Valthungian

Gutish is an East Germanic language descended from a language that was probably mutually intelligible with Gothic, though much of its corpus cannot have been inherited from the language of Wulfilas. It is likely, however, that the speakers of the ancestor of Gutish did consider themselves Goths, as reflected in its name. (It is likely similar in development to Modern High German – Deutsch – which is not directly descended from Old High German, but rather a similar dialect spoken by a group who also considered themselves “Diutisk.”) While it shares many of the areal changes of the Northwest Germanic languages, it is also marked by distinctive changes in palatalization, which, while similar to those of Old English, are most likely influenced by contact with Slavic languages.

Writing System

Alphabet & Pronunciation

[ɑ] aska ‘ash’	[e̞ː] ǣjus ‘horse’	[b] berkna ‘birch’	[ɡ] giva ‘gift’	[ʤ] ǧus ‘creature’	[d] daǧ ‘day’	[ð] ǣði ‘mother’	[e̞] erða ‘earth’
[ʐ] akuža ‘axe’	[h] haglas ‘hail’	[θ] þornus ‘thorn’	[i] igil ‘hedgehog’	[j] jēr ‘year’	[k] kune ‘family’	[l] lagus ‘lake’	[m] matna ‘man’
[n] nǭþs ‘need’	[o̞] orte ‘garden’	[p] perðra ‘chance’	[r] rǣða ‘wheel’	[s] sōgil ‘sun’	[ʃ] šug ‘family’	[t] tījus ‘Teu’	[ʧ] čusins ‘chioce’
[u] uvils ‘bad’	[v] ivras ‘boar’	[f] fǣjo ‘cattle’	[w] wynia ‘joy’	[ø̞] œrča ‘farmer’	[y] ynča ‘ounce’	[o̞ː] ǭsus ‘ox’

Non-Alphabetic Variants

[ɑː] āde ‘egg’	[iː] ēls ‘eel’	[ai̯] īs ‘ice’	[uː] ōðlas ‘inheritance’	[au̯] ūrus ‘aurochs’	[ø̞ː] œ̄ja ‘island’	[yː] ȳftigi ‘timeliness’

Though the seven long vowels of the Non-Alphabetic Variants have individual names, they are not considered to be part of the standard alphabet or alphabetical order. Instead, each long vowel is considered alphabetically to be the equivalent of its doubled short counterpart. That is, ‹ā› is equivalent to ‹aa›, ‹ē› to ‹ee›, ‹ī› to ‹ii›, and so on. This becomes complicated by the fact that all long vowels except for ‹ā› are raised, though it’s not actually any different than what happens to the letter names in English. (The long vowels ‹ǣ› and ‹ǭ› are included in the standard alphabetical order, and do not have short forms, though they are written with macrons in their Romanized forms.)

(NB: The Gutish alphabet, while mainly latin- and cyrillic-based, contains several characters which are not readily representable using the standard Unicode characters. The forms presented in this wiki are a Romanization of the letters shown in the table above.)

Orthography

The orthography of Gutish is quite regular to its phonology; indeed, there are very few exceptions – four, in fact:

1. The letter ‹n› is used before ‹g› or ‹k› to indicate the velar nasal [ŋ]. Specifically, ‹ng› is [ŋg] and ‹nk› is [ŋk]. (E.g. drinkna [driŋk.na] ‘to drink’.)
2. In combinations where ‹ng› is followed by another nasal consonant, [g] is elided in speech: ‹ngm› is [ŋm] and ‹ngn› is [ŋn]. (E.g. gangna [gaŋ.na] ‘to go’; not **[gaŋg.na].)
3. The diphthong ‹eu› is realized as [ɛu̯] (rather than the expected [e̞u̯]). (E.g. sneugna [snɛu̯g.na] ‘to snow’.)
4. The diphthong ‹øu› is realized as [œy̑] (rather than the expected [ø̞u̯]).

Stress is indicated in the standard orthography with an acute accent only if:

1. The stress is not on the first syllable, and
2. the stressed syllable is a short vowel. (Long vowels cannot be unstressed, though they may sometimes take secondary stress.)

For example, fergúne ‘mountain’, but garǣts ‘correct’.

Ligatures & Liaisons

When two like vowels of equal value come together, the words may form a ligature. This is most common with the articles (sā + a-, sō + u-, etc.) and particles (e.g nī + i-).

• Articles
  • Mandatory:
    • sā, hwā, twā + a-, ā- → s’ā-, hw’ā-, tw’ā-
      • sā aplas → s’āplas, ‘the apple’
      • twā aðna → tw’āðna ‘two seasons’
    • sō, þō, hō + u-, ō- → s’ō-, þ’ō-, h’ō-
      • sō uréča → s’ōréča, ‘the persuit’
      • sō ōs → s’ōs, ‘the ewe’
    • þǣ, twǣ + e-, ǣ- → þ’ǣ-, tw’ǣ-
      • þǣ ǣjus → þ’ǣjus ‘the horses’
      • twǣ elis → tw’ǣlis ‘two others’
    • nī, þrī, hī + i-, ī- → n’ī-, þr’ī-, h’ī-
      • nī ist → n’īst, ‘isn’t’
      • hī īsran → h’īsran ‘this iron’
  • Optional:
    • sō, þō + V- → sw’V-, þw’V-
      • sō akuže, sw’akuže ‘the axe’
      • þō ī, þw’ī ‘those which’

Alternative Writing Systems

Cursive

Coming soon...

Romanization

	a	[ɑ]		ā	[ɑː]		á	['a]
	ǣ	[eː]
	b	[b]
	č	[ʧ]
	d	[d]
	ð	[ð]
	e	[e̞]		ē	[iː]		é	['e̞]
	f	[f]
	g	[ɡ]
	ǧ	[ʤ]
	h	[h]
	i	[i]		ī	[ai̯]		í	['i]
	j	[j]
	k	[k]
	l	[l]
	m	[m]
	n	[n]
	o	[o̞]		ō	[uː]		ó	['o̞]
	ǭ	[o̞ː]
	œ	[ø̞]		œ̄	[ø̞ː]		œ́	['ø̞]
	p	[p]
	r	[ɾ]
	s	[s]
	š	[ʃ]
	t	[t]
	u	[u]		ū	[au̯]		ú	['u]
	v	[v]
	w	[w]
	y	[y]		ȳ	[yː]		ý	['y]
	ž	[ʐ]
	þ	[θ]

Transcriptional Alphabet for Intermediate Language Changes

Phonetic transliteration is not used regularly in Gutish, but is used frequently when discussing issues of historical linguistic significance to the language. This is a merger of the Latin Transliteration (above) and phonetic notation (IPA), aimed to be more precise than transliteration but less cumbersome than IPA. Characters with standard values continue to be written with the Latin transliteration (above), but others may have slightly different values. For the purposes of historical comparison, a standardized character set is used for Proto-Germanic, Gothic, and Gutish. All three alphabets are used throughout this work; those using this phonetic transcription are enclosed in slashes (/); Latin transliteration is generally italicized.

Gothic	Gothic Translit-eration	IPA	Transcription	Gutish Translit-eration	Gutish
	a	ɑ	a	a
	ā	ɑː	ā	ā
	aj	ɑi̯	ai	ī
	aw	ɑu̯	au	ū
	b	b	b	b
		β	β
		ʧ	č	č
	d	d	d	d
		ð	ð	ð
	aí	ɛ~e̞	e	e
	ai	ɛː	ɛ̄
		ɛu̯	eu	eu
	ē	eː	ē	ǣ
	f	f	f	f
	g	g	g	g
		ɣ	ɣ
	h	h	h	h
	ƕ	hʷ~ʍ	hw	hw
	i	i~ɪ	i	i
	ei	iː	ī	ē
	j	j	j	j
	k	k~kʰ	k	k
	q	kʷ~kw	kw	kw
	l	l	l	l
		l̩	l̩
	m	m	m	m
		m̩	m̩
	n	n	n	n
		n̩	n̩
	gg	ŋg	ng	ng
		ŋm	ngm	ngm
		ŋn	ngn	ngn
	gk	ŋk	nk	nk
	gq	ŋkw~ŋkʷ	nkw	nkw
	aú	ɔ~o̞	o	o
	au	ɔː	ɔ̄
	ō	oː	ō	ǭ
		œ	œ1
		œː	œ̄1
		ø̞	ø	œ
		ø̞ː	ø̄	œ̄
		œy̑	œy	œu
	p	p~pʰ	p	p
	r	ɾ~r	r	r
		ɾ̩~r̩	ɾ̩~r̩
	s	s	s	s
		ʃ	š	š
	t	t~tʰ	t	t
	þ	θ	þ	þ
	u	u~ʊ	u	u
	ū	uː	ū	ō
		v	v	v
	w	w	w	w
		ɯ~ʏ	υ2
		y	y	y
		yː	ȳ	ȳ
	z	z	z
		ʐ	ž	ž

¹ /œ/ and /œ̄/ represent an intermediate stage in the development of the Gutish language which occurs in the phonemic inventory of neither Gothic nor Gutish.

² When it appears as a vowel, 𐍅 was used in Gothic to transliterate the Greek letter υ, and did not occur otherwise in the phonemic inventory of Gothic.

Phonology

There is a lot that happens in Gutish when words encounter other words or receive certain inflectional endings. Generally this has to do with the letter ending a root.

Roots ending in ‹d› or ‹g›, for instance, become palatalized before ‹s›. E.g. the nominative form of dag ‘day’ is daǧ rather than the otherwise expected **dags. Furthermore, ‹d› becomes spirantized between two vowels, so some roots may have as many as three forms for one declension. E.g. bard ‘beard’ has the nominative form barǧ, dative barða, and accusative bard. More of this will be discussed in the chapters on declension of Nouns and Adjectives and the conjugation of Verbs, but some basics will be laid out here.

[r]-Assimilation

This is a persistent rule that does not have much effect on declensions within the language, but does have some effect on the development of certain words. This rule is described in the Rules chapter of this document in Assimilation of [ɾ]. Specifically, /r/ is deleted when immediately followed by /ž/. For example, the possessive adjective inkur ‘our’, from earlier inkwar has the genitive plural form inkuža from earlier inkwarɛ̄zō rather than the otherwise expected **inkurža.

Voicing Alternation

This rule is inherited from Gothic or perhaps even Proto-Germanic. The rule is not persistent, but the variation in forms still affects the inflections of nouns, verbs, and adjectives in Gutish. (A similar v/f alternation rule exists in English, for example in singular knife and plural knives, or the noun strife and the verb strive.) The Gothic version of this rule caused alternation between ‹f› or ‹þ›, used only at the end of a word, and ‹b› or ‹d›, used elsewhere, e.g. giban, ‘to give’, gaf, ‘gave’. There are three main realizations of this rule in Gutish:

• v → f
• ð → þ } at the end of a word, or before an unvoiced consonant.
• ž → s

The implications of this rule for Gutish are:

• ‹f› or ‹þ› occur before ‹s› in the nominative singular of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, e.g. þlǣfs ‘loaf of bread’, but genitive þlǣvis.
• ‹f› or ‹þ› occur when word-final in the accusative of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, and the nominative and accusative of neuter strong nouns, e.g. blōþ ‘blood’, but genitive blōðis.
• ‹f› occurs when word-final or before ‹t› in the preterit singular and the second person imperative singular of strong verbs, e.g. gaf, gaft, ‘gave’, but infinitive givna.
• ‹þ› also occurs when word-final in the preterit singular and imperative, but is assimilated to ‹s› before ‹t› in the second person preterit (see Coronal Consonant Assimilation below).
• The implications for ‹s› and ‹ž› can be a little trickier, because this split was not uniform in Gothic times, so many words retain ‹s› throughout the paradigm. These are noted in the lexicon and must be learned by rote.

Please note that because this rule is not persistent, there are several words which later developed an intervocalic ‹f› or ‹þ› from earlier ‹h› which is not affected by this rule.

Palatalization

Palatalization is another historic rule that is no longer persistent in Gutish, but has wide-ranging implications for inflections in Gutish. There are actually several types of palatalization that occur in Gutish, but they can all be boiled down into the following rules:

• Masculine and feminine nouns whose roots end in ‹d› or ‹g› become palatalized before ‹s› in the nominative singular of a-, i-, and u-stems (but not feminine ō-stems). E.g. Gothic dags ‘day’ becomes daǧ. This type of palatalization only occurs when there was a /dz/ or /gz/ present in the language at some point historically (from Gothic /ds/ or /gs/).
• A much more common form of palatalization, however, is that which occurs whenever the ending of a noun, verb, or adjective begins with ‹j›, e.g. strong masculine ja-stem nouns or adjectives or class 1 weak verbs. In these cases, the following occurs:
  • ‹d› or ‹g› + ‹j› → ‹ǧ›
  • ‹t› or ‹k› + ‹j› → ‹č›
  • ‹s› or ‹h› + ‹j› → ‹š›
  • ‹z› + ‹j› → ‹ž› (and so do all other instances of ‹z›, but that’s not applicable to this section.)

[b]/[v] Alternation

A less common alternation is that of ‹b› and ‹v›. This occurs specifically in inflections where some endings begin with ‹j› while others do not; for instance, the strong masculine ija-stem ending of nouns and adjectives. In this paradigm, the nominative, genitive, and accusative of the singular all have ‹v› from earlier ‹b› (because it is intervocalic), but the rest of the paradigm has ‹b›, because it was historically followed by ‹j›, which prevents the intervocalic shift. For example, the adjective drœ̄vis ‘muddy’ has the dative singular form drœ̄bia.

Umlaut

Umlaut is another of those sound laws that no longer happens actively in the language, but it has become indicative of specific tenses or cases in the language.

• Accusative singular nouns with palatalization are not umlauted. All other forms of nouns with palatalization are umlauted.
• The past subjunctive of verbs is umlauted (except for the 3rd person singular in formal speech). (First person singular is palatalized and umlauted.)
• Most class 1 weak verbs and strong verbs ending in –jan in Gothic have umlaut in the present and imperative. These verbs all end with –in in Gutish.

Umlaut in Gutish initiates the following changes in the stressed vowel of a word:

• ‹a› → ‹e› - satjan ‘to set’ → sečin
• ‹ā› → ‹ǣ› - hlahjan ‘to laugh’ → þlǣn
• ‹ǭ› → ‹œ̄› -
• ‹o› → ‹œ› -
• ‹ō› → ‹œ̄› - hwōtjan ‘to threaten’ → hwœ̄čin
• ‹u› → ‹y› - hugjan ‘to think’ → hyǧin
• ‹ū› → ‹ȳ› -

NB: Umlaut can refer to several different types of vowel change in Germanic languages – i/j-umlaut, u/w-umlaut, and a-umlaut most common – but only one type is present in Gutish. Umlaut here is used to refer specifically to i/j-umlaut, also known as i-umlaut, or front umlaut.

NB for Linguists: The asymmetrical nature of the umlaut is the result of a later change to the long vowels. See Umlaut in the Rules at the end of this document.

Coronal Consonant Assimilation

This rule has a formidable name, but is actually common to all Germanic languages. This rule states that whenever a coronal consonant (namely, ‹d›, ‹t›, or ‹þ›) is directly followed by ‹t› or ‹st›, the coronal consonant becomes ‹s›. This accounts for the English word best, from earlier betst, from *batest. This applies mainly to second person preterit strong verbs, e.g. ǧutna ‘to pour’ has a past of gǭst ‘you poured’, rather than the expected **gǭtt.

Syncope of Unstressed Non-High Middle Vowel

...um, working on it. I'll get back to you on this one...

Blocking of Metathetical Unpacking

Another formidable name, but what this means is that historically a sound change caused ‹a› to disappear before a sonorant (‹l›, ‹r›, ‹m›, or ‹n›), turning them into syllabics, and merging them with other pre-existing syllabics from Gothic. Later on, syllabics were “unpacked;” that is, they regained the ‹a› that had been lost, but it now appeared after the sonorant instead of before it. For example, brōþar ‘brother’ became brōðra via an intermediate *brōðr̩. However, there are a few instances where this unpacking didn’t happen because the ‹a› before the sonorant could not be deleted; if it were, the word would have been unpronounceable. Metathesis is also blocked after any non-intervocalic voiced continuant; that is, V[v/ð]S shifts as expected (e.g. widan > wiðn̩ > wiðna), but VC[v/ð]S does not (e.g. haldan > halðan, not **halðna).

The practicality of this rule as it applies to modern Gutish is that:

• Dative plural nouns whose roots end in ‹–m› have the ending of ‹–am› rather than ‹–ma›, e.g. worms ‘worm’ has the dative plural of wormam rather than **wormma.
• Masculine and feminine accusative plural strong nouns ending in ‹–n› have the ending of ‹–ans› rather than ‹–nas›, e.g. ǭns ‘oven’ has the accusative plural of ǭnans rather than **ǭnnas.
• Infinitives of strong verbs and weak class 3 verbs whose roots end with ‹lð›, ‹lv›, ‹rð›, or ‹rv› have ‹–an› instead of ‹–na›, e.g. Gothic þaurban becomes þorvan rather than the otherwise expected **þorvna.

Assimilation of [r] and [s]

Historically, this is a sound change that occurred in the transition from Proto-Germanic to Gothic and is no longer persistent, but it has specific reflexes that affect Gutish paradigms.

The change initially applies to "light"-syllable nouns with stems ending in ‹-s› or ‹-r› in the masculine and feminine classes that take a final ‹-z› in the nominative singular. E.g. PGmc. *weraz, *drusiz → (Mora Loss: Short Unstressed Vowel Deletion) → *werz, *drusz → (Final Obstruent Devoicing) → wers, druss → (r/s-Assimilation) → Gothic waír /wer/, drus.

Later, beginning around the time of Middle Gutish, this change was expanded analogously to other nouns and adjectives which had "heavy" syllables, and eventually the rule emerged that nouns and adjectives ending in ‹-r› and ‹-s› do not take an (additional) ‹-s› in the nominative singular, though they otherwise follow the paradigm of their particular stem.

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
1sg	ik	mīn	mis	mik	I, my, (to) me, me
2sg	þū	þīn	þis	þik	thou, thy, (to) thee, thee
3sg.masc	is	is	itma	in	he, his, (to) him, him
3sg.neu	it	is	itma	it	it, its, (to) it, it
3sg.fem	sī	ižas	iža	ī, īja	she, her, (to) her, her
1du	wit	unkar	unkis	unk	we two, our, (to) us, us
2du	jut	inkur	inkus	ink	you/ye two, your, (to) you, you
1pl	wīs	unsar	unsis	uns	we all, our, (to) us, us
2pl	jūs	ižur	ižus	ižus	you/ye all, your, (to) you, you
3pl.masc	īs	iža	im	ins	they, their, (to) them, them
3pl.neu	ī, īja	iža	im	ī, īja	they, their, (to) them, them
3pl.fem	ījas	iža	im	ījas	they, their, (to) them, them

Relative Pronouns

There are two types of relative pronouns in Gutish, and although they are used interchangeably, I present them here in two separate tables: The first (more common) forms are with the Gothic clitic particle ei- having separated from the pronouns (see Clitic Separation), and the second, more “traditional” forms where the clitic is still attached to the word.

	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
sg.masc	is ī	þis ī	þatm’ī	þan ī		iži	þiži	þetmi	þeni
sg.neu	þat ī	þis ī	þatm’ī	þat ī		þī, þeti	þiži	þetmi	þī, þeti
sg.fem	sō ī, sw’ī	þižas ī	þiž’ī	þō ī, þw’ī		sī	þižaži	þiži	þī
pl.masc	īs ī, þǣ ī	þiž’ī	þǣm ī	þans ī		iži	þiži	þǣmi	þenǧi
pl.neu	þō ī, þw’ī	þiž’ī	þǣm ī	þō ī, þw’ī		þœ̄gi	þiži	þǣmi	þœ̄gi
pl.fem	þōs ī	þiž’ī	þǣm ī	þōs ī		þœ̄ži	þiži	þǣmi	þœ̄ži

Indefinite Pronouns

	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
inter.masc	hwas	hwis	hwatma	hwan	who, whose, to whom, whom
inter.neu	hwā	hwis	hwatma	hwat	what, &c, plural.
inter.fem	hō	hwižas	hwiža	hō	who, &c, plural.
gen.	sist	is	itma	sist	one, one’s, &c
neg.	nima hun	nimis hun	nimin hun	nimna hun	noöne, noöne’s, &c
refl.	-	sīn	sis	sik	himself, herself, itself, &c

Numbers

Declinable Numerals

Singular

	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.	ǣns	ǣnis	ǣnatma	ǣnan
neu.	ǣn(at)	ǣnis	ǣnatma	ǣn(at)
fem.	ǣna	ǣnažas	ǣna	ǣna

Dual

	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.	twǣ	twǣǧa	twǣm	twans
neu.	twā	twǣǧa	twǣm	twā
fem.	tōs	twǣǧa	twǣm	tōs

Dual Distributive (short form)

	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.	bǣ	bǣža	bǣm	bans
neu.	bā	bǣža	bǣm	bā
fem.	bījas	bǣža	bǣm	bījas

Dual Distributive (long form)

	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.	bījaþs	bīðiža	bīðum	bīðans
neu.	bījaþ	bīðiža	bīðum	bījaþ
fem.	bīðas	bīðiža	bīðum	bīðas

Trial

	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.	þrīs	þrīja	þrim	þrins
neu.	þrī	þrīja	þrim	þrī
fem.	þrīs	þrīja	þrim	þrins

Trial Distributive

	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.	þrǣ	þrǣža	þrǣm	þrans
neu.	þrā	þrǣža	þrǣm	þrā
fem.	þrījas	þrǣža	þrǣm	þrījas

Undeclinable Numerals

	#	1#	#0	#00	#000	#000
0	(nǣns)	tǣjun, tēn	-tiǧis	tēhund	þūsunde	-ljǭn
1	(ǣns)	ǣnlif	tǣjun	ǣn hund	ǣna þūsunde	miljǭn
2	(twǣ)	twalif	twǣtiǧis	twā hunda	tōs þūsunǧis	biljǭn
3	(þrīs)	þrījatǣn	þrīstiǧis	þrī hunda	þrī þūsunǧis	þriljǭn
4	fiður, fiðra	fiðratǣn	fiðratiǧis	fiður hunda	fiður þūsunǧis	friljǭn
5	fim	fimtǣn	fimtiǧis	fim hunda	fim þūsunǧis	fimfiljǭn
6	sǣs	sǣstǣn	sǣstiǧis	sǣs hunda	sǣs þūsunǧis	sǣsiljǭn
7	sivun, sivna	sivnatǣn	sivnatiǧis	sivun hunda	sivun þūsunǧis	sivniljǭn
8	āta	ātatǣn	ātatiǧis	āta hunda	āta þūsunǧis	ātatiljǭn
9	njun	njuntǣn	njuntiǧis	njun hunda	njun þūsunǧis	njuniljǭn

The numbers in Gutish – as in most languages – have gone through more phonological change than other words, and as a result, there are some irregularities. Four numbers have two forms (some of which may be optional). There is also an innovated trial distributive (‘all three’), probably by assimilation from the dual (‘both’). The number ‘one’, usually alternating with the indefinite article in most languages, is used merely for counting purposes, as an indefinite article is not used in Gutish.

The number ‘four’ is fiður, where we would normally expect **fidur through regular sound change (specifically, the change of /d/ to /ð/ would normally be blocked by the following /w/ in fidwōr). There is also a further lenited form of fiðra, which is optional when it stands alone, but required in compounds. (Gothic also had two versions of ‘four’: fidwōr and a compound form fidur.)

The number ‘seven’ has the expected form of sivun, but also a lenited form of sivna, again, required in compounds but otherwise optional. ‘Eight’ is āta, but may optionally be lenited to āt. (This is a newer innovation, and is not considered to be correct in writing.) Finally ‘ten’ is tǣjun or lenited tǣn, the latter being used exclusively in the “teen” numbers, the former being preferred elsewhere, though still optional.

Number terms higher than ‘thousand’ are ostensibly borrowed from Latin, though they contain their own Germanic innovations, e.g. þriljǭn ‘trillion’, fiðriljǭn ‘quadrillion’, fimfiljǭn ‘quintillion’, instead of the expected **triljǭn, **kwaðriljǭn, and **kwintiljǭn.

Another note concerning the higher numbers: Gutish follows the short scale for higher numbers (whereas most European countries currently use the long scale); that is, each new number term is one thousand times larger than the previous term (whereas in the long scale, each new term is one million times larger). This is further confused by the now-standard European “hybrid” model where intermediate terms in the long scale are applied to the “thousands” with the suffix ‘-ard’. The following table is applicable to most modern standards:

N⁰	Numerals	Gutish	Short	Hybrid	Long	Metric
10³	1,000	þūsunde	thousand	thousand	thousand	kilo
10⁶	1,000,000	miljǭn	million	million	million	Mega
10⁹	1,000,000,000	biljǭn	billion	milliard	thousand million	Giga
10¹²	1,000,000,000,000	þriljǭn	trillion	billion	billion	Tera
10¹⁵	1,000,000,000,000,000	fiðriljǭn	quadrillion	billiard	thousand billion	Peta
10¹⁸	1,000,000,000,000,000,000	fimfiljǭn	quintillion	trillion	trillion	Exa
10²¹	1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000	sǣsiljǭn	sextillion	trilliard	thousand trillion	Zetta
10²⁴	1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000	sivniljǭn	septillion	quadrillion	quadrillion	Yotta
10²⁷	1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000	ātatiljǭn	octillion	quadrilliard	thousand quadrillion	-
10³⁰	1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000	njuniljǭn	nonillion	quintillion	quintillion	-

Ordinal Numbers

Ordinal numbers are usually formed by adding a dental suffix to the end of a number, though there is some suppletion for the first and second ordinals, and the third is irregular (just as is the case in English).

In Proto-Germanic and Gothic, all of the ordinals except for first and second used only the weak declension, but all ordinals now use both strong and weak declensions according to standard rules. As with the cardinal numbers, there are two acceptable forms for ‘fourth’, ‘seventh’, and ‘tenth,’ following the same lenition as the cardinals, though there is only one form of ‘eighth’. An alternate form of ‘third’, þrīǧas is sometimes used, but it is not always considered correct.

1	frumist, frums	first
2	anðras	second
3	þriǧas, þrīǧas	third
4	fiðraþs	fourth
5	fimft	fifth
6	sǣst	sixth
7	sivunǧ	seventh
8	ātuǧ	eighth
9	njunǧ	ninth
10	tǣjunǧ, tǣnǧ	tenth
11	ǣnlift	eleventh
12	twālift	twelfth
13	þrītǣnǧ	thirteenth
20	twǣtiǧist	twentieth
100	hundaþs	hundredth
1,000	þūsunǧiþs	thousandth
1,000,000	miljǭnǧ	millionth

Articles & Determiners

Gutish has two definite articles, sā and his, both of which are equivalent to ‘the,’ but may also be translated as ‘that’ and ‘this’, respectively. Where there is a lack of clear proximity-based dichotomy, sā is usually preferred.

There is no indefinite article in Gutish.

	Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.		Nom.	Gen.	Dat.	Acc.
masc.sg	sā	þis	þatma	þan		his	his	hitma	hin
neu.sg	þat	þis	þatma	þat		hit	his	hitma	hit
fem.sg	sō	þižas	þiža	þō		hīja	hižas	hiža	hī, hīja
masc.pl	þǣ	þiža	þǣm	þans		hīs	hiža	him	hins
neu.pl	þō	þiža	þǣm	þō		hī, hīja	hiža	him	hī, hīja
fem.pl	þōs	þiža	þǣm	þōs		hījas	hiža	him	hījas

Nouns

A Note on Strong and Weak Nouns

In most Germanic languages, nouns (as well as verbs and adjectives) tend to be broken into categories con-sidered “strong” and “weak.” In nouns and adjectives, “weak” means that the words cling to their determiner endings inherited from Indo-European, which usually have an /n/ inserted between the root and the ending. For the purposes of this text, I will dispense with the traditional strong and weak categories as relates to the nouns and simply relate the various categories into which nouns can be classified, based on their inherited Proto-Germanic endings (which include the /n/ infix where applicable). Since these endings can be irregular and each class must be learned by rote anyway, there is no need in the context of the Gutish language to add this additional arbitrary distinction.

Noun classes differ by stem vowel and by gender. They may also differ by glides (/j/ or /w/) suffixed to the stem and/or the presence of infixive /n/. The main classes are those stems in /a/ or /ō/, in /i/, in /u/, or in /n/ (as described above). There are also a few minor classes in consonantal stems (a.k.a. Ø-stem), in /r/ (a very small class having to do with familial relations), and in /nd/ (based on the nominalization of the present participle). These minor classes will be discussed here, but for the learner who is new to Germanic languages, these should be treated as irregular declensions and learned by rote. Many of these have also been regularized in Gutish through the process of paradigmatic levelling, and their declensions have been assimilated by analogy into other classes.

Every noun in Gutish (and most Germanic languages) has eight possible forms. These are the singular and plural forms of the nominative (those nouns which comprise the subject of the sentence), genitive (those used to indicate possession or relation), dative (the indirect object), and accusative (the direct object).

Masculine and feminine strong nouns usually take an ending of –s for the nominative singular, while neuter nouns take no ending. The genitive is almost universally indicated by –is (this is equivalent to the “ ’s ” of the English possessive). The dative usually takes –a. The accusative usually does not take any ending.

In the plural, Masculine and feminine nouns usually take –as as an ending; neuter takes –a. The genitive plural also takes –a. The dative plural takes –am, but in many cases this ending undergoes a process of metathesis, rendering it –ma (exceptions are noted in the paradigms). Finally the accusative plural of masculine and feminine nouns is –ans, but again may metathesize to –nas; neuter plurals generally take –a.

Most of the actual declensions of nouns are fairly standard – much more standardized, in fact, than Gothic – however, the various phonological rules governing the language create a great deal of variation. It is im-portant to be familiar with the rules set forth in the Phonology section of this document in order to fully understand some of the otherwise unexpected variants that emerge.

In order to give more context to the evolution of these rules and the variations that emerge, the original Proto-Germanic and Gothic forms are also examined.

a- and ō-stems

By far the most common type of noun in all of the Germanic languages, a- and ō-stems become the basis of several sub-classes of nouns. Masculine and neuter nouns took a-stem (from Proto-Indo-European o-), while feminine nouns took ō (from PIE ā-).

Strong a-stem (masculine)

This is the most common type of noun class in Gutish as well as in most Germanic languages. As such, it is also the most varied in terms of declension.

Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
Type I: Default (“n.st.m.a”)
slǣpaz	slǣpis	slǣpai	slǣpą	slǣpōz	slǣpǫ̂	slǣpamaz	slǣpanz	‘sleep’
slēps	slēpis	slēpa	slēp	slēpōs	slēpē	slēpam	slēpans
slēps	slēpis	slēpa	slēp	slēpas	slēpa	slēpma	slēpnas
This is the default declension of the a-stem paradigm. Note the metathesis in the endings on the dative and accusative plural.
Type II: Syllabic (“n.st.m.a.syl”)          for roots ending in VCR (VCl-, VCm-, VCn-, VCr-)
akraz	akris	akrai	akrą	akrōz	akrǫ̂	akramaz	akranz	‘field’
akrs	akris	akra	akr	akrōs	akrē	akram	akrans
akras	akris	akra	akra	akras	akra	akram	akrans
For those nouns ending in a syllabic sonorant in Gothic (‹r›, ‹l›, ‹m›, or ‹n› after another consonant), a vowel must be added to certain endings (indicated in red). Consquently, the metathesis observed in the default form is undone. (Or, more accurately, is blocked from occurring in the first place.)
Type IIIa: Devoicing/Spirantization Merging (“n.st.m.ba”)          for roots ending in Vb- and Vf-
hlaibaz	hlaibis	hlaibai	hlaibą	hlaibōz	hlaibǫ̂	hlaibamaz	hlaibanz	‘bread’
hlaifs	hlaibis	hlaiba	hlaif	hlaibōs	hlaibē	hlaibam	hlaibans
þlǣfs	þlǣvis	þlǣva	þlǣf	þlǣvas	þlǣva	þlǣvma	þlǣvnas
For roots ending in ‹b›, it is devoiced to ‹f› in the nominative and accusative singular (at a time before Gothic), indicated in red. ‹b› is spirantized (that is, becomes ‹v›) in the rest of the endings, indicated in blue. (This was the case in Gothic as well, though the spirantization was not indicated in writing.) In the case of those roots ending in ‹f›, the ‹f› is voiced to ‹v› in the same environment that ‹b› is spirantized, so as far as Gutish is concerned, these two paradigms are identical.
Type IIIb: Devoicing/Spirantization Merging (“n.st.m.da”)          for roots ending in Vd- and Vþ-
audaz	audis	audai	audą	audōz	audǫ̂	audamaz	audanz	‘fortune’
auþs	audis	auda	auþ	audōs	audē	audam	audans
ǭþs	ǭðis	ǭða	ǭþ	ǭðas	ǭða	ǭðma	ǭðnas
Same idea as above. For roots ending in ‹d›, it is devoiced to ‹þ› in the nominative and accusative singular (at a time before Gothic), indicated in red. ‹d› is spirantized (that is, becomes ‹ð›) in the rest of the endings, indicated in blue. (This was the case in Gothic as well, though the spirantization was not indicated in writing.) In the case of those roots ending in ‹þ›, the ‹þ› is voiced to ‹ð› in the same environment that ‹d› is spirantized, so as far as Gutish is concerned, these two paradigms are identical.
Type IIIc: Devoicing (“n.st.m.za”)          for roots ending in Vz-
gaizaz	gaizis	gaizai	gaizą	gaizōz	gaizǫ̂	gaizamaz	gaizanz	‘spear’
gais	gaizis	gaiza	gais	gaizōs	gaizē	gaizam	gaizans
gǣs	gǣžis	gǣža	gǣs	gǣžas	gǣža	gǣžma	gǣžnas
Same idea as above, with an extra twist. For roots ending in ‹ž›, it is devoiced to ‹s› in the nominative and accusative singular (at a time before Gothic), indicated in red. ‹ž› remains in the rest of the endings, indicated in blue. In addition to the devoicing in the nominative and accusative, the nominative ending ‹s› is deleted or assimilated.
Type IVa: Post-Approximant Spirantization (“n.st.m.rba”)          for roots ending in Vlb- and Vrb-
hwerbaz	hwerbis	hwerbai	hwerbą	hwerbōz	hwerbǫ̂	hwerbamaz	hwerbanz	‘planet’
ƕaírbs	ƕaírbis	ƕaírba	ƕaírb	ƕaírbōs	ƕaírbē	ƕaírbam	ƕaírbans
hwerbs	hwervis	hwerva	hwerb	hwervas	hwerva	hwervam	hwervans
Like the above, this deals with nouns ending in ‹b›, which spirantizes to ‹v› in most declensions, but it is prevented from devoicing to ‹f› in the nominative and accusative by a consonant before it. This is a rule inhereited from Gothic. Metathesis in the dative and accusative plural is also blocked. This occurs for stems ending in ‹rb›, ‹rd›, ‹lb›, and ‹ld›.
Type IVb: Post-Approximant Spirantization (“n.st.m.rda”)          for roots ending in Vld- and Vrd-
bardaz	bardis	bardai	bardą	bardōz	bardǫ̂	bardamaz	bardanz	‘beard’
bards	bardis	barda	bard	bardōs	bardē	bardam	bardans
barǧ	barðis	barða	bard	barðas	barða	barðam	barðans
This is the same idea as the “rda” declension above, with the additional twist that Gothic ‹ds›, when word-final, palatalizes and becomes ‹ǧ›. There is also spirantization in the other declensions except for the accusative singular, which retains the original ‹d›, and metathesis is blocked in the dative and accusative plural.
Type IVc: Post-Approximant Spirantization (“n.st.m.rza”)          for roots ending in Vlz- and Vrz-
amzaz	amzis	amzai	amzą	amzōz	amzǫ̂	amzamaz	amzanz	‘shoulder’
ams	amzis	amza	ams	amzōs	amzē	amzam	amzans
ams	amžis	amža	ams	amžas	amža	amžam	amžans
This paradigm differs from the version above in that a consonant occurring before a voiced fricative (‹ž›) has the affect of blocking metathesis in the dative and accusative plural (in red).
Type Va: Post-Approximant Inter-Sonorant Voicing (“n.st.m.lfa”)          for roots ending in Vlf- and Vrf-
wulfaz	wulfis	wulfai	wulfą	wulfōz	wulfǫ̂	wulfamaz	wulfanz	‘wolf’
wulfs	wulfis	wulfa	wulf	wulfōs	wulfē	wulfam	wulfans
wulfs	wulvis	wulva	wulf	wulvas	wulva	wulvam	wulvans
Scary name, but it’s really just the same as the above, but for nouns ending in ‹f›.
Type Vb: Post-Approximant Inter-Sonorant Voicing (“n.st.m.lþa”)          for roots ending in Vlþ- and Vrþ-
Type VIa: Post-Approximant Inter-Sonorant Voicing (“n.st.m.ga”)          for roots ending in Vg-, Vng-, Vlg-, Vrg-
dagaz	dagis	dagai	dagą	dagōz	dagǫ̂	dagamaz	daganz	‘day’
dags	dagis	daga	dag	dagōs	dagē	dagam	dagans
daǧ	dagis	daga	dag	dagas	daga	dagma	dagnas
This is the same as the default with the only exception that there is palatalization of ‹g› in the nominative singular.
Type VIIa: /r/-Assimilation (“n.st.m.ra”)          for roots ending in r-
weraz	weris	werai	werą	werōz	werǫ̂	weramaz	weranz	‘man’
waír	waíris	waíra	waír	waírōs	waírē	waíram	waírans
wer	weris	wera	wer	weras	wera	werma	wernas
This is the same as the default with the only exception that the nominative singular ‹s› is assimilated (in pre-Gothic times). This rule expands slightly in Gutish; whereas in Gothic it applied only to light syllables, by Gutish times it applies to all nouns ending in ‹r›.
Type VIIb: /s/-Assimilation (“n.st.m.sa”)          for roots ending in s-
wapsaz	wapsis	wapsai	wapsą	wapsōz	wapsǫ̂	wapsamaz	wapsanz	‘wasp’
waps	wapsis	wapsa	waps	wapsōs	wapsē	wapsam	wapsans
waps	wapsis	wapsa	waps	wapsas	wapsa	wapsma	wapsnas
s is dropped/assimilated from the nominative.
Type VIIc: Cluster Simplification and Palatalization (“n.st.m.ska”)          for roots ending in Vsk-
fiskaz	fiskis	fiskai	fiską	fiskōz	fiskǫ̂	fiskamaz	fiskanz	‘fish’
fisks	fiskis	fiska	fisk	fiskōs	fiskē	fiskam	fiskans
fišk	fiškis	fiška	fišk	fiškas	fiška	fiškam	fiškans
s is dropped from the nominative.
Type VIId: Cluster Simplification (“n.st.m.ska”)          for roots ending in Vsp-, Vst-, Vft-
astaz	astis	astai	astą	astōz	astǫ̂	astamaz	astanz	‘branch’
asts	astis	asta	ast	astōs	astē	astam	astans
ast	astis	asta	ast	astas	asta	astma	astnas
s is dropped from the nominative.
Type VIIIa: Metathetical Blocking with /m/ (“n.st.m.ska”)          for roots ending in m-
wurmaz	wurmis	wurmai	wurmą	wurmōz	wurmǫ̂	wurmamaz	wurmanz	‘wurm’
waúrms	waúrmis	waúrma	waúrm	waúrmōs	waúrmē	waúrmam	waúrmans
worms	wormis	worma	worm	wormas	worma	wormam	wormnas
no metathesis in dat pl only
Type VIIIa: Metathetical Blocking with /n/ (“n.st.m.ska”)          for roots ending in n-
uhnaz	uhnis	uhnai	uhną	uhnōz	uhnǫ̂	uhnamaz	uhnanz	‘oven’
auhns	auhnis	auhna	auhn	auhnōs	auhnē	auhnam	auhnans
ǭns	ǭnis	ǭna	ǭn	ǭnas	ǭna	ǭnma	ǭnans
no metathesis in acc pl only
Type IXa: Assimilation of /b/ (“n.st.m.mba”)          for roots ending in mb-
lambaz	lambis	lambai	lambą	lambōz	lambǫ̂	lambamaz	lambanz	‘lamb, sheep’
lambs	lambis	lamba	lamb	lambōs	lambē	lambam	lambans
lams	lambis	lamba	lam	lambas	lamba	lambam	lambans
b is lost in nom and acc sg
Type IXa: nd (“n.st.m.nda”)          for roots ending in nd-
wendaz	wendaiz	wendai	wendą	wendōz	wendǫ̂	wendamaz	wendanz	‘wind’
winds	windis	winda	wind	windōs	windē	windam	windans
winǧ	windis	winda	wind	windas	winda	windam	windans
In addition to those a-stem nouns ending in nd-, nounds from the “nd-stems,” such as frīnǧ ‘friend’, have been assimilated into this declension, adding ‹a› to the declension of the dative singular and nominative plural, and adding ‹n› to the accusative plural.

Strong a-stem (neuter)

The strong neuter a-stems are just like the masculine, except that the neuter does not take an ‹-s› on the nominative singular (i.e. the nominative is the same as the accusative), and the nominative and accusative plurals are identical to the dative singular. In other words, any of the irregularities discussed above that have to do with these categories will no longer apply for neuter a-stem nouns.

Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
Type I: Default (“n.st.n.a”)
barną	barnis	barnai	barną	barnō	barnǫ̂	barnamaz	barnō	‘child’
barn	barnis	barna	barn	barna	barnē	barnam	barna
barn	barnis	barna	barn	barna	barna	barnma	barnnas
This is the default declension of the a-stem paradigm. Note the metathesis in the endings on the dative and accusative plural.
Type II: Syllabic (“n.st.m.a.syl”)          for roots ending in VCR (VCl-, VCm-, VCn-, VCr-)
aþną	aþnis	aþnai	aþną	aþnōz	aþnǫ̂	aþnamaz	aþnanz	‘season’
aþn	aþnis	aþna	aþn	aþna	aþnē	aþnam	aþna
aðna	aðnis	aðna	aðna	aðna	aðna	aðnam	aðna
For those nouns ending in a syllabic sonorant in Gothic (‹r›, ‹l›, ‹m›, or ‹n› after another consonant), a vowel must be added to certain endings (indicated in red). Consquently, the metathesis observed in the default form is undone. (Or, more accurately, is blocked from occurring in the first place.)
Type IIIa: Devoicing/Spirantization Merging (“n.st.m.ba”)          for roots ending in Vb- and Vf-
hrōfą	hrōfis	hrōfai	hrōfą	hrōfō	hrōfǫ̂	hrōfamaz	hrōfō	‘roof’
hrōfs	hrōfis	hrōfa	hrōf	hrōfōs	hrōfē	hrōfam	hrōfans
þrōf	þrōvis	þrōva	þrōf	þrōva	þrōva	þrōvma	þrōva
For roots ending in ‹b›, it is devoiced to ‹f› in the nominative and accusative singular (at a time before Gothic), indicated in red. ‹b› is spirantized (that is, becomes ‹v›) in the rest of the endings, indicated in blue. (This was the case in Gothic as well, though the spirantization was not indicated in writing.) In the case of those roots ending in ‹f›, the ‹f› is voiced to ‹v› in the same environment that ‹b› is spirantized, so as far as Gutish is concerned, these two paradigms are identical.
Type IIIb: Devoicing/Spirantization Merging (“n.st.m.da”)          for roots ending in Vd- and Vþ-
blōþą	blōþis	blōþai	blōþą	blōdō	blōdǫ̂	blōdamaz	blōdō	‘blood’
blōþ	blōþis	blōþa	blōþ	blōþa	blōþē	blōþam	blōþa
blōþ	blōðis	blōða	blōþ	blōða	blōða	blōðma	blōða
Same idea as above. For roots ending in ‹d›, it is devoiced to ‹þ› in the nominative and accusative singular (at a time before Gothic), indicated in red. ‹d› is spirantized (that is, becomes ‹ð›) in the rest of the endings, indicated in blue. (This was the case in Gothic as well, though the spirantization was not indicated in writing.) In the case of those roots ending in ‹þ›, the ‹þ› is voiced to ‹ð› in the same environment that ‹d› is spirantized, so as far as Gutish is concerned, these two paradigms are identical.
Type IIIc: Devoicing (“n.st.m.za”)          for roots ending in Vz-
deuzą	deuzis	deuzai	deuzą	deuzō	deuzǫ̂	deuzamaz	deuzō	‘creature’
dius	diuzis	diuza	dius	diuza	diuzē	diuzam	diuza
ǧus	ǧužis	ǧuža	ǧus	ǧuža	ǧuža	ǧužma	ǧuža
Type IXa: Assimilation of /b/ (“n.st.n.mba”)          for roots ending in mb-
lambą	lambis	lambai	lambą	lambō	lambǫ̂	lambamaz	lambō	‘lamb’
lamb	lambis	lamba	lamb	lamba	lambē	lambam	lamba
lam	lambis	lamba	lam	lamba	lamba	lambam	lamba
lba (“n.st.n.lba”)          for roots ending in lb-, rba
kalbą	kalbis	kalbai	kalbą	kalbō	kalbǫ̂	kalbamaz	kalbō	‘calf’
kalb	kalbis	kalba	kalb	kalba	kalbē	kalbam	kalba
kalb	kalbis	kalba	kalb	kalba	kalba	kalbam	kalba
rda (“n.st.m.rda”)          for roots ending in rda-, lda-
wurdą	wurdis	wurdai	wurdą	wurdō	wurdǫ̂	wurdamaz	wurdō	‘word’
waúrd	waúrdis	waúrda	waúrd	waúrda	waúrdē	waúrdam	waúrda
word	worðis	worða	word	worða	worða	worðma	worða

Strong ō-stem (feminine)

The simplest noun class by far is the strong feminine ō-stem. There is only one paradigm with no variations.

Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
Type I: Default (“n.st.f.ō”)
erþō	erþōz	erþōi	erþǭ	erþôz	erþǫ̂	erþōmaz	erþôz	‘earth’
aírþa	aírþais	aírþai	aírþa	aírþōs	aírþō	aírþōm	aírþōs
erða	erðis	erða	erða	erðas	erða	erðam	erðas
This is the default declension of the ō-stem paradigm. Note the assimilation of the genitive singular (from the expected “-as”).

ja- and jō-stems

While traditionally listed as sub-classes of a- and ō-stems, the j-stem nouns differ from these in two important ways: Umlaut and Palatalization. (…more below…)

Strong ja-stem (masculine)

Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
Type I: Default (“n.st.m.ja”)
harjaz	harjis	harjai	harją	harjōz	harjǫ̂	harjamaz	harjanz	‘army’
harjis	harjis	harja	hari	harjōs	harjē	harjam	harjans
heris	heris	heria	hare	heris	heria	herim	herins
Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
Type II: bja (“n.st.m.bja”)
sebjaz	sebjis	sebjai	sebją	sebjōz	sebjǫ̂	sebjamaz	sebjanz	‘kinsman’
sibjis	sibjis	sibja	sibi	sibjōs	sibjē	sibjam	sibjans
sibis	sibis	sibia	sive	sibis	sibia	sibim	sibins
Accusative changes to /v/…
Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
Type IIIa: dja (“n.st.m.dja”)
medjaz	medjis	medjai	medją	medjōz	medjǫ̂	medjamaz	medjanz	‘middle’
midjis	midjis	midja	midi	midjōs	midjē	midjam	midjans
miǧis	miǧis	miǧa	miðe	miǧis	miǧa	miǧim	miǧins
Accusative changes to /ð/…
Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
Type IIIb: gja (“n.st.m.gja”)
sagjaz	sagjis	sagjai	sagją	sagjōz	sagjǫ̂	sagjamaz	sagjanz	‘messenger’
sagjis	sagjis	sagja	sagi	sagjōs	sagjē	sagjam	sagjans
seǧis	seǧis	seǧa	sage	seǧis	seǧa	seǧim	seǧins
Accusative changes to /g/…
Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
Type IIIc: tja (“n.st.m.tja”)
tjaz	tjis	tjai	tją	tjōz	tjǫ̂	tjamaz	tjanz	‘army’
tjis	tjis	tja	ti	tjōs	tjē	tjam	tjans
čis	čis	ča	te	čis	ča	čim	čins
Accusative changes to /t/…
Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
Type IIId: kja (“n.st.m.kja”)
kjaz	kjis	kjai	kją	kjōz	kjǫ̂	kjamaz	kjanz	‘army’
kjis	kjis	kja	ki	kjōs	kjē	kjam	kjans
čis	čis	ča	ke	čis	ča	čim	čins
Accusative changes to /k/…
Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
Type IIIe: sja (“n.st.m.sja”)
sjaz	sjis	sjai	sją	sjōz	sjǫ̂	sjamaz	sjanz	‘army’
sjis	sjis	sja	si	sjōs	sjē	sjam	sjans
šis	šis	ša	se	šis	ša	šim	šins
Accusative changes to /s/…

Strong ja-stem (neuter)

Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
Type I: Default (“n.st.n.ja”)
fergunją	fergunjis	fergunjai	fergunją	fergunjō	fergunjǫ̂	fergunjamaz	fergunjō	‘mountain’
faírguni	faírgunjis	faírgunja	faírguni	faírgunja	faírgunjē	faírgunjam	faírgunja
fergúne	fergýnis	fergýnia	fergúne	fergýnia	fergýnia	fergýnim	fergýnia
Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
Type II: bja (“n.st.n.bja”)
lubją	lubjis	lubjai	lubją	lubjō	lubjǫ̂	lubjamaz	lubjō	‘drug, poison’
lubi	lubjis	lubja	lubi	lubja	lubjē	lubjam	lubja
luve	lybis	lybia	luve	lybia	lybia	lybim	lybia
Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
Type II: dja (“n.st.n.dja”)
badją	badjis	badjai	badją	badjō	badjǫ̂	badjamaz	badjō	‘bed’
badi	badjis	badja	badi	badja	badjē	badjam	badja
baðe	beǧis	beǧa	baðe	beǧa	beǧa	beǧim	beǧa
Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
Type II: ddja (“n.st.n.ddja”)
aiją	aijis	aijai	aiją	aijō	aijǫ̂	aijamaz	aijō	‘egg’
addi	addjis	addja	addi	addja	addjē	addjam	addja
āde	ǣǧis	ǣǧa	āde	ǣǧa	ǣǧa	ǣǧim	ǣǧa
Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
Type II: gja (“n.st.n.gja”)
hawją	hawjis	hawjai	hawją	hawjō	hawjǫ̂	hawjamaz	hawjō	‘hay’
hawi	hawjis	hawja	hawi	hawja	hawjē	hawjam	hawja
hauge	heuǧis	heuǧa	hauge	heuǧa	heuǧa	heuǧim	heuǧa
Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
Type II: tja (“n.st.n.tja”)
witją	witjis	witjai	witją	witjō	witjǫ̂	witjamaz	witjō	‘knowledge’
witi	witjis	witja	witi	witja	witjē	witjam	witja
wite	wičis	wiča	wite	wiča	wiča	wičim	wiča

ija- and ijō-stems

Strong ija-stem (masculine)

Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
Type I: Default (“n.st.m.ija”)
blōstrijaz	blōstrijis	blōstrijai	blōstriją	blōstrijōz	blōstrijǫ̂	blōstrijamaz	blōstrijanz	‘worshipper’
blōstrjis	blōstrjis	blōstrja	blōstri	blōstrjōs	blōstrjē	blōstrjam	blōstrjans
blœ̄stris	blœ̄stris	blœ̄stria	blōstre	blœ̄stris	blœ̄stria	blœ̄strim	blœ̄strins
Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
Type II: bija (“n.st.m.bija”)
drōbijaz	drōbijis	drōbijai	drōbiją	drōbijōz	drōbijǫ̂	drōbijamaz	drōbijanz	‘mud, muck’
drōbeis	drōbeis	drōbja	drōbi	drōbjōs	drōbjē	drōbjam	drōbjans
drœ̄vis	drœ̄vis	drœ̄bia	drōve	drœ̄vis	drœ̄via	drœ̄vim	drœ̄vins
Accusative changes to /v/…
Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
Type IIIa: dija (“n.st.m.dija”)
herdjaz	herdjis	herdjai	herdją	herdjōz	herdjǫ̂	herdjamaz	herdjanz	‘middle’
haírdjis	haírdjis	haírdja	haírdi	haírdjōs	haírdjē	haírdjam	haírdjans
herǧis	herǧis	herǧa	herðe	herǧis	herǧa	herǧim	herǧins
Accusative changes to /ð/…
Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
Type IIIb: gija (“n.st.m.gija”)
drangijaz	drangijis	drangijai	drangiją	drangijōz	drangijǫ̂	drangijamaz	drangijanz	‘servant’
*draggeis	*draggeis	*draggja	*draggi	*draggjōs	*draggjē	*draggjam	*draggjans
drenǧis	drenǧis	drenǧa	drange	drenǧis	drenǧa	drenǧim	drenǧins
Accusative changes to /g/…
Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
Type IIIc: tija (“n.st.m.tija”)
fastijaz	fastijis	fastijai	fastiją	fastijōz	fastijǫ̂	fastijamaz	fastijanz	‘restraint’
fasteis	fasteis	fastja	fasti	fastjōs	fastjē	fastjam	fastjans
festis	festis	fesča	faste	fesčis	fesča	fesčim	fesčins
Accusative changes to /t/…
Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
Type IIId: kija (“n.st.m.kija”)
lǣkjaz	lǣkjis	lǣkjai	lǣkją	lǣkjōz	lǣkjǫ̂	lǣkjamaz	lǣkjanz	‘medicine’
lēkeis	lēkeis	lēkja	lēki	lēkjōs	lēkjē	lēkjam	lēkjans
lēkis	lēkis	lēča	lēke	lēčis	lēča	lēčim	lēčins
Accusative changes to /k/…
Nom.Sg.	Gen.Sg.	Dat.Sg.	Acc.Sg.	Nom.Pl.	Gen.Pl.	Dat.Pl.	Acc.Pl.
Type IIIe: sija (“n.st.m.sija”)
bǣrusijaz	bǣrusijis	bǣrusijai	bǣrusiją	bǣrusijōz	bǣrusijǫ̂	bǣrusijamaz	bǣrusijanz	‘parent’
bēruseis	bēruseis	bērusja	bērusi	bērusjōs	bērusjē	bērusjam	bērusjans
bērusis	bērusis	bēruša	bēruse	bērušis	bēruša	bērušim	bērušins
Accusative changes to /s/…

Verbs

I haven't got quite as far as describing the verbs on this page yet, but everyone likes a good conjugation of their favorite irregular verbs, right? So here you go:

wisna ‘to be’

		Preterit		Present		Imperative
Infinitive:		Indicative	Subjunctive	Indicative	Subjunctive
wisna	ik	was	wēša	im	sīja
Present Participle:	þū	wast	wēsis	is	sījas	sī, ī
wisnaǧ	sist	was	wēse	ist	sīja	imda
Past Participle:	wīs	wēsum	wēsim	sīm, sījum	sījam	sīm
wisnas	jūs	wēsuþ	wēsiþ	sīþ, sījuþ	sījaþ	sīþ
	īs	wēsun	wēsin	sinþ	sījan	sinda

gēn, gangna ‘to be’

		Preterit		Present		Imperative
Infinitive:		Indicative	Subjunctive	Indicative	Subjunctive
gēn, gangna	ik	ēǧa	ēǧa	gēm, ganga	ganga
Present Participle:	þū	ēǧis	ēǧis	gēs, gangis	gangas	gē, gang
gangnaǧ	sist	ēǧa	ēde	gēþ, gangiþ	ganga	gangaða
Past Participle:	wīs	ēǧim	ēǧim	gēm, gangma	gangam	gēm, gangma
gēns	jūs	ēǧiþ	ēǧiþ	gēþ, gangiþ	gangaþ	gēþ, gangiþ
	īs	ēǧin	ēǧin	gēnþ, gangnaþ	gangan	gangnaða