Qino: Difference between revisions
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|- | |- | ||
|+ Suffix conjugation | |+ Suffix conjugation | ||
! colspan="5" | Infinitive || colspan=" | ! colspan="5" | Infinitive || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-íni''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''sheen<b>íni</b>''</span> | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="5" | Active Participle || colspan=" | ! colspan="5" | Active Participle || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-áa''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''sheen<b>áa</b>''</span> | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="5" | Passive Participle<small><sup>1</sup></small> || colspan=" | ! colspan="5" | Passive Participle<small><sup>1</sup></small> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-án-''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''sheen<b>án-</b>''</span> | ||
|- | |- | ||
! !! colspan="2" | Present Affirmative<small><sup>2</sup></small> !! colspan="2" | Present Subordinate<small><sup>2</sup></small> !! colspan="2" | Past Affirmative<small><sup>2</sup></small> !! colspan="2" | Past Negative !! colspan="2" | Jussive/Imperative Aff. !! colspan="2" | Jussive/Imperative Neg. | ! !! colspan="2" | Present Affirmative<small><sup>2</sup></small> !! colspan="2" | Present Subordinate<small><sup>2</sup></small> !! colspan="2" | Pres. Subord. Neg. !! colspan="2" | Past Affirmative<small><sup>2</sup></small> !! colspan="2" | Past Negative !! colspan="2" | Jussive/Imperative Aff. !! colspan="2" | Jussive/Imperative Neg. | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 1S | ! 1S | ||
| ''-á'' || ''sheen<b>á</b>''|| ''-ó'' || ''sheen<b>ó</b>''|| ''-é'' || ''sheen<b>é</b>''|| ''-íne'' || ''sheen<b>íne</b>''|| ''-́u'' || ''sheén<b>u</b>'' || ''-ínu'' || ''sheen<b>ínu</b>'' | | ''-á'' || ''sheen<b>á</b>''|| ''-ó'' || ''sheen<b>ó</b>''|| ''-íno'' || ''sheen<b>íno</b>''|| ''-é'' || ''sheen<b>é</b>''|| ''-íne'' || ''sheen<b>íne</b>''|| ''-́u'' || ''sheén<b>u</b>'' || ''-ínu'' || ''sheen<b>ínu</b>'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2S | ! 2S | ||
| ''-tá'' || ''sheen<b>tá</b>''|| ''-tó'' || ''sheen<b>tó</b>''|| ''-té'' || ''sheen<b>té</b>''|| ''-ínte'' || ''sheen<b>ínte</b>''|| ''-́u'' || ''sheén<b>u</b>'' || ''-ínu'' || ''sheen<b>ínu</b>'' | | ''-tá'' || ''sheen<b>tá</b>''|| ''-tó'' || ''sheen<b>tó</b>''|| ''-ínto'' || ''sheen<b>ínto</b>''|| ''-té'' || ''sheen<b>té</b>''|| ''-ínte'' || ''sheen<b>ínte</b>''|| ''-́u'' || ''sheén<b>u</b>'' || ''-ínu'' || ''sheen<b>ínu</b>'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3SM | ! 3SM | ||
| ''-á'' || ''sheen<b>á</b>''|| ''-ó'' || ''sheen<b>ó</b>''|| ''-é'' || ''sheen<b>é</b>''|| ''-íne'' || ''sheen<b>íne</b>''|| ''-́u'' || ''sheén<b>u</b>'' || ''-ínu'' || ''sheen<b>ínu</b>'' | | ''-á'' || ''sheen<b>á</b>''|| ''-ó'' || ''sheen<b>ó</b>''|| ''-íno'' || ''sheen<b>íno</b>''|| ''-é'' || ''sheen<b>é</b>''|| ''-íne'' || ''sheen<b>íne</b>''|| ''-́u'' || ''sheén<b>u</b>'' || ''-ínu'' || ''sheen<b>ínu</b>'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3SF | ! 3SF | ||
| ''-tá'' || ''sheen<b>tá</b>''|| ''-tó'' || ''sheen<b>tó</b>''|| ''-té'' || ''sheen<b>té</b>''|| ''-ínte'' || ''sheen<b>ínte</b>''|| ''-́tu'' || ''sheén<b>tu</b>'' || ''-íntu'' || ''sheen<b>íntu</b>'' | | ''-tá'' || ''sheen<b>tá</b>''|| ''-tó'' || ''sheen<b>tó</b>''|| ''-ínto'' || ''sheen<b>ínto</b>''|| ''-té'' || ''sheen<b>té</b>''|| ''-ínte'' || ''sheen<b>ínte</b>''|| ''-́tu'' || ''sheén<b>tu</b>'' || ''-íntu'' || ''sheen<b>íntu</b>'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 1P | ! 1P | ||
| ''-ná'' || ''sheen<b>ná</b>''|| ''-nó'' || ''sheen<b>nó</b>''|| ''-né'' || ''sheen<b>né</b>''|| ''-ínne'' || ''sheen<b>ínne</b>''|| ''-́nu'' || ''sheén<b>nu</b>'' || ''-ínnu'' || ''sheen<b>ínnu</b>'' | | ''-ná'' || ''sheen<b>ná</b>''|| ''-nó'' || ''sheen<b>nó</b>''|| ''-ínno'' || ''sheen<b>ínno</b>''|| ''-né'' || ''sheen<b>né</b>''|| ''-ínne'' || ''sheen<b>ínne</b>''|| ''-́nu'' || ''sheén<b>nu</b>'' || ''-ínnu'' || ''sheen<b>ínnu</b>'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2P | ! 2P | ||
| ''-taána'' || ''sheen<b>taána</b>''|| ''-toóna'' || ''sheen<b>toóna</b>''|| ''-teéni'' || ''sheen<b>teéni</b>''|| ''-inteéni'' || ''sheen<b>inteéni</b>''|| ''-́aa'' || ''sheén<b>aa</b>'' || ''-ínaa'' || ''sheen<b>ínaa</b>'' | | ''-taána'' || ''sheen<b>taána</b>''|| ''-toóna'' || ''sheen<b>toóna</b>''|||| ''-intoóna'' || ''sheen<b>intoóna</b>'' ''-teéni'' || ''sheen<b>teéni</b>''|| ''-inteéni'' || ''sheen<b>inteéni</b>''|| ''-́aa'' || ''sheén<b>aa</b>'' || ''-ínaa'' || ''sheen<b>ínaa</b>'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3P | ! 3P | ||
| ''-aána'' || ''sheen<b>aána</b>''|| ''-oóna'' || ''sheen<b>oóna</b>''|| ''-eéni'' || ''sheen<b>eéni</b>''|| ''-ineéni'' || ''sheen<b>ineéni</b>''|| ''-́aa'' || ''sheén<b>aa</b>'' || ''-ínaa'' || ''sheen<b>ínaa</b>'' | | ''-aána'' || ''sheen<b>aána</b>''|| ''-oóna'' || ''sheen<b>oóna</b>''|| ''-inoóna'' || ''sheen<b>inoóna</b>''|| ''-eéni'' || ''sheen<b>eéni</b>''|| ''-ineéni'' || ''sheen<b>ineéni</b>''|| ''-́aa'' || ''sheén<b>aa</b>'' || ''-ínaa'' || ''sheen<b>ínaa</b>'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
'''Notes:''' | '''Notes:''' | ||
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|- | |- | ||
|+ Prefix conjugation | |+ Prefix conjugation | ||
! colspan="5" | Infinitive || colspan=" | ! colspan="5" | Infinitive || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-íni''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''ark<b>íni</b>''</span> | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="5" | Active Participle || colspan=" | ! colspan="5" | Active Participle || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-áa''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''ark<b>áa</b>''</span> | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="5" | Passive Participle || colspan=" | ! colspan="5" | Passive Participle || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-án-''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''ark<b>án-</b>''</span> | ||
|- | |- | ||
! !! colspan="2" | Present Affirmative !! colspan="2" | Present Subordinate !! colspan="2" | Past Affirmative !! colspan="2" | Past Negative !! colspan="2" | Jussive/Imperative Aff. !! colspan="2" | Jussive/Imperative Neg. | ! !! colspan="2" | Present Affirmative !! colspan="2" | Present Subordinate !! colspan="2" | Pre. Subord. Neg. !! colspan="2" | Past Affirmative !! colspan="2" | Past Negative !! colspan="2" | Jussive/Imperative Aff. !! colspan="2" | Jussive/Imperative Neg. | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 1S | ! 1S | ||
| ''-á'' || ''ark<b>á</b>''|| ''-ó'' || ''ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''-é'' || ''ark<b>é</b>''|| ''-íne'' || ''ark<b>íne</b>''|| ''-́u'' || ''árk<b>u</b>'' || ''-ínu'' || ''ark<b>ínu</b>'' | | ''-á'' || ''ark<b>á</b>''|| ''-ó'' || ''ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''-íno'' || ''ark<b>íno</b>''|| ''-é'' || ''ark<b>é</b>''|| ''-íne'' || ''ark<b>íne</b>''|| ''-́u'' || ''árk<b>u</b>'' || ''-ínu'' || ''ark<b>ínu</b>'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2S | ! 2S | ||
| ''t-á'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>á</b>''|| ''t-ó'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''t-é'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>é</b>''|| ''t-íne'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>íne</b>''|| ''-́u'' || ''árk<b>u</b>'' || ''-ínu'' || ''ark<b>ínu</b>'' | | ''t-á'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>á</b>''|| ''t-ó'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''t-íno'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>íno</b>''|| ''t-é'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>é</b>''|| ''t-íne'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>íne</b>''|| ''-́u'' || ''árk<b>u</b>'' || ''-ínu'' || ''ark<b>ínu</b>'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3SM | ! 3SM | ||
| ''y-á'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>á</b>''|| ''y-ó'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''y-é'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>é</b>''|| ''y-íne'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>íne</b>''|| ''y-́u'' || ''<b>y</b>árk<b>u</b>'' || ''y-ínu'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>ínu</b>'' | | ''y-á'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>á</b>''|| ''y-ó'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''y-íno'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>íno</b>''|| ''y-é'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>é</b>''|| ''y-íne'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>íne</b>''|| ''y-́u'' || ''<b>y</b>árk<b>u</b>'' || ''y-ínu'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>ínu</b>'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3SF | ! 3SF | ||
| ''t-á'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>á</b>''|| ''t-ó'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''t-é'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>é</b>''|| ''t-íne'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>íne</b>''|| ''t-́u'' || ''<b>t</b>árk<b>u</b>'' || ''t-ínu'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>ínu</b>'' | | ''t-á'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>á</b>''|| ''t-ó'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''t-íno'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>íno</b>''|| ''t-é'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>é</b>''|| ''t-íne'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>íne</b>''|| ''t-́u'' || ''<b>t</b>árk<b>u</b>'' || ''t-ínu'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>ínu</b>'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 1P | ! 1P | ||
| ''n-á'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>á</b>''|| ''n-ó'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''n-é'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>é</b>''|| ''n-íne'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>íne</b>''|| ''n-́u'' || ''<b>n</b>árk<b>u</b>'' || ''n-ínu'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>ínu</b>'' | | ''n-á'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>á</b>''|| ''n-ó'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''n-íno'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>íno</b>''|| ''n-é'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>é</b>''|| ''n-íne'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>íne</b>''|| ''n-́u'' || ''<b>n</b>árk<b>u</b>'' || ''n-ínu'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>ínu</b>'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2P | ! 2P | ||
| ''t-aána'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>aána</b>''|| ''t-oóna'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>oóna</b>''|| ''t-eéni'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>eéni</b>''|| ''t-ineéni'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>ineéni</b>''|| ''-́aa'' || ''árk<b>aa</b>'' || ''-ínaa'' || ''ark<b>ínaa</b>'' | | ''t-aána'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>aána</b>''|| ''t-oóna'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>oóna</b>''|| ''t-inoóna'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>inoóna</b>''|| ''t-eéni'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>eéni</b>''|| ''t-ineéni'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>ineéni</b>''|| ''-́aa'' || ''árk<b>aa</b>'' || ''-ínaa'' || ''ark<b>ínaa</b>'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3P | ! 3P | ||
| ''y-aána'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>aána</b>''|| ''y-oóna'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>oóna</b>''|| ''y-eéni'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>eéni</b>''|| ''y-ineéni'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>ineéni</b>''|| ''y-́aa'' || ''<b>y</b>árk<b>aa</b>'' || ''y-ínaa'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>ínaa</b>'' | | ''y-aána'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>aána</b>''|| ''y-oóna'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>oóna</b>''|| ''y-inoóna'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>inoóna</b>''|| ''y-eéni'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>eéni</b>''|| ''y-ineéni'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>ineéni</b>''|| ''y-́aa'' || ''<b>y</b>árk<b>aa</b>'' || ''y-ínaa'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>ínaa</b>'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Revision as of 15:38, 29 April 2017
Qino (native: Qino afka /ɠíno afka/) is a Cushitic conlang.
Introduction
Qino is a Cushitic language. The phonology is largely inspired by Hadda. The syntax and verbal morphology are most similar to Saho-Afar.
Phonology
Orthography
Consonants
Vowels
Prosody
Stress
Intonation
Phonotactics
Morphophonology
Morphology
Nouns
Case
Nouns (and pronouns) are declined by case.
- Absolutive: Citation form, used for the direct object of a verb, the object of most adpositions, and predicative nouns. Personal pronouns have a distinct accusative form that is used for direct objects.
- Nominative: Used for the subject of a verb. Formed as follows:
- Absolutive ending in consonant, -a, or -o: -ú - e.g. nama "person" → namú
- Absolutive ending in -e or -i: -í - e.g. shimmírti "bird (sing.)" → shimmirtí
- Absolutive ending in a long or high-tone vowel: -n
- Genitive: Used for possession ("of") and the object of some adpositions.
- Absolutive ending in consonant or -a: -́i - e.g. nama → námi
- Absolutive ending in other vowel: penultimate high tone - e.g. qino → qíno
- Dative: Used for recipient, benefactor, purpose ("to" or "for").
- Absolutive ending in consonant or -a: -oó - e.g. nama → namoó
- Absolutive ending in other short non-high-tone vowel: lengthen final vowel + final high tone - e.g. shimmírti → shimmirtií
- Absolutive ending in long or high-tone vowel: -s
- Independent form: oó
- Ablative: Used for source ("from").
- Absolutive ending in consonant: -áh
- Absolutive ending in vowel: -́h
- Independent form: áh
- Instrumental: Used for instrument, means, agent, cause, time.
- Absolutive ending in consonant: -ás
- Absolutive ending in vowel: -́s
- Independent form: ás
- Comitative: Used for accompaniment ("in company with").
- Absolutive ending in consonant: -ál
- Absolutive ending in vowel: -́l
- Independent form: ál
- Locative: Used for location. For more specific location, postpositions are used.
- Absolutive ending in consonant: -ád
- Absolutive ending in vowel: -́d
- Independent form: ád
Number
The citation form is unmarked for number. The singulative is formed with suffixes such as -sha, -ha, -ka, -iccha, -ta (masculine) or -ti, -itti (feminine). The plural is formed with suffixes such as -oota, -ani, -aani, -ooni, -ooCi, etc.
Pronouns
Personal Pronouns
Absolutive | Nominative | Accusative | Genitive | Dative | Ablative | Instrumental | Comitative | Locative | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1S | ana | anú | kiisha | kiíshi | kiishoó | kiisháh | kiishás | kiishál | kiishád |
2SM | ata | atú | kaaha | kaáhi | kaahoó | kaaháh | kaahás | kaahál | kaahád |
2SF | ati | atí | taati | taáti | taatií | taatíh | taatís | taatíl | taatíd |
3SM | usa | usú | keesha | keéshi | keeshoó | keesháh | keeshás | keeshál | keeshád |
3SF | ishi | ishí | teeti | teéti | teetií | teetíh | teetís | teetíl | teetíd |
1Ex | una | unú | keena | keéni | keennoó | keenáh | keenás | keenál | keenád |
1Inc | anáni | ananí | kiina | kiíni | kiinoó | kiináh | kiinás | kiinál | kiinád |
2P | atáni | ataní | siina | siíni | siinoó | siináh | siinás | siinál | siinád |
3P | isáni | isaní | koota | koóti | kootií | kootíh | kootís | kootíl | kootíd |
Subject | Accusative 1 | Accusative 2 | Dative | Ablative | Instrumental | Comitative | Locative | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1S | an | yi | kii | yoó | yáh | yás | yál | yád |
2SM | at | ku | kaa | kuú | kúh | kús | kúl | kúd |
2SF | at | tu | taa | tuú | túh | tús | túl | túd |
3SM | us | ka | keesh | koó | káh | kás | kál | kád |
3SF | ish | ta | teet | toó | táh | tás | tál | tád |
1Ex | un | na | keen | noó | náh | nás | nál | nád |
1Inc | anan | yin | kiin | yinoó | yináh | yinás | yinál | yinád |
2P | atan | sin | siin | sinoó | sináh | sinás | sinál | sinád |
3P | isan | tin | koot | tinoó | tináh | tinás | tinál | tinád |
REF | – | ís | – | isoó | isáh | isás | isál | isád |
REC | – | ol | – | oloó | oláh | olás | olál | olád |
Notes:
- When there is one accusative object pronoun, either the "accusative 1" or "accusative 2" forms can be used. When there are multiple clitic objects, the final one takes the "accusative 2" form and the rest the "accusative 1" form.
- Third person clitic pronouns are often omitted. When the this occurs in oblique cases, the corresponding free postposition forms are used (oó, ák, ás, ál, and ád respectively).
Verbs
Class I
Suffix Conjugation
Most consonant-initial verbs fall into this category. Example: sheeníni "to bring".
Infinitive | -íni | sheeníni | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Active Participle | -áa | sheenáa | ||||||||||||
Passive Participle1 | -án- | sheenán- | ||||||||||||
Present Affirmative2 | Present Subordinate2 | Pres. Subord. Neg. | Past Affirmative2 | Past Negative | Jussive/Imperative Aff. | Jussive/Imperative Neg. | ||||||||
1S | -á | sheená | -ó | sheenó | -íno | sheeníno | -é | sheené | -íne | sheeníne | -́u | sheénu | -ínu | sheenínu |
2S | -tá | sheentá | -tó | sheentó | -ínto | sheenínto | -té | sheenté | -ínte | sheenínte | -́u | sheénu | -ínu | sheenínu |
3SM | -á | sheená | -ó | sheenó | -íno | sheeníno | -é | sheené | -íne | sheeníne | -́u | sheénu | -ínu | sheenínu |
3SF | -tá | sheentá | -tó | sheentó | -ínto | sheenínto | -té | sheenté | -ínte | sheenínte | -́tu | sheéntu | -íntu | sheeníntu |
1P | -ná | sheenná | -nó | sheennó | -ínno | sheenínno | -né | sheenné | -ínne | sheenínne | -́nu | sheénnu | -ínnu | sheenínnu |
2P | -taána | sheentaána | -toóna | sheentoóna | -intoóna | sheenintoóna -teéni | sheenteéni | -inteéni | sheeninteéni | -́aa | sheénaa | -ínaa | sheenínaa | |
3P | -aána | sheenaána | -oóna | sheenoóna | -inoóna | sheeninoóna | -eéni | sheeneéni | -ineéni | sheenineéni | -́aa | sheénaa | -ínaa | sheenínaa |
Notes:
1 Conjugates as an adjective.
2 The final vowel in the singular and 1P forms (i.e. -á/ó/é) lose their high tone when non-final and lengthen in questions.
Prefix Conjugation
Vowel-initial verbs. Example verb: arkíni "to see".
Infinitive | -íni | arkíni | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Active Participle | -áa | arkáa | ||||||||||||
Passive Participle | -án- | arkán- | ||||||||||||
Present Affirmative | Present Subordinate | Pre. Subord. Neg. | Past Affirmative | Past Negative | Jussive/Imperative Aff. | Jussive/Imperative Neg. | ||||||||
1S | -á | arká | -ó | arkó | -íno | arkíno | -é | arké | -íne | arkíne | -́u | árku | -ínu | arkínu |
2S | t-á | tarká | t-ó | tarkó | t-íno | tarkíno | t-é | tarké | t-íne | tarkíne | -́u | árku | -ínu | arkínu |
3SM | y-á | yarká | y-ó | yarkó | y-íno | yarkíno | y-é | yarké | y-íne | yarkíne | y-́u | yárku | y-ínu | yarkínu |
3SF | t-á | tarká | t-ó | tarkó | t-íno | tarkíno | t-é | tarké | t-íne | tarkíne | t-́u | tárku | t-ínu | tarkínu |
1P | n-á | narká | n-ó | narkó | n-íno | narkíno | n-é | narké | n-íne | narkíne | n-́u | nárku | n-ínu | narkínu |
2P | t-aána | tarkaána | t-oóna | tarkoóna | t-inoóna | tarkinoóna | t-eéni | tarkeéni | t-ineéni | tarkineéni | -́aa | árkaa | -ínaa | arkínaa |
3P | y-aána | yarkaána | y-oóna | yarkoóna | y-inoóna | yarkinoóna | y-eéni | yarkeéni | y-ineéni | yarkineéni | y-́aa | yárkaa | y-ínaa | yarkínaa |
Class II: Adjectival Conjugation
This used for adjectives and a few stative verbs. The citation form is the 3SM present affirmative. They each have a Class I counterpart that is used inchoatively. Example: cáse "red" (inchoative: casoóni "to become red"). For the infinitive, passive participle, and imperatives/jussives, use the Class I forms.
Active Participle | -íi | casíi | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Present Affirmative | Present Subordinate | Past Affirmative | Past Negative | |||||
1S | -́iye | cásiye | -íye | casíye | -íishe | casíishe | -iishé | casiishé |
2S | -́ite | cásite | -íte | casíte | -íishte | casíishte | -iishté | casiishté |
3SM | -́e | cáse | -é | casé | -íishe | casíishe | -iishé | casiishé |
3SF | -́e | cáse | -é | casé | -íishte | casíishte | -iishté | casiishté |
1P | -́ine | cásine | -íne | casíne | -íishne | casíishne | -iishné | casiishné |
2P | -́itiini | cásitiini | -itiíni | casitiíni | -íishtiini | casíishtiini | -iishtiíni | casiishtiíni |
3P | -́iini | cásiini | -iíni | casiíni | -íishiini | casíishiini | -iishiíni | casiishiíni |
Tense, Aspect, Mood, Voice
Notes:
- The Class I forms ending in a high-tone vowel lose the high tone when non-final and lengthen the final vowel when used interrogatively.
Simple Present
- Used for actions in the present or future, or that started in the past but continue into the present (i.e. English past perfect continuous).
- Main clause:
- Affirmative: "Present indicative" - e.g. yarká "he sees"
- Negative: ma + "Present subordinate" - e.g. ma yarkó "he does not see"
- Subordinate clause:
- Affirmative: "Present subordinate" - e.g. akka yarkó "that he sees"
- Negative: ma + "Present subordinate" - e.g. akka ma yarkó "that he does not see"
Syntax
Constituent order
SOV
Noun phrase
- Modifiers come before the noun being modified.
- Case endings and postpositions come at the end of a noun phrase, which often ends in a noun but may not. If it does not end in a noun, independent forms are used.