Qino

Qino (native: Qíno afka /ɠíno afka/, traditional Arabic script: ڧں أڢک, modernized Arabic script: قن أفك) is a Cushitic conlang.

Introduction

Qino is a Cushitic language. The phonology is largely inspired by Hadda. The syntax and verbal morphology are most similar to Saho-Afar.

Phonology

Orthography

Qino can be written in the Arabic or Latin scripts. In this article, the Latin script (with tone indicated) is used for ease of reading.

Consonants

Traditional Arabic	"Modernized" Arabic	Latin	IPA	Notes
ـأ أ	أ	'	ʔ	Here hamzah is shown on alif, but it may occur on waw (ؤ), ya' (ئ), or without a "chair" (ء).
ببب ب	ب	b	b	Lenited to [β] between vowels. May be indicated in traditional Arabic script as ۋ.
پپپ پ	ڀ	bh	ɓ	Lenited to [ʔᵝ] between vowels.
تتت ت	ت	t	t
ثثث ث	ث	th	θ	Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /t/.
ججج ج	ج	j	d͡ʒ	Lenited to [j ~ ʝ] between vowels (may be indicated orthographically as ى/y).
ڃڃڃ ڃ	ݧ	ny	ɲ
چچچ چ	ڇ	jh	ʄ	Lenited to [ʔʲ] between vowels.
ححح ح	ح	x	ħ
خخخ خ	خ	kh	x	Occurs in loanwords.
ـد د	د	d	d	Lenited to [ð] between vowels (may be indicated in Arabic script as ذ).
ـذ ذ	ذ	dz	ð	Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /d/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /d/.
ـر ر	ر	r	r	Becomes a tap (/ɾ/) between vowels.
ـز ز	ز	z	z	Occurs in loanwords.
سسس س	س	s	s
ششش ش	ش	sh	ʃ
صصص ص	ص	s	s	Occurs in Arabic loanwords. Educated pronunciation is /sˁ/.
ضضض ض	ض	lh	lˀ	In Arabic loanwords, may be pronounced as in Fusha (/dˁ/ or /d͡lˁ/ or whatever) or the "hybrid" pronunciations /ɗ͡l(ˁ)/ or /lˁ/.
ططط ط	ط	dh	ɗ	Lenited to [ɾˀ] between vowels, which may be indicated orthographically as ڟ/rh. In loanwords, may be pronounced /t̪ˁ/ or the hybrid pronunciation /ɗ̪(ˁ)/.
ظظظ ظ	ظ	dz	ð	Occurs in Arabic loanwords. Educated pronunciation is /ðˁ/. Nativized as /d/ or /ɗ/.
ڟڟڟ ڟ	ڟ	rh	ɾˀ	Allophone of /ɗ/ between vowels. May not be distinguished from ط/dh.
ععع ع	ع	c	ʕ
غغغ غ	غ	gh	ɣ	Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /ɡ/ or /ɠ/.
ڢڢڡ ڡ	ف	f	f
ڥڥڥ ڥ	پ	p	p	Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /b/ or /f/.
ڧڧٯ ٯ	ق	q	ɠ	Lenited to [ʔˠ] between vowels. In loanwords, may be pronounced /q/ or the hybrid pronunciation /ʛ/.
ققق ق	ڹ	ng	ŋ
ڨڨڨ ڨ	ڠ	g	ɡ	Lenited to [ɣ] between vowels (may be indicated in Arabic script as غ).
ککک ک	ك	k	k
ݣݣݣ ݣ	چ	ch	t͡ʃ
للل ل	ل	l	l
ممم م	م	m	m
ننں ں	ن	n	n
ـو و	و	w	w
ـۋ ۋ	ڤ	v	v	Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /f/, /b/, or /w/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /b/.
ههه ه	ه	h	h
ییی\ـے ی\ے	ي	y	j	In the traditional Arabic script, written as ے when representing a final /i(ː)/ or /-j/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /d͡ʒ/.

Vowels

Traditional Arabic	"Modernized" Arabic	Latin	IPA	Notes
ـَ	ـَ	a	a
ـٜ	ـٖ	e	e
ـِ	ـِ	i	i
ـٗ	ـٗ	o	o
ـُ	ـُ	u	u
ـَا	ـَا	aa	aː
ـٜیٰ، ـَےْ	ـٖي٬ ـَيْ	ee	eː
ـِے	ـِي	ii	iː
ـٗو٬ ـَوْ	ـٗو، ـَوْ	oo	oː
ـُو	ـُو	uu	uː
ـْ	ـْ	C	C	Used for a consonant not followed by a vowel.
ـّ	ـّ	CC	Cː	Used for a geminate consonant.
ـهْ	ـهْ	-V́ (or -Vh)	-V́	Used for word-final vowel with high tone.

Consonants

Qino consonant phonemes

		Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Palatal/ Postalveolar	Velar	Pharyngeal	Glottal
Nasal	plain	m	n		ny /ɲ/	ng /ŋ/
	glottalized	[mˀ]	[nˀ]		[ɲˀ]	[ŋˀ]
Stop consonant	voiceless	(p)	t		ch /t͡ʃ/	k		' /ʔ/
	voiced	b	d		j /d͡ʒ/	ɡ
	glottalized	bh /ɓ/	dh /ɗ/		jh /ʄ/	q /ɠ/
Fricative	voiceless	f	(th /θ/)	s	sh /ʃ/	(kh /x ~ χ/)	x /ħ/	h
	voiced	(v), [β ~ β̞]	(dz /ð/), [ð ~ ð̞]	(z)	[ʝ ~ j]	(gh /ɣ ~ ʁ/), [ɣ ~ ɣ̞]	c /ʕ/
Approximant	plain	w	l		y /j/
	glottalized	[β̞ˀ]	lh /lˀ/		[jˀ]	[ɰˀ]
Trill/Tap	plain		r
	glottalized		rh [ɾˀ]

Notes:

¹ ch, ny, and ng are geminated between vowels.

² Phonemes in brackets are only found in loanwords.

³ The implosives are heavily glottalized and may more accurately be represented [dˀ].

⁴ The glottalized phonemes [mˀ, nˀ, ɲˀ, ŋˀ] and [β̞ˀ, ɾˀ, jˀ, ɰˀ] are not considered separate phonemes but rather allophones of glottalized stops before/after nasals and between vowels respectively. Only rh [ɾˀ] is (optionally) distinguished orthographically.

Vowels

a e i o u aa ee ii oo uu

Morphophonology

Sandhi and Allophony

• Between vowels:
  • /b, d, d͡ʒ, ɡ/ → [β, ð, ʝ ~ j, ɣ]
  • /ɓ, ɗ, ʄ, ɠ/ → [ʔᵝ, ɾˀ, ʔʲ, ʔˠ]
• mbh, ndh, njh, nq → [mːˀ, nːˀ, ɲːˀ, ŋːˀ]
• -n- of 1st person plural:
  • bh, dh, lh, jh, q + n → [mnˀ, nːˀ, nːˀ, ɲːˀ, ŋnˀ] (written bhn, dhn, etc)
  • b, d, j, g + n → mn, nn, jn [ɲː], gn [ŋn]
  • sh + n → ny [ɲː]
• -t- of 2nd person and 3rd person feminine, singulative:
  • bh, dh, lh, jh, q: t becomes dh (lh, dh + dh → ldh, ddh)
  • b, d, g: t becomes d
  • j + t → jj
  • sh + t → ch /t͡ʃː/

Morphology

Nouns

Case

Nouns (and pronouns) are declined by case. Case markers (which can be analyzed as postpositions) go at the end of a nominal phrase. Verbs (including infinitives) are nominalized with the suffix -n before adding any case suffixes (these nominalized verbs are feminine). Subordinate verbs can alternatively be preceded by the particle in "that (relativizer)".

• Primary cases:
  • Absolutive: Citation form, used for the direct object of a verb, the object of most adpositions, and predicative nouns. Personal pronouns have a distinct accusative form that is used for direct objects.
  • Nominative: Used for the subject of a verb. Formed as follows:
    • Masculine with absolutive ending in consonant, -a, -o, or -u: -ú - e.g. nama "person" → namú
    • Feminine with absolutive ending in -o or -u: -ú - e.g. qíno → qinú
    • Feminine with absolutive ending in consonant or -a: -í - e.g. náfa "soul" → nafí
    • Absolutive ending in -e or -i: -í - e.g. shimmírti "bird (sing.)" → shimmirtí
    • Absolutive ending in a long or high-tone vowel: -n - e.g. Faadhumá "Fatima" → Faadhumán
  • Genitive: Used for possession ("of") and the object of some adpositions.
    • Absolutive ending in consonant or short, non-high-tone vowel: -í - e.g. nama → namí
    • Absolutive ending in long or high-tone vowel: -t - e.g. Faadhumá → Faadhumát
• Secondary cases:
  • Dative: Used for recipient, benefactor, purpose, obligation ("to" or "for").
    • Absolutive ending in consonant or -a: -oó - e.g. nama → namoó
    • Absolutive ending in other short non-high-tone vowel: lengthen final vowel + final high tone - e.g. shimmírti → shimmirtií
    • Absolutive ending in long or high-tone vowel: -s - e.g. Faadhumá → Faadhumás
    • Independent form: oó
  • Ablative: Used for source ("from"), comparison ("than").
    • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ák
    • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́k - e.g. nama → namák
    • Independent form: ák - e.g. Maxammad → Maxammadák
  • Instrumental: Used for instrument, means, agent, cause, time.
    • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ás - e.g. nama → namás
    • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́s
    • Independent form: ás - e.g. Maxammad → Maxammadás
  • Comitative: Used for accompaniment ("in company with").
    • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ál - e.g. nama → namál
    • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́l - e.g. Maxammad → Maxammadál
    • Independent form: ál
  • Locative: Used for location. For more specific location, postpositions are used.
    • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ád - e.g. nama → namád
    • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́d - e.g. Maxammad → Maxammadád
    • Independent form: ád
• Pseudo-cases:
  • Predicative: Used for predicative nouns. This is not a true case but rather the absolutive fused to the copula. This fusing is optional and in the present indicative, the copula can be dropped entirely.
    • Absolutive ending in consonant or short, non-high-tone vowel: -e (declines as adjective), -dha (invariant; present only) - e.g. Maxammad → Maxammade, Maxammaddha
    • Absolutive ending in long or high-tone vowel: -dhe (declines as adjective), -dha (invariant; present only) - e.g. Faadhumá → Faadhumárhe, Faadhumárha
    • Independent forms of the copula: dha (invariant; present only), e (adjective declension), dhe (= dha + e; adjective declension)

e.g. Maxammadú nama / nama e / nama dha / nama dhe / name / namarha. "Muhammad is a person."

Number

The citation form is unmarked for number. The singulative is formed with suffixes such as -sha, -ha, -ka, -icha, -ta, -eesha, -ocha, (masculine) or -ti, -itti, -eeti, -otti (feminine). The plural is formed with suffixes such as -oota, -ani, -aani, -eeni, -ooni, -eeCi, -ooCi, -eeya, -ooya, etc.

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Qino independent personal pronouns

	Absolutive	Nominative	Accusative	Genitive	Dative	Ablative	Instrumental	Comitative	Locative
1S	ana	anú	kiisha	kiíshi	kiishoó	kiishák	kiishás	kiishál	kiishád
2SM	ata	atú	kaaha	kaáhi	kaahoó	kaahák	kaahás	kaahál	kaahád
2SF	ati	atí	taati	taáti	taatií	taatík	taatís	taatíl	taatíd
3SM	usa	usú	keesha	keéshi	keeshoó	keeshák	keeshás	keeshál	keeshád
3SF	ishi	ishí	teeti	teéti	teetií	teetík	teetís	teetíl	teetíd
1Ex	una	unú	keena	keéni	keennoó	keenák	keenás	keenál	keenád
1Inc	anáni	ananí	kiina	kiíni	kiinoó	kiinák	kiinás	kiinál	kiinád
2P	atáni	ataní	siina	siíni	siinoó	siinák	siinás	siinál	siinád
3P	isáni	isaní	koota	koóti	kootií	kootík	kootís	kootíl	kootíd

Qino clitic personal pronouns

	Subject	Accusative 1	Accusative 2	Dative	Ablative	Instrumental	Comitative	Locative
1S	an	yi	kii	yoó	yák	yás	yál	yád
2SM	at	ku	kaa	kuú	kúk	kús	kúl	kúd
2SF	at	tu	taa	tuú	túk	tús	túl	túd
3SM	us	ka	keesh	koó	kák	kás	kál	kád
3SF	ish	ta	teet	toó	ták	tás	tál	tád
1Ex	un	na	keen	noó	nák	nás	nál	nád
1Inc	anan	yin	kiin	yinoó	yinák	yinás	yinál	yinád
2P	atan	sin	siin	sinoó	sinák	sinás	sinál	sinád
3P	isan	tin	koot	tinoó	tinák	tinás	tinál	tinád
REF	–	is	–	isoó	isák	isás	isál	isád
REC	–	ol	–	oloó	olák	olás	olál	olád

Notes:

• When there is one accusative object pronoun, either the "accusative 1" or "accusative 2" forms can be used. When there are multiple clitic objects, the final one takes the "accusative 2" form and the rest the "accusative 1" form.
• Third person clitic pronouns are often omitted. When the this occurs in oblique cases, the corresponding free postposition forms are used (oó, ák, ás, ál, and ád respectively).

Verbs

Class I

Suffix Conjugation

Most consonant-initial verbs fall into this category. Example: sheéni "to bring".

Suffix conjugation

Infinitive					-́i					sheéni
Active Participle					-áa					sheenáa
Passive Participle1					-án-					sheenán-
	Present Affirmative2		Present Subordinate2		Pres. Subord. Neg.		Past Affirmative2		Past Negative		Jussive/Imperative Aff.		Jussive/Imperative Neg.
1S	-á	sheená	-ó	sheenó	-íno	sheeníno	-é	sheené	-íne	sheeníne	-́u	sheénu	-ínu	sheenínu
2S	-tá	sheentá	-tó	sheentó	-ínto	sheenínto	-té	sheenté	-ínte	sheenínte	-́u	sheénu	-ínu	sheenínu
3SM	-á	sheená	-ó	sheenó	-íno	sheeníno	-é	sheené	-íne	sheeníne	-́u	sheénu	-ínu	sheenínu
3SF	-tá	sheentá	-tó	sheentó	-ínto	sheenínto	-té	sheenté	-ínte	sheenínte	-́tu	sheéntu	-íntu	sheeníntu
1P	-ná	sheenná	-nó	sheennó	-ínno	sheenínno	-né	sheenné	-ínne	sheenínne	-́nu	sheénnu	-ínnu	sheenínnu
2P	-taána	sheentaána	-toóna	sheentoóna	-intoóna	sheenintoóna	-teéni	sheenteéni	-inteéni	sheeninteéni	-́aa	sheénaa	-ínaa	sheenínaa
3P	-aána	sheenaána	-oóna	sheenoóna	-inoóna	sheeninoóna	-eéni	sheeneéni	-ineéni	sheenineéni	-́aa	sheénaa	-ínaa	sheenínaa

Notes:

¹ Conjugates as an adjective.

² The final vowel in the singular and 1P forms (i.e. -á/ó/é) lose their high tone when non-final and lengthen (with falling tone) in questions.

Prefix Conjugation

Vowel-initial verbs. Example verb: árki "to see".

Prefix conjugation

Infinitive					-́i					árki
Active Participle					-áa					arkáa
Passive Participle					-án-					arkán-
	Present Affirmative		Present Subordinate		Pre. Subord. Neg.		Past Affirmative		Past Negative		Jussive/Imperative Aff.		Jussive/Imperative Neg.
1S	-á	arká	-ó	arkó	-íno	arkíno	-é	arké	-íne	arkíne	-́u	árku	-ínu	arkínu
2S	t-á	tarká	t-ó	tarkó	t-íno	tarkíno	t-é	tarké	t-íne	tarkíne	-́u	árku	-ínu	arkínu
3SM	y-á	yarká	y-ó	yarkó	y-íno	yarkíno	y-é	yarké	y-íne	yarkíne	y-́u	yárku	y-ínu	yarkínu
3SF	t-á	tarká	t-ó	tarkó	t-íno	tarkíno	t-é	tarké	t-íne	tarkíne	t-́u	tárku	t-ínu	tarkínu
1P	n-á	narká	n-ó	narkó	n-íno	narkíno	n-é	narké	n-íne	narkíne	n-́u	nárku	n-ínu	narkínu
2P	t-aána	tarkaána	t-oóna	tarkoóna	t-inoóna	tarkinoóna	t-eéni	tarkeéni	t-ineéni	tarkineéni	-́aa	árkaa	-ínaa	arkínaa
3P	y-aána	yarkaána	y-oóna	yarkoóna	y-inoóna	yarkinoóna	y-eéni	yarkeéni	y-ineéni	yarkineéni	y-́aa	yárkaa	y-ínaa	yarkínaa

Class II: Adjectival Conjugation

This used for adjectives and a few stative verbs. The citation form is the 3SM present affirmative. They each have a Class I counterpart that is used inchoatively. Example: cáse "red" (inchoative: casoówi "to become red"). For the infinitive, passive participle, and imperatives/jussives, use the Class I forms.

Adjectival conjugation

Active Participle			-íi			casíi
	Present Affirmative		Present Subordinate		Past Affirmative		Past Negative
1S	-íye	casíye	-iyé	casiyé	-iíshe	casiíshe	-iishé	casiishé
2S	-íte	casíte	-ité	casité	-iíche	casiíche	-iiché	casiiché
3SM	-́e	cáse	-é	casé	-iíshe	casiíshe	-iishé	casiishé
3SF	-́e	cáse	-é	casé	-iíche	casiíche	-iiché	casiiché
1P	-íne	casíne	-iné	casiné	-iínye	casiínye	-iinyé	casiinyé
2P	-́itiíni	casitiíni	-itiíni	casitiíni	-iichiíni	casiichiíni	-iichiíni	casiichiíni
3P	-́iini	casiíni	-iíni	casiíni	-iishiíni	casiishiíni	-iishiíni	casiishiíni

Note: The present subordinate negative form is identical to the present subordinate affirmative.

Tense, Aspect, Mood

Notes:

• The Class I forms ending in a high-tone vowel lose the high tone when non-final and lengthen the final vowel when used interrogatively - e.g. yarká "he sees", yarka nama "person who sees", yarkáa? "does he see?"

Simple Present

• Used for an action in the present or future, or that started in the past but continue into the present (i.e. English past perfect continuous).
• Main clause:
  • Affirmative: "Present indicative" - e.g. yarká "he sees"
  • Negative: ma + "Present subordinate" - e.g. ma yarkó "he does not see"
• Subordinate clause:
  • Affirmative: "Present subordinate" - e.g. yarkonoó "so that he sees"
  • Negative: ma + "Present subordinate negative" - e.g. ma yarkínonoó "so that he does not see"

Simple Past

• Used for an action in the past.
• Main clause:
  • Affirmative: "Past affirmative" - e.g. yarké "he saw"
  • Negative: ma + "Past negative" - e.g. ma yarkíne "he did not see"
• Subordinate clause:
  • Affirmative: "Past affirmative" - e.g. yarkenás "because he saw"
  • Negative: ma + "Past negative" - e.g. ma yarkínenás "because he did not see"

Imperative

• Used for a command in the second person.
• Affirmative: "Imperative affirmative" - e.g. árku "see!"
• Negative: hin + "Imperative negative" - e.g. hin arkínu "do not see!"

Jussive

• Used for a wish, command, etc in the first and third person.
• Affirmative: haa "Jussive affirmative" - e.g. haa yárku "let him see!"
• Negative: ma + "Jussive negative" - e.g. ma yarkínu "let him not see!"

Syntax

Constituent order

SOV

Noun phrase

• Modifiers come before the noun being modified.
• Case endings and postpositions come at the end of a noun phrase, which often ends in a noun but may not. If it does not end in a noun, independent forms are used.