not doing anything else to them)?
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | wùerù || kivieli-iewn || tuovi || `rèdla
| |
| |-
| |
| | wɨɦʁuɦ || kiɥeliʔeuɴ || tuɥi || ʁɘɦdɮa
| |
| |-
| |
| | frog.ABS || die.VFCS || where.SPFC || red.VFCS
| |
| |}
| |
| The frog that died where was red?
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdlan || amielaykùe || wùerù || `rèdla || tuovi
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ || ʁɘɦdɮa || tuɥi
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS || red.VFCS || where.SPFC
| |
| |}
| |
| Where are soldiers hunting ''red'' frogs (as opposed to some other colour)?
| |
| | |
| | |
| ===Ditransitives===
| |
| | |
| Antarctican differs from English in that it has secundative alignment ({{lg|Secundative_language}}). Take, for example, the following sentence:
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | sowdlan || òey || yini
| |
| |-
| |
| | sɔudɮaɴ || ʔɜiɦ || jini
| |
| |-
| |
| | soldier-ERG || give.NFCS || dog.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| A soldier is giving (something to) a dog.
| |
| | |
| | |
| This can only ever mean that the soldier is giving something to a dog, never that the soldier is giving the dog to someone.
| |
| | |
| | |
| A similar situation is found when an object pronominal infix (which makes a verb intransitive for the purposes of case marking on and positioning of the subject) is used on the verb e.g.
| |
| | |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | asòey || sowdla
| |
| |-
| |
| | ʔasɜiɦ || sɔudɮ
| |
| |-
| |
| | <1PS.INC.OBJ>give.NFCS || soldier.ABS
| |
| |}
| |
| A soldier is giving (something to) us (including you).
| |
| | |
| | |
| If we want to introduce the Theme (whatever is being given), the default construction places it in the ergative case, followed by `wù /wuɦ/ and after the recipient e.g.
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |-
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| | sowdlan || òey || yini || aaehaan-ga || `wù
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| |-
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| | sɔudɮaɴ || ʔɜiɦ || jini || ʔɛːχaːɴga || wuɦ
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| |-
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| | soldier-ERG || give.NFCS || dog.ABS || food-ERG || THEME
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| |}
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| A soldier is giving food to a dog.
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| | asòey || sowdla || aaehaan-ga || `wù
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| |-
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| | ʔasɜiɦ || sɔudɮ || ʔɛːχaːɴga || wuɦ
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| |-
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| | <1PS.INC.OBJ>give.NFCS || soldier.ABS || food-ERG || THEME
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| |}
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| A soldier is giving us food.
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| If we want to remove the Recipient from the sentence, then the verb must take the antipassive voice e.g.
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| | òemòey || sowdla || aaehaan-ga || `wù
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| |-
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| | ʔɜmɜiɦ || sɔudɮ || ʔɛːχaːɴga || wuɦ
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| |-
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| | <IMPV.AP>give.NFCS || soldier.ABS || food-ERG || THEME
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| |}
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| A soldier is giving food.
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| ====Pronominal Themes====
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| If the Theme is a pronoun, then instead of `wu taking a noun before it, it is prefixed with the same prefixes that mark subject on verbs (with breathy voice spread onto them) e.g.
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| | sowdlan || òey || yini || `wèwù
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| | sɔudɮaɴ || ʔɜiɦ || jini || wɘɦwuɦ
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| | soldier-ERG || give.NFCS || dog.ABS || <1PS.INCL.PRES>THEME
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| |}
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| A soldier is giving us (including you) to a dog.
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| If the Recipient is omitted, then the verb takes the antipassive voice as before e.g.
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| | òemòey || sowdla || `wèwù
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| |-
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| | ʔɜmɜiɦ || sɔudɮa || wɘɦwuɦ;
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| | <IMPV.AP>give.NFCS || soldier.ABS || <1PS.INCL.PRES>THEME
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| |}
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| A soldier is giving us (to something / someone).
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| Like the prefixes on verbs, these prefixes inflect for tense e.g.
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| | òemòey || sowdla || chùewù
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| |-
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| | ʔɜmɜiɦ || sɔudɮa || cɨɦwuɦ;
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| | <IMPV.AP>give.NFCS || soldier.ABS || <1PS.INCL.PAST>THEME
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| |}
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| A soldier was giving us (to something / someone).
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| | òemòey || sowdla || `wùewù
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| | ʔɜmɜiɦ || sɔudɮa || wɨɦwuɦ;
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| | <IMPV.AP>give.NFCS || soldier.ABS || <1PS.INCL.FUT>THEME
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| |}
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| A soldier will be giving us (to something / someone).
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| [[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]] | | [[Category:Languages]][[Category:Languages]][[Category:Antarctican]] |