Gur language

Phonology

Consonants

Gur consonants

	Bilabial	Alveolar	Post-alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	m	n			ŋ
Plosive	p b	t d			k g
Fricative		s z	ʃ		x	h
Trill		r
Lateral approximant		l
Approximant				j	w

Note:

• The consonants /j/ and /w/ are analyzed as non-vocalic vowels /i̯/ and /u̯/.
• N is pronounced /ŋ/ before velar consonants.

Vowels

Gur has a simple system of five vowels, which can be either short or long.

	Front		Central		Back
	short	long	short	long	short	long
Close	i	iː			u	uː
Open-mid	ɛ	ɛː			ɔ	ɔː
Open			a	aː

Stress

Words are stressed on the antepenultimate syllable. The stress falls on the penultimate syllable if the last syllable has a long vowel or the penult is heavy. A syllable is heavy if it ends in a long vowel or in a vowel and a consonant.

Grammar

Nouns

First declension

Masculine nouns

First declension: aχkas, m. (boy)
Case	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	aχk-as	aχk-in	aχk-ai
Genitive	aχk-ȗ	aχk-an	aχk-ain
Dative	aχk-ȋ	aχk-ȃni	aχk-ȃsi
Accusative	aχk-i	aχk-ȇni	aχk-un
Ablative	aχk-ak	aχk-am	aχk-ais
Locative	aχk-ȋ	aχk-an	aχk-ain

The vocative case (used to address someone in direct speech) is identical to the nominative form, except in the masculine singular of the first declension (-as → -e).

Feminine nouns in -a

First declension: miwa, f. (tongue, language)
Case	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	miw-a	miw-in	miw-ai
Genitive	miw-ȗ	miw-an	miw-ain
Dative	miw-ȋ	miw-ȃni	miw-ȃsi
Accusative	miw-u	miw-ȇs	miw-es
Ablative	miw-ak	miw-am	miw-ais
Locative	miw-ȋ	miw-an	miw-ain

Feminine nouns in -ȋa

First declension: mantȋa, f. (blackberry)
Case	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	mant-ȋa	mant-ȋn	mant-ȋes
Genitive	mant-iȗ	mant-ȋan	mant-ȋain
Dative	mant-ȋ	mant-iȃni	mant-ȋsi
Accusative	mant-ȋu	mant-ȋs	mant-ȋes
Ablative	mant-ȋak	mant-ȋam	mant-ȋais
Locative	mant-ȋ	mant-ȋan	mant-ȋain

Neuter nouns

First declension: luri, n. (evening)
Case	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	lur-i	lur-in	lur-ia
Genitive	lur-ȗ	lur-an	lur-ain
Dative	lur-ȋ	lur-ȃni	lur-ȃsi
Accusative	lur-i	lur-in	lur-ia
Ablative	lur-ak	lur-am	lur-ais
Locative	lur-ȋ	lur-an	lur-ain

Second declension

Masculine and feminine nouns

Second declension: kar, m. (fish)
Case	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	kar	kar-in	kar-un
Genitive	kar-as	kar-an	kar-ain
Dative	kar-ȋ	kar-ȃni	kar-si
Accusative	kar-u	kar-in	kar-un
Ablative	kar-ak	kar-am	kar-ais
Locative	kar-ȋ	kar-an	kar-ain

If the stem does not end in vowel + l, n, r, χ, the dative plural ending is -ȇsi.

Neuter nouns

Second declension: śendil, n. (wing)
Case	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	śendil	śendil-in	śendil-un
Genitive	śendil-as	śendil-an	śendil-ain
Dative	śendil-ȋ	śendil-ȃni	śendil-si
Accusative	śendil	śendil-in	śendil-un
Ablative	śendil-ak	śendil-am	śendil-ais
Locative	śendil-ȋ	śendil-an	śendil-ain

Third declension (masculine and feminine nouns)

Third declension: drenis, m., f. (deer)
Case	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	dren-is	dren-in	dren-un
Genitive	dren-as	dren-an	dren-ain
Dative	dren-ȋ	dren-ȃni	dren-si
Accusative	dren-u	dren-in	dren-un
Ablative	dren-ak	dren-am	dren-ais
Locative	dren-ȋ	dren-an	dren-ain

Adjectives

Types

First-declension adjectives are declined like first-declension nouns for the masculine, feminine, and neuter forms; for example, olmas, olma, olmi “holy, sacred”.

Second-declension adjectives are declined like second-declension nouns. They have one form for the masculine, feminine, and neuter nominative singular (such as raś “green”).

Comparative and superlative forms

Comparison of adjectives is formed by suffixing. Adjectives have three degrees: positive (the normal form of the adjectives), comparative, and superlative.

The suffixes are:

• comparative: -ial / -al (olmial, raśal)
• superlative: -ȇmas, -ȇma, -ȇmi (olmȇmas, raśȇmas)

The suffix -eg- corresponds to “too”; for example, olmegas “too holy”.

Adverbs

Types

A first-declension adjective is made into an adverb by adding -ȃ onto its base (olmȃ). A second-declension adjective is made into an adverb by adding -en onto its base (raśen).

Comparative and superlative forms

The comparative is made in the same way in which the comparison of the adjective is formed (olmial). However, adverbs from second-declension adjectives form the comparative by using an additional infix (raśawal).

Both types of adverbs have regular superlative forms (olmȇmȃ, raśȇmȃ).

Verbs

The infinitive of the verb ends in -ȃn.

Indicative

Active voice

Person	Singular	Dual/Plural
1st	-a-m	-ȃ-mi
2nd	-a-s	-ȃ-si
3rd	-a-t	-ȃ-ti

Passive voice

In the passive voice, the grammatical subject of the verb is the recipient (not the doer) of the action denoted by the verb.

The passive voice is made up of the passive participle of the main verb and a form of the auxiliary verb ejȃn “to be”, such as miś śarbamȇnas jam “I am beloved”.

Middle voice

The middle voice is in the middle between the active and the passive voices because the subject cannot be categorized as either agent or patient but may have elements of both; for example, nȗbȃn “to sweat”.

Person	Singular	Dual/Plural
1st	-ȃ-ma	-ȃ-mai
2nd	-ȃ-sa	-ȃ-sai
3rd	-ȃ-ta	-ȃ-tai

Subjunctive

The subjunctive is used for statements contrary to fact. It can be formed from the indicative mood by replacing the vowel -a- (-ȃ-) with -e- (-ȇ-); for example, miś zalem “I would sing”.

Tenses

The verbs are conjugated in six main tenses (present, past, and future imperfect and perfect, respectively). The perfect tenses are formed by adding the imperfect tenses of the verb ejȃn onto the main verb.

Tense	Imperfect	Perfect
Present	-a-m	-a-jam
Past	-ȇs-a-m	-a-siam
Future	-ȇr-a-m	-a-χam

Syntax

Constituent order

Word order is subject–object–verb.