Qino: Difference between revisions

From Linguifex
Jump to navigation Jump to search
No edit summary
Line 5: Line 5:
III. Once done, try making sure everything is properly spelt so as to avoid unnecessary reader fatigue.
III. Once done, try making sure everything is properly spelt so as to avoid unnecessary reader fatigue.
-->
-->
'''Qino''' (native: ''Qíno afka'' /ɠíno afka/, traditional Arabic script: <big>ڧں أڢک</big>, modernized Arabic script: <big>قن أفك</big>) is a Cushitic conlang.
'''Qino''' (native: ''Qino afka'' /ɠino afka/, traditional Arabic script: <big>ڧں أڢک</big>, modernized Arabic script: <big>قن أفك</big>) is a Cushitic conlang.
==Introduction==
==Introduction==
<!-- Design goals, inspiration, ideas, who speaks it?, when was it created?, where does it come from?, any peculiarities? -->
<!-- Design goals, inspiration, ideas, who speaks it?, when was it created?, where does it come from?, any peculiarities? -->
Line 140: Line 140:
| <big><big>ـّ</big></big> || <big><big>ـّ</big></big> || CC || Cː || Used for a geminate consonant.
| <big><big>ـّ</big></big> || <big><big>ـّ</big></big> || CC || Cː || Used for a geminate consonant.
|-
|-
| <big><big>ـهْ</big></big> || <big><big>ـهْ</big></big> || -V́ (or -Vh) || -V́ || Used for word-final vowel with high tone.
| <big><big>ـهْ</big></big> || <big><big>ـهْ</big></big> || -V́ (or -Vh) || -V́ || Used for a stressed word-final vowel.
|}
|}


Line 269: Line 269:
===Prosody===
===Prosody===
====Intonation====
====Intonation====
<!--
Qino has a pitch accent system. The tone-bearing unit is the mora. There are two tones: high and low. These are only distinguished in stressed syllables. In this article, high tone is indicated with an acute accent, while low tone is indicated by its absence.
Qino has a pitch accent system. The tone-bearing unit is the mora. There are two tones: high and low. These are only distinguished in stressed syllables. In this article, high tone is indicated with an acute accent, while low tone is indicated by its absence.


Line 274: Line 275:


Tone is not indicated in the Arabic script except word-finally, which is where it is most important.
Tone is not indicated in the Arabic script except word-finally, which is where it is most important.
-->
Qino does not have distinctive tone, but stressed vowels are pronounced with a higher pitch. A question is indicated with a falling intonation.
====Stress====
====Stress====
<!--
If a word contains a syllable with a high/rising/falling tone (indicated with an accute accent), that syllable is stressed. If there are multiple, primary stress falls on the final. If the word consists exclusively of low tones, stress falls on the final "long" syllable (i.e. syllable that is closed and/or contains a long vowel), or on the initial syllable if all are short.
If a word contains a syllable with a high/rising/falling tone (indicated with an accute accent), that syllable is stressed. If there are multiple, primary stress falls on the final. If the word consists exclusively of low tones, stress falls on the final "long" syllable (i.e. syllable that is closed and/or contains a long vowel), or on the initial syllable if all are short.
 
-->
Primary stress falls on the last "long" syllable (i.e. syllable that is closed and/or contains a long vowel). If there are no long syllables, the initial syllable is stressed. Words that do not conform to this rule are indicated in this article with an acute accent. A word may contain multiple stressed syllables, in which case primary stress falls on the final stressed syllable.
===Phonotactics===
===Phonotactics===
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
Line 318: Line 323:
**'''Nominative''': Used for the subject of a verb. Formed as follows:
**'''Nominative''': Used for the subject of a verb. Formed as follows:
***Masculine with absolutive ending in consonant, ''-a'', ''-o'', or ''-u'': ''-ú'' - e.g. ''nama'' "person" → ''namú''
***Masculine with absolutive ending in consonant, ''-a'', ''-o'', or ''-u'': ''-ú'' - e.g. ''nama'' "person" → ''namú''
***Feminine with absolutive ending in ''-o'' or ''-u'': ''-ú'' - e.g. ''qíno'' → ''qinú''
***Feminine with absolutive ending in ''-o'' or ''-u'': ''-ú'' - e.g. ''qino'' → ''qinú''
***Feminine with absolutive ending in consonant or ''-a'': ''-í'' - e.g. ''nafa'' "soul" → ''nafí''
***Feminine with absolutive ending in consonant or ''-a'': ''-í'' - e.g. ''nafa'' "soul" → ''nafí''
***Absolutive ending in ''-e'' or ''-i'': ''-í'' - e.g. ''shimmirti'' "bird (sing.)" → ''shimmirtí''
***Absolutive ending in ''-e'' or ''-i'': ''-í'' - e.g. ''shimmirti'' "bird (sing.)" → ''shimmirtí''
***Absolutive ending in a long or high-tone vowel: ''-n''  - e.g. ''Faadhumá'' "Fatima" → ''Faadhumán''
***Absolutive ending in a long or stressed vowel: ''-n''  - e.g. ''Faadhumá'' "Fatima" → ''Faadhumán''
**'''Genitive''': Used for possession ("of") and the object of some adpositions.
**'''Genitive''': Used for possession ("of") and the object of some adpositions.
***Absolutive ending in consonant or short, non-high-tone vowel: -í - e.g. ''nama'' → ''namí''
***Absolutive ending in consonant or short, unstressed vowel: -í - e.g. ''nama'' → ''namí''
***Absolutive ending in long or high-tone vowel: ''-t'' - e.g. ''Faadhumá'' → ''Faadhumát''
***Absolutive ending in long or stressed vowel: ''-t'' - e.g. ''Faadhumá'' → ''Faadhumát''
*'''Secondary cases:'''
*'''Secondary cases:'''
**'''Dative''': Used for recipient, benefactor, purpose, obligation ("to" or "for").
**'''Dative''': Used for recipient, benefactor, purpose, obligation ("to" or "for").
***Absolutive ending in consonant or ''-a'': ''-oó'' - e.g. ''nama'' → ''namoó''
***Absolutive ending in consonant or ''-a'': ''-óo'' - e.g. ''nama'' → ''namoo''
***Absolutive ending in other short non-high-tone vowel: lengthen final vowel + final high tone - e.g. ''shimmirti'' → ''shimmirtií''
***Absolutive ending in other short unstressed vowel: lengthen final vowel + final stress - e.g. ''shimmirti'' → ''shimmirtii''
***Absolutive ending in long or high-tone vowel: ''-s'' - e.g. ''Faadhumá'' → ''Faadhumás''
***Absolutive ending in long or stressed vowel: ''-s'' - e.g. ''Faadhumá'' → ''Faadhumás''
***Independent form: ''oó''
***Independent form: ''oo''
**'''Ablative''': Used for source ("from"), comparison ("than").
**'''Ablative''': Used for source ("from"), comparison ("than").
***Absolutive ending in consonant: ''-ák''
***Absolutive ending in consonant: ''-ák''
***Absolutive ending in vowel: ''-́k'' - e.g. ''nama'' → ''namák''
***Absolutive ending in vowel: ''-́k'' - e.g. ''nama'' → ''namak''
***Independent form: ''ák'' - e.g. ''Maxammad'' → ''Maxammadák''
***Independent form: ''ak'' - e.g. ''Maxammad'' → ''Maxammadak''
**'''Instrumental''': Used for instrument, means, agent, cause, time.
**'''Instrumental''': Used for instrument, means, agent, cause, time.
***Absolutive ending in consonant: ''-ás'' - e.g. ''nama'' → ''namás''
***Absolutive ending in consonant: ''-ás'' - e.g. ''nama'' → ''namas''
***Absolutive ending in vowel: ''-́s''
***Absolutive ending in vowel: ''-́s''
***Independent form: ''ás'' - e.g. ''Maxammad'' → ''Maxammadás''
***Independent form: ''as'' - e.g. ''Maxammad'' → ''Maxammadas''
**'''Comitative''': Used for accompaniment ("in company with").
**'''Comitative''': Used for accompaniment ("in company with").
***Absolutive ending in consonant: ''-ál'' - e.g. ''nama'' → ''namál''
***Absolutive ending in consonant: ''-ál'' - e.g. ''nama'' → ''namal''
***Absolutive ending in vowel: ''-́l'' - e.g. ''Maxammad'' → ''Maxammadál''
***Absolutive ending in vowel: ''-́l'' - e.g. ''Maxammad'' → ''Maxammadal''
***Independent form: ''ál''
***Independent form: ''al''
**'''Locative''': Used for location. For more specific location, postpositions are used.
**'''Locative''': Used for location. For more specific location, postpositions are used.
***Absolutive ending in consonant: ''-ád'' - e.g. ''nama'' → ''namád''
***Absolutive ending in consonant: ''-ád'' - e.g. ''nama'' → ''namad''
***Absolutive ending in vowel: ''-́d'' - e.g. ''Maxammad'' → ''Maxammadád''
***Absolutive ending in vowel: ''-́d'' - e.g. ''Maxammad'' → ''Maxammadad''
***Independent form: ''ád''
***Independent form: ''ad''
*'''Pseudo-cases:'''
*'''Pseudo-cases:'''
**'''Predicative''': Used for predicative nouns. This is not a true case but rather the absolutive fused to the copula. This fusing is optional and in the present indicative, the copula can be dropped entirely.
**'''Predicative''': Used for predicative nouns. This is not a true case but rather the absolutive fused to the copula. This fusing is optional and in the present indicative, the copula can be dropped entirely.
***Absolutive ending in consonant or short, non-high-tone vowel: ''-e'' (declines as adjective), ''-dha'' (invariant; present only) - e.g. ''Maxammad'' → ''Maxammade, Maxammaddha''
***Absolutive ending in consonant or short, unstressed vowel: ''-e'' (declines as adjective), ''-dha'' (invariant; present only) - e.g. ''Maxammad'' → ''Maxammade, Maxammaddha''
***Absolutive ending in long or high-tone vowel: ''-dhe'' (declines as adjective), ''-dha'' (invariant; present only) - e.g. ''Faadhumá'' → ''Faadhumárhe, Faadhumárha''
***Absolutive ending in long or stressed vowel: ''-dhe'' (declines as adjective), ''-dha'' (invariant; present only) - e.g. ''Faadhumá'' → ''Faadhumárhe, Faadhumárha''
***Independent forms of the copula: ''dha'' (invariant; present only), ''e'' (adjective declension), ''dhe'' (= ''dha + e''; adjective declension)
***Independent forms of the copula: ''dha'' (invariant; present only), ''e'' (adjective declension), ''dhe'' (= ''dha + e''; adjective declension)
:::e.g. ''Maxammadú nama / nama e / nama dha / nama dhe / name / namarha.'' "Muhammad is a person."
:::e.g. ''Maxammadú nama / nama e / nama dha / nama dhe / name / namarha.'' "Muhammad is a person."
Line 365: Line 370:
|-
|-
! 1S  
! 1S  
| ana || anú ||kiisha || kiíshi || kiishoó || kiishák || kiishás || kiishál || kiishád
| ana || anú ||kiisha || kiishí || kiishoo || kiishak || kiishas || kiishal || kiishad
|-
|-
! 2SM  
! 2SM  
| ata || atú ||kaaha || kaáhi || kaahoó || kaahák || kaahás || kaahál || kaahád
| ata || atú ||kaaha || kaahí || kaahoo || kaahak || kaahas || kaahal || kaahad
|-
|-
! 2SF  
! 2SF  
| ati || atí ||taati || taáti || taatií || taatík || taatís || taatíl || taatíd
| ati || atí ||taati || taatí || taatii || taatík || taatís || taatíl || taatíd
|-
|-
! 3SM  
! 3SM  
| usa || usú || keesha || keéshi || keeshoó || keeshák || keeshás || keeshál || keeshád
| usa || usú || keesha || keeshí || keeshoo || keeshak || keeshas || keeshal || keeshad
|-
|-
! 3SF  
! 3SF  
| ishi || ishí || teeti || teéti || teetií || teetík || teetís || teetíl || teetíd
| ishi || ishí || teeti || teetí || teetii || teetik || teetis || teetil || teetid
|-
|-
! 1Ex  
! 1Ex  
| una || unú || keena || keéni || keennoó || keenák || keenás || keenál || keenád
| una || unú || keena || keení || keennoo || keenak || keenas || keenal || keenad
|-
|-
! 1Inc  
! 1Inc  
| anáni || ananí || kiina || kiíni || kiinoó || kiinák || kiinás || kiinál || kiinád
| anaani || anaaní || kiina || kiiní || kiinoo || kiinak || kiinas || kiinal || kiinad
|-
|-
! 2P  
! 2P  
| atáni || ataní || siina || siíni || siinoó || siinák || siinás || siinál || siinád
| ataani || ataaní || siina || siiní || siinoo || siinak || siinas || siinal || siinad
|-
|-
! 3P  
! 3P  
| isáni || isaní || koota || koóti || kootií || kootík || kootís || kootíl || kootíd
| isaani || isaaní || koota || kootí || kootii || kootik || kootis || kootil || kootid
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 399: Line 404:
|-
|-
! 1S  
! 1S  
| an || yi || kii || yoó || yák || yás || yál || yád
| an || yi || kii || yoo || yak || yas || yal || yad
|-
|-
! 2SM  
! 2SM  
| at || ku || kaa || kuú || kúk || kús || kúl || kúd
| at || ku || kaa || kuu || kuk || kus || kul || kud
|-
|-
! 2SF  
! 2SF  
| at || tu || taa || tuú || túk || tús || túl || túd
| at || tu || taa || tuu || tuk || tus || tul || tud
|-
|-
! 3SM  
! 3SM  
| us || ka || keesh || koó || kák || kás || kál || kád
| us || ka || keesh || koo || kak || kas || kal || kad
|-
|-
! 3SF  
! 3SF  
| ish || ta || teet || toó || ták || tás || tál || tád
| ish || ta || teet || too || tak || tas || tal || tad
|-
|-
! 1Ex  
! 1Ex  
| un || na || keen || noó || nák || nás || nál || nád
| un || na || keen || noo || nak || nas || nal || nad
|-
|-
! 1Inc  
! 1Inc  
| anan || yin || kiin || yinoó || yinák || yinás || yinál || yinád
| anan || yin || kiin || yinoo || yinak || yinas || yinal || yinad
|-
|-
! 2P  
! 2P  
| atan || sin || siin || sinoó || sinák || sinás || sinál || sinád
| atan || sin || siin || sinoo || sinak || sinas || sinal || sinad
|-
|-
! 3P  
! 3P  
Line 426: Line 431:
|-
|-
! REF  
! REF  
| – || is || – || isoó || isák || isás || isál || isád
| – || is || – || isoo || isak || isas || isal || isad
|-
|-
! REC  
! REC  
| – || ol || – || oloó || olák || olás || olál || olád
| – || ol || – || oloo || olak || olas || olal || olad
|-
|-
|}
|}
'''Notes''':
'''Notes''':
*When there is one accusative object pronoun, either the "accusative 1" or "accusative 2" forms can be used. When there are multiple clitic objects, the final one takes the "accusative 2" form and the rest the "accusative 1" form.
*When there is one accusative object pronoun, either the "accusative 1" or "accusative 2" forms can be used. When there are multiple clitic objects, the final one takes the "accusative 2" form and the rest the "accusative 1" form.
*Third person clitic pronouns are often omitted. When the this occurs in oblique cases, the corresponding free postposition forms are used (''oó'', ''ák'', ''ás'', ''ál'', and ''ád'' respectively).
*Third person clitic pronouns are often omitted. When the this occurs in oblique cases, the corresponding free postposition forms are used (''oo'', ''ak'', ''as'', ''al'', and ''ad'' respectively).


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
====Class I====
====Class I====
=====Suffix Conjugation=====
=====Suffix Conjugation=====
Most consonant-initial verbs fall into this category. Example: ''sheéni'' "to bring".
Most consonant-initial verbs fall into this category. Example: ''sheeni'' "to bring".
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|-
|+ Suffix conjugation
|+ Suffix conjugation
! colspan="5" | Infinitive || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-́i''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''sheén<b>i</b>''</span>
! colspan="5" | Infinitive || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-́i''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''sheen<b>i</b>''</span>
|-
|-
! colspan="5" | Active Participle || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-áa''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''sheen<b>áa</b>''</span>
! colspan="5" | Active Participle || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-aa''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''sheen<b>aa</b>''</span>
|-
|-
! colspan="5" | Passive Participle<small><sup>1</sup></small> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-án-''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''sheen<b>án-</b>''</span>
! colspan="5" | Passive Participle<small><sup>1</sup></small> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-an-''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''sheen<b>an-</b>''</span>
|-
|-
!  !! colspan="2" | Present Affirmative<small><sup>2</sup></small> !! colspan="2" | Present Subordinate<small><sup>2</sup></small> !! colspan="2" | Pres. Subord. Neg. !! colspan="2" | Past Affirmative<small><sup>2</sup></small> !! colspan="2" | Past Negative !! colspan="2" | Jussive/Imperative Aff. !! colspan="2" | Jussive/Imperative Neg.
!  !! colspan="2" | Present Affirmative<small><sup>2</sup></small> !! colspan="2" | Present Subordinate<small><sup>2</sup></small> !! colspan="2" | Pres. Subord. Neg. !! colspan="2" | Past Affirmative<small><sup>2</sup></small> !! colspan="2" | Past Negative !! colspan="2" | Jussive/Imperative Aff. !! colspan="2" | Jussive/Imperative Neg.
|-
|-
! 1S  
! 1S  
| ''-á'' || ''sheen<b>á</b>''|| ''-ó'' || ''sheen<b>ó</b>''|| ''-íno'' || ''sheen<b>íno</b>''|| ''-é'' || ''sheen<b>é</b>''|| ''-íne'' || ''sheen<b>íne</b>''|| ''-́u'' || ''sheén<b>u</b>'' || ''-ínu'' || ''sheen<b>ínu</b>''
| ''-á'' || ''sheen<b>á</b>''|| ''-ó'' || ''sheen<b>ó</b>''|| ''-íno'' || ''sheen<b>íno</b>''|| ''-é'' || ''sheen<b>é</b>''|| ''-íne'' || ''sheen<b>íne</b>''|| ''-́u'' || ''sheen<b>u</b>'' || ''-ínu'' || ''sheen<b>ínu</b>''
|-
|-
! 2S  
! 2S  
| ''-tá'' || ''sheen<b>tá</b>''|| ''-tó'' || ''sheen<b>tó</b>''|| ''-ínto'' || ''sheen<b>ínto</b>''|| ''-té'' || ''sheen<b>té</b>''|| ''-ínte'' || ''sheen<b>ínte</b>''|| ''-́u'' || ''sheén<b>u</b>'' || ''-ínu'' || ''sheen<b>ínu</b>''  
| ''-tá'' || ''sheen<b>tá</b>''|| ''-tó'' || ''sheen<b>tó</b>''|| ''-into'' || ''sheen<b>into</b>''|| ''-té'' || ''sheen<b>té</b>''|| ''-inte'' || ''sheen<b>inte</b>''|| ''-́u'' || ''sheen<b>u</b>'' || ''-ínu'' || ''sheen<b>ínu</b>''  
|-
|-
! 3SM  
! 3SM  
Line 461: Line 466:
|-
|-
! 3SF  
! 3SF  
| ''-tá'' || ''sheen<b>tá</b>''|| ''-tó'' || ''sheen<b>tó</b>''|| ''-ínto'' || ''sheen<b>ínto</b>''|| ''-té'' || ''sheen<b>té</b>''|| ''-ínte'' || ''sheen<b>ínte</b>''|| ''-́tu'' || ''sheén<b>tu</b>'' || ''-íntu'' || ''sheen<b>íntu</b>''
| ''-tá'' || ''sheen<b>tá</b>''|| ''-tó'' || ''sheen<b>tó</b>''|| ''-into'' || ''sheen<b>into</b>''|| ''-té'' || ''sheen<b>té</b>''|| ''-inte'' || ''sheen<b>inte</b>''|| ''-́tu'' || ''sheen<b>tu</b>'' || ''-intu'' || ''sheen<b>intu</b>''
|-
|-
! 1P  
! 1P  
| ''-ná'' || ''sheen<b>ná</b>''|| ''-nó'' || ''sheen<b>nó</b>''|| ''-ínno'' || ''sheen<b>ínno</b>''|| ''-né'' || ''sheen<b>né</b>''|| ''-ínne'' || ''sheen<b>ínne</b>''|| ''-́nu'' || ''sheén<b>nu</b>'' || ''-ínnu'' || ''sheen<b>ínnu</b>''
| ''-ná'' || ''sheen<b>ná</b>''|| ''-nó'' || ''sheen<b>nó</b>''|| ''-inno'' || ''sheen<b>inno</b>''|| ''-né'' || ''sheen<b>né</b>''|| ''-inne'' || ''sheen<b>inne</b>''|| ''-́nu'' || ''sheen<b>nu</b>'' || ''-innu'' || ''sheen<b>innu</b>''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| ''-taána'' || ''sheen<b>taána</b>''|| ''-toóna'' || ''sheen<b>toóna</b>''|| ''-intoóna'' || ''sheen<b>intoóna</b>'' || ''-teéni'' || ''sheen<b>teéni</b>''|| ''-inteéni'' || ''sheen<b>inteéni</b>''|| ''-́aa'' || ''sheén<b>aa</b>'' || ''-ínaa'' || ''sheen<b>ínaa</b>''
| ''-taana'' || ''sheen<b>taana</b>''|| ''-toona'' || ''sheen<b>toona</b>''|| ''-intoona'' || ''sheen<b>intoona</b>'' || ''-teeni'' || ''sheen<b>teeni</b>''|| ''-inteeni'' || ''sheen<b>inteeni</b>''|| ''-́aa'' || ''sheén<b>aa</b>'' || ''-ínaa'' || ''sheen<b>ínaa</b>''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| ''-aána'' || ''sheen<b>aána</b>''|| ''-oóna'' || ''sheen<b>oóna</b>''|| ''-inoóna'' || ''sheen<b>inoóna</b>''|| ''-eéni'' || ''sheen<b>eéni</b>''|| ''-ineéni'' || ''sheen<b>ineéni</b>''|| ''-́aa'' || ''sheén<b>aa</b>'' || ''-ínaa'' || ''sheen<b>ínaa</b>''
| ''-aana'' || ''sheen<b>aana</b>''|| ''-oona'' || ''sheen<b>oona</b>''|| ''-inoona'' || ''sheen<b>inoona</b>''|| ''-eeni'' || ''sheen<b>eeni</b>''|| ''-ineeni'' || ''sheen<b>ineeni</b>''|| ''-́aa'' || ''sheén<b>aa</b>'' || ''-ínaa'' || ''sheen<b>ínaa</b>''
|}
|}
'''Notes:'''
'''Notes:'''
Line 476: Line 481:
<small><sup>1</sup></small> Conjugates as an adjective.
<small><sup>1</sup></small> Conjugates as an adjective.


<small><sup>2</sup></small> The final vowel in the singular and 1P forms (i.e. ''-á/ó/é'') lose their high tone when non-final and lengthen (with falling tone) in questions.
<small><sup>2</sup></small> The final vowel in the singular and 1P forms (i.e. ''-á/ó/é'') lose their stress when non-final and lengthen in questions.


=====Prefix Conjugation=====
=====Prefix Conjugation=====
Vowel-initial verbs. Example verb: ''árki'' "to see".
Vowel-initial verbs. Example verb: ''arki'' "to see".
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|-
|+ Prefix conjugation
|+ Prefix conjugation
! colspan="5" | Infinitive || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-́i''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''árk<b>i</b>''</span>
! colspan="5" | Infinitive || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-i''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''ark<b>i</b>''</span>
|-
|-
! colspan="5" | Active Participle || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-áa''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''ark<b>áa</b>''</span>
! colspan="5" | Active Participle || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-aa''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''ark<b>aa</b>''</span>
|-
|-
! colspan="5" | Passive Participle || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-án-''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''ark<b>án-</b>''</span>
! colspan="5" | Passive Participle || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-an-''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''ark<b>an-</b>''</span>
|-
|-
!  !! colspan="2" | Present Affirmative !! colspan="2" | Present Subordinate !! colspan="2" | Pre. Subord. Neg. !! colspan="2" | Past Affirmative !! colspan="2" | Past Negative !! colspan="2" | Jussive/Imperative Aff. !! colspan="2" | Jussive/Imperative Neg.
!  !! colspan="2" | Present Affirmative !! colspan="2" | Present Subordinate !! colspan="2" | Pre. Subord. Neg. !! colspan="2" | Past Affirmative !! colspan="2" | Past Negative !! colspan="2" | Jussive/Imperative Aff. !! colspan="2" | Jussive/Imperative Neg.
|-
|-
! 1S  
! 1S  
| ''-á'' || ''ark<b>á</b>''|| ''-ó'' || ''ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''-íno'' || ''ark<b>íno</b>''|| ''-é'' || ''ark<b>é</b>''|| ''-íne'' || ''ark<b>íne</b>''|| ''-́u'' || ''árk<b>u</b>'' || ''-ínu'' || ''ark<b>ínu</b>''
| ''-á'' || ''ark<b>á</b>''|| ''-ó'' || ''ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''-íno'' || ''ark<b>íno</b>''|| ''-é'' || ''ark<b>é</b>''|| ''-íne'' || ''ark<b>íne</b>''|| ''-́u'' || ''ark<b>u</b>'' || ''-ínu'' || ''ark<b>ínu</b>''
|-
|-
! 2S  
! 2S  
| ''t-á'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>á</b>''|| ''t-ó'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''t-íno'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>íno</b>''|| ''t-é'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>é</b>''|| ''t-íne'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>íne</b>''|| ''-́u'' || ''árk<b>u</b>'' || ''-ínu'' || ''ark<b>ínu</b>''  
| ''t-á'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>á</b>''|| ''t-ó'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''t-íno'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>íno</b>''|| ''t-é'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>é</b>''|| ''t-íne'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>íne</b>''|| ''-́u'' || ''ark<b>u</b>'' || ''-ínu'' || ''ark<b>ínu</b>''  
|-
|-
! 3SM  
! 3SM  
| ''y-á'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>á</b>''|| ''y-ó'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''y-íno'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>íno</b>''|| ''y-é'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>é</b>''|| ''y-íne'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>íne</b>''|| ''y-́u'' || ''<b>y</b>árk<b>u</b>'' || ''y-ínu'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>ínu</b>''
| ''y-á'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>á</b>''|| ''y-ó'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''y-íno'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>íno</b>''|| ''y-é'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>é</b>''|| ''y-íne'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>íne</b>''|| ''y-́u'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>u</b>'' || ''y-ínu'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>ínu</b>''
|-
|-
! 3SF  
! 3SF  
| ''t-á'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>á</b>''|| ''t-ó'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''t-íno'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>íno</b>''|| ''t-é'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>é</b>''|| ''t-íne'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>íne</b>''|| ''t-́u'' || ''<b>t</b>árk<b>u</b>'' || ''t-ínu'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>ínu</b>''
| ''t-á'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>á</b>''|| ''t-ó'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''t-íno'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>íno</b>''|| ''t-é'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>é</b>''|| ''t-íne'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>íne</b>''|| ''t-́u'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>u</b>'' || ''t-ínu'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>ínu</b>''
|-
|-
! 1P  
! 1P  
| ''n-á'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>á</b>''|| ''n-ó'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''n-íno'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>íno</b>''|| ''n-é'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>é</b>''|| ''n-íne'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>íne</b>''|| ''n-́u'' || ''<b>n</b>árk<b>u</b>'' || ''n-ínu'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>ínu</b>''
| ''n-á'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>á</b>''|| ''n-ó'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''n-íno'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>íno</b>''|| ''n-é'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>é</b>''|| ''n-íne'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>íne</b>''|| ''n-́u'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>u</b>'' || ''n-ínu'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>ínu</b>''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| ''t-aána'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>aána</b>''|| ''t-oóna'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>oóna</b>''|| ''t-inoóna'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>inoóna</b>''|| ''t-eéni'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>eéni</b>''|| ''t-ineéni'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>ineéni</b>''|| ''-́aa'' || ''árk<b>aa</b>'' || ''-ínaa'' || ''ark<b>ínaa</b>''
| ''t-aana'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>aana</b>''|| ''t-oona'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>oona</b>''|| ''t-inoona'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>inoona</b>''|| ''t-eeni'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>eeni</b>''|| ''t-ineeni'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>ineeni</b>''|| ''-́aa'' || ''árk<b>aa</b>'' || ''-ínaa'' || ''ark<b>ínaa</b>''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| ''y-aána'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>aána</b>''|| ''y-oóna'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>oóna</b>''|| ''y-inoóna'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>inoóna</b>''|| ''y-eéni'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>eéni</b>''|| ''y-ineéni'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>ineéni</b>''|| ''y-́aa'' || ''<b>y</b>árk<b>aa</b>'' || ''y-ínaa'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>ínaa</b>''
| ''y-aana'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>aana</b>''|| ''y-oona'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>oona</b>''|| ''y-inoona'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>inoona</b>''|| ''y-eeni'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>eeni</b>''|| ''y-ineeni'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>ineeni</b>''|| ''y-́aa'' || ''<b>y</b>árk<b>aa</b>'' || ''y-ínaa'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>ínaa</b>''
|}
|}


====Class II: Adjectival Conjugation====
====Class II: Adjectival Conjugation====
This used for adjectives and a few stative verbs. The citation form is the 3SM present affirmative. They each have a Class I counterpart that is used inchoatively. Example: ''cáse'' "red" (inchoative: ''casoówi'' "to become red"). For the infinitive, passive participle, and imperatives/jussives, use the Class I forms.
This used for adjectives and a few stative verbs. The citation form is the 3SM present affirmative. They each have a Class I counterpart that is used inchoatively. Example: ''case'' "red" (inchoative: ''casoowi'' "to become red"). For the infinitive, passive participle, and imperatives/jussives, use the Class I forms.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|-
|+ Adjectival conjugation
|+ Adjectival conjugation
! colspan="3" | Active Participle || colspan="3" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-íi''</span> || colspan="3" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''cas<b>íi</b>''</span>
! colspan="3" | Active Participle || colspan="3" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-ii''</span> || colspan="3" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''cas<b>ii</b>''</span>
|-
|-
!  !! colspan="2" | Present Affirmative !! colspan="2" | Present Subordinate !! colspan="2" | Past Affirmative !! colspan="2" | Past Negative
!  !! colspan="2" | Present Affirmative !! colspan="2" | Present Subordinate !! colspan="2" | Past Affirmative !! colspan="2" | Past Negative
|-
|-
! 1S  
! 1S  
| ''-íye'' || ''cas<b>íye</b>''|| ''-iyé'' || ''cas<b>iyé</b>''|| ''-iíshe'' || ''cas<b>iíshe</b>''|| ''-iishé'' || ''cas<b>iishé</b>''
| ''-iiye'' || ''cas<b>iiye</b>''|| ''-iiyé'' || ''cas<b>iiyé</b>''|| ''-iishe'' || ''cas<b>iishe</b>''|| ''-iishé'' || ''cas<b>iishé</b>''
|-
|-
! 2S  
! 2S  
| ''-íte'' || ''cas<b>íte</b>''|| ''-ité'' || ''cas<b>ité</b>''|| ''-iíche'' || ''cas<b>iíche</b>''|| ''-iiché'' || ''cas<b>iiché</b>''
| ''-iite'' || ''cas<b>iite</b>''|| ''-iité'' || ''cas<b>iité</b>''|| ''-iiche'' || ''cas<b>iiche</b>''|| ''-iiché'' || ''cas<b>iiché</b>''
|-
|-
! 3SM
! 3SM
| ''-́e'' || ''cás<b>e</b>''|| ''-é'' || ''cas<b>é</b>''|| ''-iíshe'' || ''cas<b>iíshe</b>''|| ''-iishé'' || ''cas<b>iishé</b>''
| ''-e'' || ''cas<b>e</b>''|| ''-é'' || ''cas<b>é</b>''|| ''-iishe'' || ''cas<b>iishe</b>''|| ''-iishé'' || ''cas<b>iishé</b>''
|-
|-
! 3SF
! 3SF
| ''-́e'' || ''cás<b>e</b>''|| ''-é'' || ''cas<b>é</b>''|| ''-iíche'' || ''cas<b>iíche</b>''|| ''-iiché'' || ''cas<b>iiché</b>''
| ''-e'' || ''cas<b>e</b>''|| ''-é'' || ''cas<b>é</b>''|| ''-iiche'' || ''cas<b>iiche</b>''|| ''-iiché'' || ''cas<b>iiché</b>''
|-
|-
! 1P  
! 1P  
| ''-íne'' || ''cas<b>íne</b>''|| ''-iné'' || ''cas<b>iné</b>''|| ''-iínye'' || ''cas<b>iínye</b>''|| ''-iinyé'' || ''cas<b>iinyé</b>''
| ''-iine'' || ''cas<b>iine</b>''|| ''-iiné'' || ''cas<b>iiné</b>''|| ''-iinye'' || ''cas<b>iinye</b>''|| ''-iinyé'' || ''cas<b>iinyé</b>''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| ''-́itiíni'' || ''cas<b>itiíni</b>''|| ''-itiíni'' || ''cas<b>itiíni</b>''|| ''-iichiíni'' || ''cas<b>iichiíni</b>''|| ''-iichiíni'' || ''cas<b>iichiíni</b>''
| ''-iitiini'' || ''cas<b>iitiini</b>''|| ''-iitiini'' || ''cas<b>itiini</b>''|| ''-iichiini'' || ''cas<b>iichiini</b>''|| ''-iichiini'' || ''cas<b>iichiini</b>''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| ''-́iini'' || ''cas<b>iíni</b>''|| ''-iíni'' || ''cas<b>iíni</b>''|| ''-iishiíni'' || ''cas<b>iishiíni</b>''|| ''-iishiíni'' || ''cas<b>iishiíni</b>''
| ''-iini'' || ''cas<b>iini</b>''|| ''-iini'' || ''cas<b>iini</b>''|| ''-iishiini'' || ''cas<b>iishiini</b>''|| ''-iishiini'' || ''cas<b>iishiini</b>''
|}
|}
'''Note:''' The present subordinate negative form is identical to the present subordinate affirmative.
'''Note:''' The present subordinate negative form is identical to the present subordinate affirmative.
Line 547: Line 552:
====Tense, Aspect, Mood====
====Tense, Aspect, Mood====
'''Notes:'''  
'''Notes:'''  
*The Class I forms ending in a high-tone vowel lose the high tone when non-final and lengthen the final vowel when used interrogatively - e.g. ''yarká'' "he sees", ''yarka nama'' "person who sees", ''yarkáa?'' "does he see?"
*The Class I forms ending in a stressed vowel lose the stress when non-final and lengthen the final vowel when used interrogatively - e.g. ''yarká'' "he sees", ''yarka nama'' "person who sees", ''yarkaa?'' "does he see?"
=====Simple Present=====
=====Simple Present=====
*Used for an action in the present or future, or that started in the past but continue into the present (i.e. English past perfect continuous).
*Used for an action in the present or future, or that started in the past but continue into the present (i.e. English past perfect continuous).
Line 554: Line 559:
**Negative: ''ma'' + "Present subordinate" - e.g. ''ma yarkó'' "he does not see"
**Negative: ''ma'' + "Present subordinate" - e.g. ''ma yarkó'' "he does not see"
*Subordinate clause:
*Subordinate clause:
**Affirmative: "Present subordinate" - e.g. ''yarkonoó'' "so that he sees"
**Affirmative: "Present subordinate" - e.g. ''yarkonoo'' "so that he sees"
**Negative: ''ma'' + "Present subordinate negative" - e.g. ''ma yarkínonoó'' "so that he does not see"
**Negative: ''ma'' + "Present subordinate negative" - e.g. ''ma yarkínonóo'' "so that he does not see"
=====Simple Past=====
=====Simple Past=====
*Used for an action in the past.
*Used for an action in the past.
Line 562: Line 567:
**Negative: ''ma'' + "Past negative" - e.g. ''ma yarkíne'' "he did not see"
**Negative: ''ma'' + "Past negative" - e.g. ''ma yarkíne'' "he did not see"
*Subordinate clause:
*Subordinate clause:
**Affirmative: "Past affirmative" - e.g. ''yarkenás'' "because he saw"
**Affirmative: "Past affirmative" - e.g. ''yarkenas'' "because he saw"
**Negative: ''ma'' + "Past negative" - e.g. ''ma yarkínenás '' "because he did not see"
**Negative: ''ma'' + "Past negative" - e.g. ''ma yarkínenás '' "because he did not see"
=====Imperative=====
=====Imperative=====
*Used for a command in the second person.
*Used for a command in the second person.
*Affirmative: "Imperative affirmative" - e.g. ''árku'' "see!"
*Affirmative: "Imperative affirmative" - e.g. ''arku'' "see!"
*Negative: ''hin'' + "Imperative negative" - e.g. ''hin arkínu'' "do not see!"
*Negative: ''hin'' + "Imperative negative" - e.g. ''hin arkínu'' "do not see!"
=====Jussive=====
=====Jussive=====
*Used for a wish, command, etc in the first and third person.
*Used for a wish, command, etc in the first and third person.
*Affirmative: ''haa'' "Jussive affirmative" - e.g. ''haa yárku'' "let him see!"
*Affirmative: ''haa'' "Jussive affirmative" - e.g. ''haa yarku'' "let him see!"
*Negative: ''ma'' + "Jussive negative" - e.g. ''ma yarkínu'' "let him not see!"
*Negative: ''ma'' + "Jussive negative" - e.g. ''ma yarkínu'' "let him not see!"


Revision as of 18:07, 7 May 2017

Qino (native: Qino afka /ɠino afka/, traditional Arabic script: ڧں أڢک, modernized Arabic script: قن أفك) is a Cushitic conlang.

Introduction

Qino is a Cushitic language. The phonology is largely inspired by Hadda. The syntax and verbal morphology are most similar to Saho-Afar.

Phonology

Orthography

Qino can be written in the Arabic or Latin scripts. In this article, the Latin script (with tone indicated) is used for ease of reading.

Consonants

Traditional Arabic "Modernized" Arabic Latin IPA Notes
ـأ أ أ ' ʔ Here hamzah is shown on alif, but it may occur on waw (ؤ), ya' (ئ), or without a "chair" (ء).
ببب ب ب b b Lenited to [β ~ β̞] between vowels. May be indicated in traditional Arabic script as ۋ.
پپپ پ ڀ bh ɓ Lenited to [β̞ˀ] between vowels.
تتت ت ت t t
ثثث ث ث th θ Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /t/.
ججج ج ج j d͡ʒ Lenited to [ʝ ~ j] between vowels (may be indicated orthographically as ے/y).
ڃڃڃ ڃ ݧ ny ɲ
چچچ چ ڇ jh ʄ Lenited to [jˀ] between vowels.
ححح ح ح x ħ
خخخ خ خ kh x ~ χ Occurs in loanwords.
ـد د د d d Lenited to [ð ~ ð̞] between vowels (may be indicated in Arabic script as ذ).
ـذ ذ ذ dz ð Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /d/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /d/.
ـر ر ر r r Becomes a tap (/ɾ/) between vowels.
ـز ز ز z z Occurs in loanwords.
سسس س س s s
ششش ش ش sh ʃ
صصص ص ص s s Occurs in Arabic loanwords. Educated pronunciation is /sˁ/.
ضضض ض ض lh lˀ In Arabic loanwords, may be pronounced as in Fusha (/dˁ/ or /d͡lˁ/ or whatever) or the "hybrid" pronunciations /ɗ͡l(ˁ)/ or /lˁ/.
ططط ط ط dh ɗ Lenited to [ɾˀ] between vowels, which may be indicated orthographically as ڟ/rh. In loanwords, may be pronounced /t̪ˁ/ or the hybrid pronunciation /ɗ̪(ˁ)/.
ظظظ ظ ظ dz ð Occurs in Arabic loanwords. Educated pronunciation is /ðˁ/. Nativized as /d/ or /ɗ/.
ڟڟڟ ڟ ڟ rh ɾˀ Allophone of /ɗ/ between vowels. May not be distinguished from ط/dh.
ععع ع ع c ʕ
غغغ غ غ gh ɣ ~ ʁ Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /ɡ/ or /ɠ/. May be used for the intervocalic allophone of /ɡ/.
ڢڢڡ ڡ ف f f
ڥڥڥ ڥ پ p p Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /b/ or /f/.
ڧڧٯ ٯ ق q ɠ Lenited to [ɰˀ] between vowels. In loanwords, may be pronounced /q/ or the hybrid pronunciation /ʛ/.
ققق ق ڹ ng ŋ
ڨڨڨ ڨ ڠ g ɡ Lenited to [ɣ ~ ɣ̞] between vowels (may be indicated in Arabic script as غ).
ککک ک ك k k
ݣݣݣ ݣ چ ch t͡ʃ
للل ل ل l l
ممم م م m m
ننں ں ن n n
ـو و و w w
ـۋ ۋ ڤ v v Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /f/, /b/, or /w/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /b/.
ههه ه ه h h
ییی\ـے ی\ے ي y j In the traditional Arabic script, written as ے when representing a final /i(ː)/ or /-j/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /d͡ʒ/.


Vowels

Traditional Arabic "Modernized" Arabic Latin IPA Notes
ـَ ـَ a a
ـٜ ـٖ e e
ـِ ـِ i i
ـٗ ـٗ o o
ـُ ـُ u u
ـَا ـَا aa aː
ـٜیٰ، ـَےْ ـٖي٬ ـَيْ ee eː
ـِے ـِي ii iː
ـٗو٬ ـَوْ ـٗو، ـَوْ oo oː
ـُو ـُو uu uː
ـْ ـْ C C Used for a consonant not followed by a vowel.
ـّ ـّ CC Cː Used for a geminate consonant.
ـهْ ـهْ -V́ (or -Vh) -V́ Used for a stressed word-final vowel.

Consonants

Qino consonant phonemes
Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal/
Postalveolar 		Velar Pharyngeal Glottal
Nasal plain m n ny /ɲ/ ng /ŋ/
glottalized [mˀ] [nˀ] [ɲˀ] [ŋˀ]
Stop consonant voiceless (p) t ch /t͡ʃ/ k ' /ʔ/
voiced b d j /d͡ʒ/ ɡ
glottalized bh /ɓ/ dh /ɗ/ jh /ʄ/ q /ɠ/
Fricative voiceless f (th /θ/) s sh /ʃ/ (kh /x ~ χ/) x /ħ/ h
voiced (v), [β ~ β̞] (dz /ð/), [ð ~ ð̞] (z) [ʝ ~ j] (gh /ɣ ~ ʁ/), [ɣ ~ ɣ̞] c /ʕ/
Approximant plain w l y /j/
glottalized [β̞ˀ] lh /lˀ/ [jˀ] [ɰˀ]
Trill/Tap plain r
glottalized rh [ɾˀ]

Notes:

1 ch, ny, and ng are geminated between vowels.

2 Phonemes in brackets are only found in loanwords.

3 The implosives are heavily glottalized and may more accurately be represented [dˀ].

4 The glottalized phonemes [mˀ, nˀ, ɲˀ, ŋˀ] and [β̞ˀ, ɾˀ, jˀ, ɰˀ] are not considered separate phonemes but rather allophones of glottalized stops before/after nasals and between vowels respectively. Only rh [ɾˀ] is (optionally) distinguished orthographically.

Vowels

a e i o u aa ee ii oo uu

Prosody

Intonation

Qino does not have distinctive tone, but stressed vowels are pronounced with a higher pitch. A question is indicated with a falling intonation.

Stress

Primary stress falls on the last "long" syllable (i.e. syllable that is closed and/or contains a long vowel). If there are no long syllables, the initial syllable is stressed. Words that do not conform to this rule are indicated in this article with an acute accent. A word may contain multiple stressed syllables, in which case primary stress falls on the final stressed syllable.

Phonotactics

  • Syllable structure is (C)V(C)
  • Vowels cannot occur in hiatus. Epithetic consonants such as w and y are inserted.
  • When a cluster of three consonants would occur, the epithetic vowel -i- is inserted. Alternatively, the consonant cluster can be separated with an "echo" vowel, sometimes with metathesis.
e.g. hurda "he sleeps", hurdita / hurudda "she sleeps"

Morphophonology

Sandhi and Allophony

  • Between vowels:
    • /b, d, d͡ʒ, ɡ/ → [β ~ β̞, ð ~ ð̞, ʝ ~ j, ɣ ~ ɣ̞]
    • /ɓ, ɗ, ʄ, ɠ/ → [β̞ˀ, ɾˀ, jˀ, ɰˀ]
  • mbh, ndh, njh, nq → [mːˀ, nːˀ, ɲːˀ, ŋːˀ]
  • -n- of 1st person plural:
    • bh, dh, lh, jh, q + n → [mnˀ, nːˀ, ɲːˀ, ŋnˀ] (written bhn, dhn, etc)
    • r, l, lh + n → [rː, lː, lːˀ] (written rr, ll, llh)
    • b, d, j, g + n → mn, nn, jn [ɲː], gn [ŋn]
    • sh + n → ny [ɲː]
  • -t- of 2nd person and 3rd person feminine, singulative:
    • bh, dh, lh, jh, q: t becomes dh (lh, dh + dh are written ldh, ddh)
    • b, d, g: t becomes d
    • j + t → jj
    • sh + t → ch /t͡ʃː/

Morphology

Nouns

Case

Nouns (and pronouns) are declined by case. Case markers (which can be analyzed as postpositions) go at the end of a nominal phrase. Verbs (including infinitives) are nominalized with the suffix -n before adding any case suffixes (these nominalized verbs are feminine). Subordinate verbs can alternatively be preceded by the particle in "that (relativizer)".

  • Primary cases:
    • Absolutive: Citation form, used for the direct object of a verb, the object of most adpositions, and predicative nouns. Personal pronouns have a distinct accusative form that is used for direct objects.
    • Nominative: Used for the subject of a verb. Formed as follows:
      • Masculine with absolutive ending in consonant, -a, -o, or -u: -ú - e.g. nama "person" → namú
      • Feminine with absolutive ending in -o or -u: -ú - e.g. qino → qinú
      • Feminine with absolutive ending in consonant or -a: -í - e.g. nafa "soul" → nafí
      • Absolutive ending in -e or -i: -í - e.g. shimmirti "bird (sing.)" → shimmirtí
      • Absolutive ending in a long or stressed vowel: -n - e.g. Faadhumá "Fatima" → Faadhumán
    • Genitive: Used for possession ("of") and the object of some adpositions.
      • Absolutive ending in consonant or short, unstressed vowel: -í - e.g. nama → namí
      • Absolutive ending in long or stressed vowel: -t - e.g. Faadhumá → Faadhumát
  • Secondary cases:
    • Dative: Used for recipient, benefactor, purpose, obligation ("to" or "for").
      • Absolutive ending in consonant or -a: -óo - e.g. nama → namoo
      • Absolutive ending in other short unstressed vowel: lengthen final vowel + final stress - e.g. shimmirti → shimmirtii
      • Absolutive ending in long or stressed vowel: -s - e.g. Faadhumá → Faadhumás
      • Independent form: oo
    • Ablative: Used for source ("from"), comparison ("than").
      • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ák
      • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́k - e.g. nama → namak
      • Independent form: ak - e.g. Maxammad → Maxammadak
    • Instrumental: Used for instrument, means, agent, cause, time.
      • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ás - e.g. nama → namas
      • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́s
      • Independent form: as - e.g. Maxammad → Maxammadas
    • Comitative: Used for accompaniment ("in company with").
      • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ál - e.g. nama → namal
      • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́l - e.g. Maxammad → Maxammadal
      • Independent form: al
    • Locative: Used for location. For more specific location, postpositions are used.
      • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ád - e.g. nama → namad
      • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́d - e.g. Maxammad → Maxammadad
      • Independent form: ad
  • Pseudo-cases:
    • Predicative: Used for predicative nouns. This is not a true case but rather the absolutive fused to the copula. This fusing is optional and in the present indicative, the copula can be dropped entirely.
      • Absolutive ending in consonant or short, unstressed vowel: -e (declines as adjective), -dha (invariant; present only) - e.g. Maxammad → Maxammade, Maxammaddha
      • Absolutive ending in long or stressed vowel: -dhe (declines as adjective), -dha (invariant; present only) - e.g. Faadhumá → Faadhumárhe, Faadhumárha
      • Independent forms of the copula: dha (invariant; present only), e (adjective declension), dhe (= dha + e; adjective declension)
e.g. Maxammadú nama / nama e / nama dha / nama dhe / name / namarha. "Muhammad is a person."

Number

The citation form is unmarked for number. The singulative is formed with suffixes such as -sha, -ha, -ka, -icha, -ta, -eesha, -ocha, (masculine) or -ti, -itti, -eeti, -otti (feminine). The plural is formed with suffixes such as -oota, -ani, -aani, -eeni, -ooni, -eeCi, -ooCi, -eeya, -ooya, etc.

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Qino independent personal pronouns
Absolutive Nominative Accusative Genitive Dative Ablative Instrumental Comitative Locative
1S ana anú kiisha kiishí kiishoo kiishak kiishas kiishal kiishad
2SM ata atú kaaha kaahí kaahoo kaahak kaahas kaahal kaahad
2SF ati atí taati taatí taatii taatík taatís taatíl taatíd
3SM usa usú keesha keeshí keeshoo keeshak keeshas keeshal keeshad
3SF ishi ishí teeti teetí teetii teetik teetis teetil teetid
1Ex una unú keena keení keennoo keenak keenas keenal keenad
1Inc anaani anaaní kiina kiiní kiinoo kiinak kiinas kiinal kiinad
2P ataani ataaní siina siiní siinoo siinak siinas siinal siinad
3P isaani isaaní koota kootí kootii kootik kootis kootil kootid
Qino clitic personal pronouns
Subject Accusative 1 Accusative 2 Dative Ablative Instrumental Comitative Locative
1S an yi kii yoo yak yas yal yad
2SM at ku kaa kuu kuk kus kul kud
2SF at tu taa tuu tuk tus tul tud
3SM us ka keesh koo kak kas kal kad
3SF ish ta teet too tak tas tal tad
1Ex un na keen noo nak nas nal nad
1Inc anan yin kiin yinoo yinak yinas yinal yinad
2P atan sin siin sinoo sinak sinas sinal sinad
3P isan tin koot tinoó tinák tinás tinál tinád
REF – is – isoo isak isas isal isad
REC – ol – oloo olak olas olal olad

Notes:

  • When there is one accusative object pronoun, either the "accusative 1" or "accusative 2" forms can be used. When there are multiple clitic objects, the final one takes the "accusative 2" form and the rest the "accusative 1" form.
  • Third person clitic pronouns are often omitted. When the this occurs in oblique cases, the corresponding free postposition forms are used (oo, ak, as, al, and ad respectively).

Verbs

Class I

Suffix Conjugation

Most consonant-initial verbs fall into this category. Example: sheeni "to bring".

Suffix conjugation
Infinitive -́i sheeni
Active Participle -aa sheenaa
Passive Participle1 -an- sheenan-
Present Affirmative2 Present Subordinate2 Pres. Subord. Neg. Past Affirmative2 Past Negative Jussive/Imperative Aff. Jussive/Imperative Neg.
1S -á sheená -ó sheenó -íno sheeníno -é sheené -íne sheeníne -́u sheenu -ínu sheenínu
2S -tá sheentá -tó sheentó -into sheeninto -té sheenté -inte sheeninte -́u sheenu -ínu sheenínu
3SM -á sheená -ó sheenó -íno sheeníno -é sheené -íne sheeníne -́u sheénu -ínu sheenínu
3SF -tá sheentá -tó sheentó -into sheeninto -té sheenté -inte sheeninte -́tu sheentu -intu sheenintu
1P -ná sheenná -nó sheennó -inno sheeninno -né sheenné -inne sheeninne -́nu sheennu -innu sheeninnu
2P -taana sheentaana -toona sheentoona -intoona sheenintoona -teeni sheenteeni -inteeni sheeninteeni -́aa sheénaa -ínaa sheenínaa
3P -aana sheenaana -oona sheenoona -inoona sheeninoona -eeni sheeneeni -ineeni sheenineeni -́aa sheénaa -ínaa sheenínaa

Notes:

1 Conjugates as an adjective.

2 The final vowel in the singular and 1P forms (i.e. -á/ó/é) lose their stress when non-final and lengthen in questions.

Prefix Conjugation

Vowel-initial verbs. Example verb: arki "to see".

Prefix conjugation
Infinitive -i arki
Active Participle -aa arkaa
Passive Participle -an- arkan-
Present Affirmative Present Subordinate Pre. Subord. Neg. Past Affirmative Past Negative Jussive/Imperative Aff. Jussive/Imperative Neg.
1S -á arká -ó arkó -íno arkíno -é arké -íne arkíne -́u arku -ínu arkínu
2S t-á tarká t-ó tarkó t-íno tarkíno t-é tarké t-íne tarkíne -́u arku -ínu arkínu
3SM y-á yarká y-ó yarkó y-íno yarkíno y-é yarké y-íne yarkíne y-́u yarku y-ínu yarkínu
3SF t-á tarká t-ó tarkó t-íno tarkíno t-é tarké t-íne tarkíne t-́u tarku t-ínu tarkínu
1P n-á narká n-ó narkó n-íno narkíno n-é narké n-íne narkíne n-́u narku n-ínu narkínu
2P t-aana tarkaana t-oona tarkoona t-inoona tarkinoona t-eeni tarkeeni t-ineeni tarkineeni -́aa árkaa -ínaa arkínaa
3P y-aana yarkaana y-oona yarkoona y-inoona yarkinoona y-eeni yarkeeni y-ineeni yarkineeni y-́aa yárkaa y-ínaa yarkínaa

Class II: Adjectival Conjugation

This used for adjectives and a few stative verbs. The citation form is the 3SM present affirmative. They each have a Class I counterpart that is used inchoatively. Example: case "red" (inchoative: casoowi "to become red"). For the infinitive, passive participle, and imperatives/jussives, use the Class I forms.

Adjectival conjugation
Active Participle -ii casii
Present Affirmative Present Subordinate Past Affirmative Past Negative
1S -iiye casiiye -iiyé casiiyé -iishe casiishe -iishé casiishé
2S -iite casiite -iité casiité -iiche casiiche -iiché casiiché
3SM -e case -é casé -iishe casiishe -iishé casiishé
3SF -e case -é casé -iiche casiiche -iiché casiiché
1P -iine casiine -iiné casiiné -iinye casiinye -iinyé casiinyé
2P -iitiini casiitiini -iitiini casitiini -iichiini casiichiini -iichiini casiichiini
3P -iini casiini -iini casiini -iishiini casiishiini -iishiini casiishiini

Note: The present subordinate negative form is identical to the present subordinate affirmative.

Tense, Aspect, Mood

Notes:

  • The Class I forms ending in a stressed vowel lose the stress when non-final and lengthen the final vowel when used interrogatively - e.g. yarká "he sees", yarka nama "person who sees", yarkaa? "does he see?"
Simple Present
  • Used for an action in the present or future, or that started in the past but continue into the present (i.e. English past perfect continuous).
  • Main clause:
    • Affirmative: "Present indicative" - e.g. yarká "he sees"
    • Negative: ma + "Present subordinate" - e.g. ma yarkó "he does not see"
  • Subordinate clause:
    • Affirmative: "Present subordinate" - e.g. yarkonoo "so that he sees"
    • Negative: ma + "Present subordinate negative" - e.g. ma yarkínonóo "so that he does not see"
Simple Past
  • Used for an action in the past.
  • Main clause:
    • Affirmative: "Past affirmative" - e.g. yarké "he saw"
    • Negative: ma + "Past negative" - e.g. ma yarkíne "he did not see"
  • Subordinate clause:
    • Affirmative: "Past affirmative" - e.g. yarkenas "because he saw"
    • Negative: ma + "Past negative" - e.g. ma yarkínenás "because he did not see"
Imperative
  • Used for a command in the second person.
  • Affirmative: "Imperative affirmative" - e.g. arku "see!"
  • Negative: hin + "Imperative negative" - e.g. hin arkínu "do not see!"
Jussive
  • Used for a wish, command, etc in the first and third person.
  • Affirmative: haa "Jussive affirmative" - e.g. haa yarku "let him see!"
  • Negative: ma + "Jussive negative" - e.g. ma yarkínu "let him not see!"

Syntax

Constituent order

SOV

Noun phrase

  • Modifiers come before the noun being modified.
  • Case endings and postpositions come at the end of a noun phrase, which often ends in a noun but may not. If it does not end in a noun, independent forms are used.

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Example texts

Other resources

Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Qino&oldid=72364"