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=Grammar= | =Grammar= | ||
<!-- | |||
====In a nutshell:==== | ====In a nutshell:====--> | ||
==PHONOLOGY== | ==PHONOLOGY== | ||
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| 1) Internal sandhi: rule -n·v- → -p-, fusion to /p/ | | 1) Internal sandhi: rule -n·v- → -p-, fusion to /p/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | bV·en·vɯl·Vr > bepɯlɯr | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 2) External sandhi: rule -C b- > -C p-, fortition of /b/ /p/ (devoicing of /b/) | | 2) External sandhi: rule -C b- > -C p-, fortition of /b/ /p/ (devoicing of /b/) | ||
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The participial verbal forms are formed with the bare root of the verb, marked with the participial marker {{sc|ppl}} ''aC₂(a)-'' (a modified form of the gnomic aspect marker {{sc|gnom}} ''aC₂C₂a-'') and an epenthetic suffix ''-i/-ĭ'' that takes over the slot of the person-tense marker. This works as an infinitive participle, and can furtherly be inflected for tense and aspect. The forms of the {{sc|ppl}} fused with the verbal tense structural primary verbal aspects, and most used participles are: | The participial verbal forms are formed with the bare root of the verb, marked with the participial marker {{sc|ppl}} ''aC₂(a)-'' (a modified form of the gnomic aspect marker {{sc|gnom}} ''aC₂C₂a-'') and an epenthetic suffix ''-i/-ĭ'' that takes over the slot of the person-tense marker. This works as an infinitive participle, and can furtherly be inflected for tense and aspect. The forms of the {{sc|ppl}} fused with the verbal tense structural primary verbal aspects, and most used participles are: | ||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
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|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
Marked with the forms: | Marked with the forms: | ||
| Line 960: | Line 958: | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
For example: | For example: | ||
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====Referent anaphora==== | ====Referent anaphora==== | ||
=====Anaphoric reference shift particle===== | =====Anaphoric reference shift particle===== | ||
| Line 1,053: | Line 1,049: | ||
Two verbal roots are combined to convey a new meaning (see ''Derivational morphology: Special compositional functions of verbs''). | Two verbal roots are combined to convey a new meaning (see ''Derivational morphology: Special compositional functions of verbs''). | ||
<!-- | |||
===Animacy, control and volition=== | ===Animacy, control and volition=== | ||
===Adjectives and adverbs=== | ===Adjectives and adverbs=== | ||
| Line 1,058: | Line 1,055: | ||
====Participles==== | ====Participles==== | ||
====Dative and genitive constructions==== | ====Dative and genitive constructions==== | ||
--> | |||
===Derivational morphology=== | ===Derivational morphology=== | ||
| Line 1,219: | Line 1,217: | ||
Examples: | Examples: | ||
'''''to.cleave''''' | |||
:{| | :{| | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Verb₁: ''max'' /max/ to.cut | | Verb₁: ''max'' /max/ to.cut | ||
| Line 1,241: | Line 1,239: | ||
|} | |} | ||
'''''to.glare''''' | |||
:{| | :{| | ||
|- | |- | ||
|Verb₁: ''ala'' /ˈa.la/ to.see | |Verb₁: ''ala'' /ˈa.la/ to.see | ||
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=====Dative compounds===== | =====Dative compounds===== | ||
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The elements of the dative compound are preceded by the pertinent dative case marker DAT depending on the gender and number of the determinatum. Furthermore, the determinatum is suffixed as follows: | The elements of the dative compound are preceded by the pertinent dative case marker DAT depending on the gender and number of the determinatum. Furthermore, the determinatum is suffixed as follows: | ||
(1) [√-C] → -i if [√C-] | -Ø | :(1) [√-C] → -i if [√C-] | -Ø if [√V-] | ||
( | :(2) [√-V] → -Ø if [√C-] | -t if [√V-] | ||
(2) If the root of noun₁ ends with a vowel, then it will be either not suffixed if the root of noun₂ begins with a consonant, or with -t if it begins with a vowel. | ::(1) If the root of noun₁ ends with a consonant, then it will be suffixed either with –i/-ĭ if the root of noun₂ begins with a consonant or not suffixed if it begins with a vowel. | ||
::(2) If the root of noun₁ ends with a vowel, then it will be either not suffixed if the root of noun₂ begins with a consonant, or with -t if it begins with a vowel. | |||
The determinatum suffix is glossed with DS (“determinatum suffix”). The morphemes are then subject to regular sandhi phenomena. | The determinatum suffix is glossed with DS (“determinatum suffix”). The morphemes are then subject to regular sandhi phenomena. | ||
| Line 1,284: | Line 1,281: | ||
Examples: | Examples: | ||
- | '''''-C·C-''''' | ||
Regular form | ''Regular form'' | ||
BALMARAX NELEMER | :{| class=""wikitable | ||
bVl-mar-Vx nelem-Vr Ø | |- | ||
DAT.SG.INAN-hills-SG.DET forests-COL.DET-IND | | {{cardosmall|BALMARAX NELEMER}} | ||
“to the hill, there are forests” > “the hill has forests” | |- | ||
The forests of the hill | | bVl-mar-Vx nelem-Vr Ø | ||
|- | |||
| DAT.SG.INAN-hills-SG.DET forests-COL.DET-IND | |||
|- | |||
| “to the hill, there are forests” > “the hill has forests” | |||
|- | |||
| The forests of the hill | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
''Compound form'' | |||
:{| class=""wikitable | |||
|- | |||
| {{cardosmall|BALLARINELEM}} | |||
|- | |||
| bVl-mar-i-nelem-Ø | |||
|- | |||
| DAT.SG.INAN-hills-DS-forests-COL.DET-IND | |||
|- | |||
| “to the hill, there are forests” > “the hill has forests” | |||
|- | |||
| The forests of the hill | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
Regular form | ''Regular form'' | ||
:{| class=""wikitable | |||
|- | |||
| {{cardosmall|BALMARAX NĒR}} | |||
|- | |||
| bVl-mar-Vx ne-Vr Ø | |||
|- | |||
| DAT.SG.INAN-hills-SG.DET trees-COL.DET-IND | |||
|- | |||
| “to the hill, there are trees” > “the hill has trees” | |||
|- | |||
| The trees of the hill | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
- | ''Compound form'' | ||
:{| class=""wikitable | |||
|- | |||
| {{cardosmall|BALLARINE}} | |||
|- | |||
| bVl-mar-i-ne-Ø | |||
|- | |||
| DAT.SG.INAN-hills-DS-trees-IND | |||
|- | |||
| “to the hill, there are trees” > “the hill has trees” | |||
|- | |||
| The trees of the hill | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
<!-- | |||
-V·V- | |||
Regular form | Regular form | ||
Compound form | |||
--> | |||
This kind of compounding is also used to form many words referring to places where something is made or found. This takes different general descriptive words for different kinds of places as determiners in the DEF.SING form. For buildings, it takes the word house, en. For open spaces, it takes the word field, bĕ. | This kind of compounding is also used to form many words referring to places where something is made or found. This takes different general descriptive words for different kinds of places as determiners in the DEF.SING form. For buildings, it takes the word house, en. For open spaces, it takes the word field, bĕ. | ||
For instance, ‘bakery’ would be bŭllŭkenex {bVl-vŭk-Ø-en-Vx}, literally “to breads, the house”. Also, the word for ‘_______{something with field}’ would be __bẹ̄x {(dat)-_-(DS)-bĕ-Vx}, literally “”. Furthermore, the word for arsenal or armory, both “weapon storage” and “weapon manufacture”, would be balgašenex {bVl-kaša(s̆)-Ø-en-Vx}, literally “to weapons, the house”; this could then be furtherly disambiguated using either __{to.store-weapon=DS-…} for the manufacture or __{to.make-weapon=DS-…} for the storage (SEE NOUN-VERB COMPOUNDS). | For instance, ‘bakery’ would be '''''bŭllŭkenex''''' {bVl-vŭk-Ø-en-Vx}, literally “to breads, the house”. <!--Also, the word for ‘_______{something with field}’ would be '''''__bẹ̄x''''' {(dat)-_-(DS)-bĕ-Vx}, literally “”. -->Furthermore, the word for arsenal or armory, both “weapon storage” and “weapon manufacture”, would be '''''balgašenex''''' {bVl-kaša(s̆)-Ø-en-Vx}, literally “to weapons, the house”<!--; this could then be furtherly disambiguated using either __{to.store-weapon=DS-…} for the manufacture or __{to.make-weapon=DS-…} for the storage--> (SEE NOUN-VERB COMPOUNDS). | ||
====Nominalization==== | ====Nominalization==== | ||
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/j_/ | /j_/ | ||
{jV-} | {jV-} | ||
=====Nominalization of a verb===== | =====Nominalization of a verb===== | ||
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A verb can be nominalized through the reduplication of the verbal root, which undergoes a mutation of its onset. Regular sandhi rules also apply to this forms. This yields a noun that is an instance of the action conveyed by the verb. This compositions take the following forms: | A verb can be nominalized through the reduplication of the verbal root, which undergoes a mutation of its onset. Regular sandhi rules also apply to this forms. This yields a noun that is an instance of the action conveyed by the verb. This compositions take the following forms: | ||
Replacement of the first consonant through /m/ in the iteration: | '''Replacement of the first consonant through /m/ in the iteration''': [√-C], [√-V] → √C·{C>m}V- | ||
[√-C], [√-V] | |||
-fricative | -fricative | ||
-nasal | :''kĕs'' to.hit _________ ''kĕsmĕs'' strikes | ||
vun to.grow _______ vunnun (<vunmun) growth | |||
mĕn to.fly ________ mĕnnĕn (<mĕnmĕn) flights | :''max'' to.cut ________ ''maxmax'' cuts | ||
-nasal | |||
:''vun'' to.grow _______ ''vunnun'' (<''vunmun'') growth | |||
:''mĕn'' to.fly ________ ''mĕnnĕn'' (<''mĕnmĕn'') flights | |||
-liquid | -liquid | ||
mŭr to.(be).ill ______ mŭrmŭr illnesses | |||
bul to.go __________ bullul (<bulmul) ways | :''mŭr'' to.(be).ill ______ ''mŭrmŭr'' illnesses | ||
:''bul'' to.go __________ ''bullul'' (<''bulmul'') ways | |||
-vowel | -vowel | ||
Lenition of stops: | :''reta'' to.eat _______ ''retama'' (''retam’a'' < ''retameta'') meals | ||
'''Lenition of stops''': [√-C], [√-V] → √C·{C+lenition}V- | |||
-nasal | -nasal | ||
-liquid | -liquid | ||
-vowel | -vowel | ||
vun to.grow _______ vunnun (<vunmun) growth | :''vun'' to.grow _______ ''vunnun'' (<''vunmun'') growth | ||
'''Epenthesis of /b/''': VC roots → VC·{b}·VC | |||
:''ĕl'' to.__ _________ ''ĕppĕl'' (<''ĕlbĕl'') ___ | |||
:''on'' to.__ _________ ''ommon'' (<''onbon'') ___ | |||
:''ŭr'' to.speak _______ ''ŭrbŭr'' speech | |||
ŭr to.speak _______ ŭrbŭr speech | |||
ala to.perceive ________ alabal(a) | :''ala'' to.perceive ________ ''alabal(a)'' | ||
Verbs that are already composite are normally nominalized with the prefixation of the nominalizer NLZ y(V)- to this same effect. | Verbs that are already composite are normally nominalized with the prefixation of the nominalizer NLZ y(V)- to this same effect. | ||
=====Nominalization of a locative adverb===== | =====Nominalization of a locative adverb===== | ||
| Line 1,389: | Line 1,420: | ||
A locative (essive) adverbs can be nominalized with use of the nominalizer prefix NLZ y(Y)-. In contrast to what happens with locative and lative adverbs on their own, nominalized locative adverbs can be modified by grammatical case and become the theme (T) or object (O) of a sentence | A locative (essive) adverbs can be nominalized with use of the nominalizer prefix NLZ y(Y)-. In contrast to what happens with locative and lative adverbs on their own, nominalized locative adverbs can be modified by grammatical case and become the theme (T) or object (O) of a sentence | ||
<!-- -2 -1 0 1 2 3 | |||
NLZ GRAMMATICAL CASE √ DEICTIC DETERMINER QUANTIFIER ADVERB (LOCATIVE/LATIVE) | |||
CASE √ DEICTIC DETERMINER QUANTIFIER | + + + + | ||
ADVERB (LOCATIVE/LATIVE) | |||
E.g.: | NOMINALIZATION OF A LOCATIVE ADVERB | ||
NLZ PART ABS ACC DAT | |||
+ + + + | |||
--> | |||
:E.g.: | |||
‹nekilixtir› | :{| class=""wikitable | ||
/ˈne.ki.lix.tiɾ/ | |- | ||
{ | | ''‹nekilixtir›'' || {{pipe}} || ''‹yenekilixtir›'' | ||
tree-SUP-DET.PL-SOME | |- | ||
"on top of some trees" | | /ˈne.ki.lix.tiɾ/ || {{pipe}} || /je.ˈne.ki.lix.tiɾ/ | ||
|- | |||
| {ne·kil·Vx·tVr} || {{pipe}} || {yV·ne·kil·Vx·tVr} | |||
|- | |||
| tree-SUP-DET.PL-SOME || {{pipe}} || NLZ-tree-SUP-DET.PL-SOME | |||
|- | |||
| "on top of some trees" || {{pipe}} || "the top of some trees" | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
From wich, for instance: | From wich, for instance: | ||
‹xomaxram yēkennekilixtir› | :{| class=""wikitable | ||
/xo.ˈma.xɾam ˈjeː.ken.ne.ki.ˌlix.tiɾ/ | |- | ||
{ | | colspan=2| ''‹xomaxram yēkennekilixtir›'' | ||
{C₂o max-hɾam | |- | ||
PER.ANIM-to.cut-NPR.ANIM.MASC.1S NLZ-ABS.INAN.PL-tree-SUP-DET.PL-SOME | | colspan=2| /xo.ˈma.xɾam ˈjeː.ken.ne.ki.ˌlix.tiɾ/ | ||
"I (masc.) cut (past) the top of some trees" | |- | ||
| colspan=2| { xo·max·ram ye·eken·ne·kil·ix·tir} | |||
|- | |||
| {C₂o max-hɾam || {{pipe}}yV·VkVn·ne·kil·Vx·tVr} | |||
|- | |||
| PER.ANIM-to.cut-NPR.ANIM.MASC.1S || {{pipe}}NLZ-ABS.INAN.PL-tree-SUP-DET.PL-SOME | |||
|- | |||
| colspan=2| "I (masc.) cut (past) the top of some trees" | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
====Hypocoristics==== | ====Hypocoristics==== | ||
Some hypocoristics have since been lexicalized (e.g. yĕmĕr writing, yĕmĕrĭš “little writing” > letter) | Some hypocoristics have since been lexicalized (e.g. yĕmĕr writing, yĕmĕrĭš “little writing” > letter) | ||
<!--To convey an aversive case and it’s opposite http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aversive_case--> | |||
To convey an aversive case and it’s opposite http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aversive_case | |||
=====Diminutives===== | =====Diminutives===== | ||
-iš/-ĭš | -iš/-ĭš | ||
=====Augmentatives===== | =====Augmentatives===== | ||
-(h)kur/-(h)kŭr | -(h)kur/-(h)kŭr | ||
<!-- | |||
=====Superlatives===== | =====Superlatives===== | ||
--> | --> | ||
<!-- | |||
===Negation=== | ===Negation=== | ||
====Use of the negative mood marker NEG xe==== | ====Use of the negative mood marker NEG xe==== | ||
| Line 1,443: | Line 1,487: | ||
===Discourse particles=== | ===Discourse particles=== | ||
===Numerals=== | ===Numerals=== | ||
--> | |||
==SYNTAX== | ==SYNTAX== | ||
| Line 1,472: | Line 1,516: | ||
<br/> | <br/> | ||
Citation forms: | Citation forms: | ||
'''·''' Nouns: nominative singular; | '''·''' Nouns: nominative singular; | ||
| Line 1,478: | Line 1,522: | ||
'''·''' Verbs: first person singular present indicative active. | '''·''' Verbs: first person singular present indicative active. | ||
Some terms which are listed as one entry in the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leipzig%E2%80%93Jakarta_list Leipzig-Jakarta list] but have more than one distinct term in [] have become as many entries as needed to accommodate the scope of its vocabulary. For instance, the term “arm/hand” becomes two entries given that there is a lexical distinction between ''arm'' and ''hand''. Because of this accommodation to the scope of the | <!--===Leipzig-Jakarta list=== | ||
Some terms which are listed as one entry in the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leipzig%E2%80%93Jakarta_list Leipzig-Jakarta list] but have more than one distinct term in [LANGUAGENAME] have become as many entries as needed to accommodate the scope of its vocabulary. For instance, [LOCALIZED EXAMPLE: the term “arm/hand” becomes two entries given that there is a lexical distinction between ''arm'' and ''hand'']. Because of this accommodation to the scope of the [LANGUAGENAME] lexicon, the list will have more entries than the original hundred, just as it would have needed to be for other languages, such as English. | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible collapsed" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible collapsed" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="2"| English || colspan="2"| | ! rowspan="2"| English || colspan="2"| LANGUAGENAME | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="text-align:center;"| ‹› || style="text-align:center;"| // | | style="text-align:center;"| ‹› || style="text-align:center;"| // | ||
|- | |- | ||
|ant || | |ant || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |arm || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |hand || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |ash || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |back || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |big || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |bird || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|to bite | |to bite || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|bitter || | |bitter || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|black || | |black || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|blood || | |blood || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|to blow || | |to blow || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|bone || | |bone || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|breast || | |breast || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|to burn (intransitive) || | |to burn (intransitive) || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|to carry || | |to carry || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|child (reciprocal of parent) || | |child (reciprocal of parent) || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|to come || | |to come || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|to crush/to grind || | |to crush/to grind || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|to cry/to weep || | |to cry/to weep || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|to do/to make || | |to do/to make || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|dog || | |dog || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|to drink || | |to drink || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|ear || | |ear || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|to eat || | |to eat || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|egg || | |egg || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|eye || | |eye || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|to fall || || | |to fall || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|far || | |far || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|fire || | |fire || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|fish || | |fish || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|flesh/meat || | |flesh/meat || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|fly || | |fly || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|to give || | |to give || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|to go || | |to go || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|good || | |good || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|hair (human) || | |hair (human) || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|hard || | |hard || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|he/she | |he/she || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|it | |it || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|him/her | |him/her || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|to hear || | |to hear || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|heavy || | |heavy || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|to hide (intransitive) || || | |to hide (intransitive) || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|to | |to hit || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|to | |to beat || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |horn || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |house || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |I || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |me || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |in || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |knee || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |to know || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|to | |to laugh || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |leaf || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |leg || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |foot || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | |liver || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|long || || | |||
|long || | |||
|- | |- | ||
|louse || || | |louse || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|mouth | |mouth || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|name || | |name || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|navel || | |navel || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|neck || | |neck || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|new || | |new || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|night || | |night || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|nose || | |nose || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|not | |not || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|old || | |old || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|one || | |one || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|rain || | |rain || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|red || | |red || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|root || | |root || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|rope || | |rope || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|to run || || | |to run || || | ||
| Line 1,653: | Line 1,693: | ||
|shade/shadow || || | |shade/shadow || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|skin | |skin || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|hide || || | |hide || || | ||
| Line 1,683: | Line 1,723: | ||
|thigh || || | |thigh || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|this | |this || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|to tie || || | |to tie || || | ||
| Line 1,707: | Line 1,747: | ||
|yesterday || || | |yesterday || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|you | |you || || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
=Orthography= | =Orthography= | ||
--> | |||
=Samples= | =Samples= | ||
<!-- | |||
==Sentences== | ==Sentences== | ||
==Example of verb conjugation paradigms== | ==Example of verb conjugation paradigms== | ||
--> | |||
==Words:== | ==Words:== | ||
| Line 1,769: | Line 1,811: | ||
--> | --> | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:Languages]][[Category:A priori]][[Category:Artlangs]][[Category:Yrḳuti]][[Category:User:Nicolasstraccia]] | ||
Latest revision as of 23:09, 29 September 2017
 | This article is private. The author requests that you do not make changes to this project without approval. By all means, please help fix spelling, grammar and organisation problems, thank you. |
 | This article is a construction site. This project is currently undergoing significant construction and/or revamp. By all means, take a look around, thank you. |
| Ŭrbŭrŭx U | |
|---|---|
| "the speech, U" | |
| Pronunciation | [/ˈuɾ.bu.ɾux ˈɯ/] |
| Created by | Nicolás Straccia |
| Setting | Yrḳuti conworlding project |
Ɯ languages
| |
The language known as Ɯ is a conlang being created and developed by Nicolás Straccia as part of the Yrḳuti conworlding project.
Background
[...]
Grammar
PHONOLOGY
Vowels
Vowel inventory
| Front | Near-front | Central | Near-back | Back | ||
| Close | 
| |||||
| Near‑close | ||||||
| Close‑mid | ||||||
| Mid | ||||||
| Open‑mid | ||||||
| Near‑open | ||||||
| Open | ||||||
Stem-controlled roundness harmony. Both /a/ and /o/, a back and a front vowel, are neutral. In compounds each element retains it own harmony; affixes will harmonize with the stem with which they are directly in contact.
Consonants
Consonant inventory
| Bilabial | Labio-dental | Dental | Alveolar | Post-alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosive | p b | t d | (ɟ) | k g | ʔ | |||
| Nasal | m | n | (ɲ) | (ŋ) | ||||
| Trill | r | |||||||
| Tap or flap | ɾ | |||||||
| Fricative | f v | s | ʃ | x | h | |||
| Africate | ʧ | |||||||
| Approximant | w | j | ||||||
| Lateral app. | l | (ʎ) |
Phonotaxis
Sandhi
[...]
| Sandhi over morpheme boundaries |
|---|
| -VC·CV- |
| -n· |
| -n·t- → -n·d-, lenition of /t/ → /d/ |
| -n·t- → -n·n-, assimilation of /t/ → /n/ |
| -n·k- → -n·g-, lenition of /k/ → /g/ |
| -n·h- → -n·k-, fortition of /h/ → /k/ |
| -n·j- → -n̆-, fusion (palatalization of /n/ → /ɲ/) |
| -n·b- → -m·b-, fusion (labialization of /n/ → /m/) |
| -n·b- → -m·m-, fusion (labialization of /n/ → /m/), assimilation of /b/ → /m/) |
| -n·l- → -n·n-, assimilation of /l/ → /n/ |
| -n·r- → -n·n-, assimilation of /ɾ/ → /n/ |
| -n·m- → -n·n-, assimilation of /m/ → /n/ |
| -n·v- → -p-, fusion to /p/ |
| -m· |
| -m·b- → -p-, fusion to /p/ |
| -m·l- → -m·m-, assimilation of /l/ → /m/ |
| -m·v- → -p-, fusion to /p/ (labialization of /v/ → /β/, plosivization of /β/ → /p/) |
| -l |
| -l·t- → -l·d-, lenition of /t/ → /d/ |
| -l·k- → -l·g-, lenition of /k/ → /g/ |
| -l·g- → -l·l-, assimilation of /g/ → /l/ |
| -l·r- → -l·l-, assimilation of /ɾ/ → /l/ |
| -l·m- → -l·l-, assimilation of /m/ → /l/ |
| -l·b- → -p·p- [+____] |
| -l·j- → -l̆-, fusion (palatalization of /l/ → /ʎ/) |
| -l·v- → -l·l-, assimilation of /v/ → /l/ |
| -r· |
| -r·g- → -rr-, assimilation of /g/ → /ɾ/, fusion of /ɾɾ/ to /r/ |
| -r·h- → -rr-, assimilation of /h/ → /ɾ/, fusion of /ɾɾ/ to /r/ |
| -r·x- → -rr-, assimilation of /x/ → /ɾ/, fusion of /ɾɾ/ to /r/ |
| -r·l- → -rr-, assimilation of /l/ → /ɾ/, fusion of /ɾɾ/ to /r/ |
| -r·t- → -s·s- [+____] |
| -s· |
| -s·l- → -s·s-, assimilation of /l/ → /s/ |
| -s·g- → -s·k-, fortition of /g/ → /k/ |
| -s̆· |
| -s̆·h- → -s̆→s̆-, assimilation of /h/ → /ʃ/ |
| -s̆·l- → -s̆·s̆-, assimilation of /l/ → /ʃ/ |
| -t· |
| -t·b- → -s·s- [+____] |
| -t·g- → -t·t-, assimilation of /g/ → /t/ |
| -t·l- → -t·t-, assimilation of /l/ → /t/ |
| -t·n- → -t·t-, assimilation of /n/ → /t/ |
| -x· |
| -x·k- → -n·k- [+nasalization] |
| Being all instances of -n·k- already lenited by sandhi to -n·g-, all remaining instances of -n·k- after the sandhi has been applied must then spawn from modified instances of -x·k-, thus avoiding ambiguity. |
| -VC·CCV- |
| -n· |
| -n·rk- → -n·ng- → -ngg-, assimilation of /ɾ/ → /n/, fusion of /n/ and /k/ (velatization of /n/ → /ŋ/) |
| -n·lt- → -n·t-, elision of /l/ |
| -n·ln- → -n·n-, elision of /l/ |
| -n·ll- → -n·n-, assimilation of first /l/, elision of second /l/ |
| -n·hm- → -m·m-, elision of /l/, assimilation of /n/ |
| -n·hr- → -n·kr-, fortition of /h/ → /k/ |
| -n·hš- → -n·š-, elision of /h/ |
| -n·tm- → -d·d-, lenition of /t/ → /d/, elision of /n/, assimilation of /m/ → /d/ |
| -n·tx- → -n·x-, elision of /t/ |
| -x· |
| -x·hr- → -x·r-, elision of /h/ |
| -CV·CV- |
| -ta· |
| -ta·h- → -ta·g- [+____] |
| -ta·r- → -ta·l- [+____] |
| -ta·š- → -ta·s- [+____] |
| -ta·x- → -ta·g- [+____] |
| -ta·t- → -ta·d-, lenition of /t/ → /d/ |
| -ta·k- → -ta·g-, lenition of /k/ → /g/ |
| -ta·bVC- → -ta·fCV- [+____] |
| -CV·CCV- |
| -ta· |
| -ta·hš- > -ta·š- [+____] |
| -ta·tx- > -ta·x- [+____] tVtC > tVC elision of t? haplology? |
| -m·v- → -p-, fusion to /p/ (labialization of /v/ → /β/, plosivization of /β/ → /p/) |
| -l |
| -l·t- → -l·d-, lenition of /t/ → /d/ |
| -l·k- → -l·g-, lenition of /k/ → /g/ |
| -l·g- → -l·l-, assimilation of /g/ → /l/ |
| -l·r- → -l·l-, assimilation of /ɾ/ → /l/ |
| -l·m- → -l·l-, assimilation of /m/ → /l/ |
| -l·b- → -p·p- [+____] |
| -l·j- → -l̆-, fusion (palatalization of /l/ → /ʎ/) |
| -l·v- → -l·l-, assimilation of /v/ → /l/ |
| -r· |
| -r·g- → -rr-, assimilation of /g/ → /ɾ/, fusion of /ɾɾ/ to /r/ |
| -r·h- → -rr-, assimilation of /h/ → /ɾ/, fusion of /ɾɾ/ to /r/ |
| -r·x- → -rr-, assimilation of /x/ → /ɾ/, fusion of /ɾɾ/ to /r/ |
| -r·l- → -rr-, assimilation of /l/ → /ɾ/, fusion of /ɾɾ/ to /r/ |
| -r·t- → -s·s- [+____] |
| -s· |
| -s·l- → -s·s-, assimilation of /l/ → /s/ |
| -s·g- → -s·k-, fortition of /g/ → /k/ |
| -s̆· |
| -s̆·h- → -s̆→s̆-, assimilation of /h/ → /ʃ/ |
| -s̆·l- → -s̆·s̆-, assimilation of /l/ → /ʃ/ |
| -t· |
| -t·b- → -s·s- [+____] |
| -t·g- → -t·t-, assimilation of /g/ → /t/ |
| -t·l- → -t·t-, assimilation of /l/ → /t/ |
| -t·n- → -t·t-, assimilation of /n/ → /t/ |
| -x· |
| -x·k- → -n·k- [+nasalization] |
| Being all instances of -n·k- already lenited by sandhi to -n·g-, all remaining instances of -n·k- after the sandhi has been applied must then spawn from modified instances of -x·k-, thus avoiding ambiguity. |
| -VC·CCV- |
| -n· |
| -n·rk- → -n·ng- → -ngg-, assimilation of /ɾ/ → /n/, fusion of /n/ and /k/ (velatization of /n/ → /ŋ/) |
| -n·lt- → -n·t-, elision of /l/ |
| -n·ln- → -n·n-, elision of /l/ |
| -n·ll- → -n·n-, assimilation of first /l/, elision of second /l/ |
| -n·hm- → -m·m-, elision of /l/, assimilation of /n/ |
| -n·hr- → -n·kr-, fortition of /h/ → /k/ |
| -n·hš- → -n·š-, elision of /h/ |
| -n·tm- → -d·d-, lenition of /t/ → /d/, elision of /n/, assimilation of /m/ → /d/ |
| -n·tx- → -n·x-, elision of /t/ |
| -x· |
| -x·hr- → -x·r-, elision of /h/ |
| -CV·CV- |
| -ta· |
| -ta·h- → -ta·g- [+____] |
| -ta·r- → -ta·l- [+____] |
| -ta·š- → -ta·s- [+____] |
| -ta·x- → -ta·g- [+____] |
| -ta·t- → -ta·d-, lenition of /t/ → /d/ |
| -ta·k- → -ta·g-, lenition of /k/ → /g/ |
| -ta·bVC- → -ta·fCV- [+____] |
| -CV·CCV- |
| -ta· |
| -ta·hš- > -ta·š- [+____] |
| -ta·tx- > -ta·x- [+____] tVtC > tVC elision of t? haplology? |
| Sandhi over word boundaries |
|---|
| -C_b- → -C_p-, fortition of /b/ → /p/ (devoicing of /b/) |
| Composite sandhi: obligatory contour and other phenomena. |
|---|
| A case of composite sandhi occurs when the application of an external sandhi rule results in either i) the resetting of or ii) the innovation on an internal sandhi rule. |
| Examples: |
| i) Resetting of an internal sandhi rule: external sandhi triggers obligatory contour, resetting internal sandhi. |
| bengilir > penkilir |
| 1) Internal sandhi: rule -n·k- → -n·g-, lenition of /k/ → /g/ (voicing of /k/) |
| bV·en·kil·Vr → bēnkilir* → bēngilir |
| 2) External sandhi: rule -C b- → -C p-, fortition of /b/ → /p/ (devoicing of /b/) |
| (-V bēngilir → -V bēngilir) |
| -C bēngilir → -C pēngilir* >> -C pēnkilir |
| ii) Innovation on an internal sandhi rule: external sandhi triggers obligatory contour, leniting a cluster formed through assimilation |
| bepɯlɯr > pevɯlɯr |
| 1) Internal sandhi: rule -n·v- → -p-, fusion to /p/ |
| bV·en·vɯl·Vr > bepɯlɯr |
| 2) External sandhi: rule -C b- > -C p-, fortition of /b/ /p/ (devoicing of /b/) |
| (-V bepɯlɯr > bepɯlɯr) |
| -C bepɯlɯr > pevɯlɯr |
Syllable structure
Both verbal and nominal roots, as well as affixes, have a (C)(C)V(C) syllable structure.
MORPHOLOGY
Nominal morphology
Nominal roots are marked for grammatical case, deixis (relative locativity and lativity), definiteness and number or quantity.
Grammatical gender and animacy
There are two grammatical genders: animate and inanimate. The animate gender has two subdivisions: masculine and feminine. These are all generally listed as masculine, feminine and neuter gender.
(See also ‘Animacy and volition’ below)
Grammatical number and quantifier affixes
There are two systems of grammatical number: i) for nouns, Collective 1, Dual, Singulative, Collective 2; ii) for pronouns, the numbers Singular, Dual, Plural and Indefinite.
(See also “__*number*__” below)
Grammatical number markers for nouns
The determiners account for definiteness as well as for number:
| Number | Definiteness | Marker |
|---|---|---|
| col Collective | Indefinite | -Ø |
| Definite | -Vr | |
| dual Dual | Indefinite | -Vt |
| Definite | -VmVm | |
| sg Singulative | Indefinite | -Vm |
| Definite | -Vx | |
| col2 Collective 2* | Indefinite | -lVt |
| Definite | -lVm |
- * The number “Collective 2” reffers to collectives or complete sets of a noun; e.g. ne; trees; nelet, a.forest
Declension particles and affixes
Grammatical case
| Animate | Inanimate | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Dual | Plural | 4th | Singular | Dual | Plural | 4th | |
| Nominative nom | Ø | |||||||
| Ergative erg | an- | vVl- | sVm- | tVm- | ɯl- | xan- | rVm- | tVl- |
| Dative dat | bVl- | mVl- | bVl- | mVl- | ||||
| Absolutive abs | tVn- | wVn- | VtVn- | sVn- | okVn- | xVn- | VkVn- | šVn- |
| Accusative acc | VnV- | lVt- | VnV- | lVt- | ||||
| Instrumental inst | or- | Vm- | or- | Vm- | ||||
| Partitive* part | bV- | tV- | kV- | tV- | ||||
| Genitive** gen | -(o)nnu(r) | |||||||
- * The partitive case (part) conveys the telicity of the verb (to.x/to.x.obj vs. to.fully/thoroughly.x/x.obj).
- ** The genitive case (gen) is marked with a conflation of the deictic markers -ho- (FROM) and -nur (APUD) and is thus the same for all nouns.
Deictics
.
| A. ESSIVITY | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ‹› | // | Case | ||||
| I | -vul | -vɯl | in | inessive | ||
| -kil | -kil | sup | superessive | |||
| -tiš | -tiʃ | sub | subessive | |||
| -lur | -lɯɾ | ant | antessive | |||
| -vet | -vet | poste | postessive | This case is now rarely used for its original meaning "behind" and is often used to mean "with" or "in exchange for" | ||
| -nur | -nɯɾ | apud | apudessive | apudessive, adessive | ||
| B. LATIVITY | ||||||
| ‹› | // | Case | ||||
| II | -kur | -kɯɾ | il | ilative | ||
| -lir | -liɾ | el | elative | |||
| -vox | -vox | perl | perlative | |||
| -tum | -tɯm | prol | prolative | prolative, prosecutive, oblative/pertingent (against) | ||
| III.a | -te | -te | up.to, until | |||
| -sul | -te·vɯl | -sɯl | ||||
| -xil | -te·kil | -xil | ||||
| -tiš | -te·tiʃ | -(t)tiʃ | ||||
| -nur | -te·lɯɾ | -nɯɾ | ||||
| -det | -te·vet | -det | ||||
| -dur | -te·nɯɾ | -dɯɾ | ||||
| III.b | -ho | -ho | from | |||
| -ful | -ho·vɯl | -fɯl | inel | inelatve | ||
| -kil | -ho·kil | -(h)kil | /k/→/g/ sandhi doesn’t apply, anulated by underlying /h/ | |||
| -diš | -ho·tiʃ | -diʃ | ||||
| -hlur | -ho·lɯɾ | -hlɯɾ | ||||
| -hret | -ho·vet | -hɾet | ||||
| -šur | -ho·nɯɾ | -ʃɯɾ | ||||
Nominal declension themes
| C-theme | VC-stems |
| CVC-stems | |
| V-theme | CV-stems |
| CCV-stems |
Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns can be dropped. They are marked as follows:
| -1 | 0 | 1 | 2 |
|---|---|---|---|
| grammatical.case | lam | deictic.marker | number.marker |
| “person" |
Proper names
Proper names are marked for grammatical case in the same way as animate singular common nouns. Regular sandhi over morpheme boundaries is not triggered (for instance, tanTavar instead of **tanDavar, see below).
In the Romanization, the capitalization of the proper name remains in place while prefixes and suffixes remain in minuscle, e.g.:
“Farŭl” {Ø-Farŭl} nom-Farŭl vs. “anFarŭl” {an-Farŭl} erg-Farŭl or
“Perit” {Ø-Perit} nom-Perit vs. “belPerit” {bVl-Perit} dat-Perit or
“Tavar” {Ø-Tavar} nom-Tavar vs. “tanTavar” {tVn-Tavar} abs-Tavar.
Other names, like given names, nicknames and pet names based on common nouns are marked with the proper name marker pnm –gV or –Vg.
The proper name vocative, derived from a reduplicated form of the pnm, fossilized in the forms -gagV and -agVg, occurs with epenthesis of the harmonically neutral vowel a. In this latter form, the first g is subject to sandhi, while the second isn’t. E.g. Tavar → Tavarraga!, Perit → Perittagi!, Farŭl → Farŭllagŭ!.
Verbal morphology
Verbal roots are marked for tense, aspect and subject (animacy, gender, number and person). Mood is marked through postpositions.
Tenses
Tenses are: present, non-present. The equivalent to the future and past tense are conveyed as follows:
| Marking | Conveyed tense | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| -2 | -1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | |
| perfect | - | √root | obviative | subject.non-present | past |
| Ø | subject.present | present | |||
| prospective | subject.non-present | future | |||
Whence:
| Marking | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Primary aspect (-2) | Tense (2) | ||
| Perfect | present | stative | resulting from past action |
| non-present | past | ||
| Prospective | present | prospective | |
| non-present | future | ||
| Neutral (Ø marking) | present | present | |
| non-present | oblique | ||
Tense-person marking suffixes
The most animate agent of the clause (see "Animacy, control, volition") agrees with the verb declined with the proximate suffix, the lesser animate with the verb marked with the obviate. This can also be used to mark a change of referent (see "referent anaphora").
Proximate suffixes
| Animacy | Gender | Number | Person | Tense | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present | Non-present | ||||
| Animate | Masculine | S | 1 | -hɯɾ | -hɾam |
| 2 | -ɾam | -ɾamat | |||
| 3 | -lit | -liteʃ | |||
| D | -Vl | -Vlɯt | |||
| P | 1 | -ʃɯt | -ʃtɯɾ | ||
| 2 | -ɾok | -ɾkol | |||
| 3 | -litit | -lteʃ | |||
| 4 | -bɯl | -batɯɾ | |||
| Feminine | S | 1 | -hɯm | -hmɯɾ | |
| 2 | -xal | -xlat | |||
| 3 | -lan | -lnaɾ | |||
| D | -Vt | -Vtem | |||
| P | 1 | -tam | -tmaʃ | ||
| 2 | -xɯl | -tɯleɾ | |||
| 3 | -hoʃ | -hʃol | |||
| 4 | -bok | -bilɯɾ | |||
| Inanimate | Neuter | S | 1 | -tex | -txet |
| 2 | -kol | -klot | |||
| 3 | -leɾ | -lɾeʃ > -lleʃ | |||
| D | -VtVl | -VtVʃ | |||
| P | 1 | -tot | -tɯɾ | ||
| 2 | -hem | -hmel | |||
| 3 | -kim | -kmiliɾ > -biliɾ | |||
| 4 | -bim | -bamal | |||
Obviate suffixes
The obviative particle obv -i-/-ĭ- is placed between the root and the proximal tense marker. It applies to the second and third person.
This in turn shows the form of the tense suffix that is otherwise opaqued by the sandhi:
- prox mẹnnᴉt, obv mẹnᴉlᴉt
- -lit 3s.masc.pres, -ilit 3s.masc.pres.obv.
Verbal aspect markers
.
| Aspect | Marker | |
|---|---|---|
| Perfect | perf | C₂a-/C₂o- |
| Prospective | pros | C₂ora-/oC₂osa- |
| Continuous | cont | C₂ona- |
| Progressive | prog | C₂ara- |
| Gnomic | gnom | aC₂C₂a- |
| Imperfective | imper | oC₂a- |
| Iterative | iter | toC₂a- |
The primary and the secondary aspect markers have historically fused through metaphony and syncope, yielding the following standarized forms:
For animate subjects
| Aspect | Marker | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Perfect | perf.anim | C₂a- | |
| Per. gnomic | perf.gnom.anim | C₂a·aC₂C₂a- | C₂aC₂C₂a- |
| Per. imperfective | perf.imperf.anim | C₂a·oC₂a- | C₂aC₂o- |
| Per. continuous | perf.cont.anim | C₂a·C₂ona- | C₂ano- |
| Per. progressive | perf.prog.anim | C₂a·C₂ara- | aC₂ara- |
| Per. iterative | perf.iter.anim | C₂a·toC₂a- | toC₂aC₂a- |
| Prospective | pros.anim | C₂ora- | |
| Pro. gnomic | pros.gnom.anim | C₂ora·aC₂C₂a- | C₂oC₂C₂ara- |
| Pro. imperfective | pros.imperf.anim | C₂ora·oC₂a- | oC₂C₂a- |
| Pro. continuous | pros.cont.anim | C₂ora·C₂ona- | C₂oC₂a- |
| Pro. progressive | pros.prog.anim | C₂ora·C₂ara- | aC₂oC₂ara- |
| Pro. iterative | pros.iter.anim | C₂ora·toC₂a- | noC₂ora- |
For inanimate subjects
| Aspect | Marker | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Perfect | perf.inan | C₂o- | |
| Per. gnomic | perf.gnom.inan | C₂a·aC₂C₂a- | C₂waC₂C₂a- |
| Per. imperfective | perf.imperf.inan | C₂a·oC₂a- | oC₂C₂a- |
| Per. continuous | perf.cont.inan | C₂a·C₂ona- | C₂ona- |
| Per. progressive | perf.prog.inan | C₂a·C₂ara- | oC₂wara- |
| Per. iterative | perf.iter.inan | C₂o·toC₂a- | otoC₂C₂a- |
| Prospective | pros.inan | oC₂osa- | |
| Pro. gnomic | pros.gnom.inan | oC₂osa·aC₂C₂a- | oC₂oC₂wara- |
| Pro. imperfective | pros.imperf.inan | oC₂osa·oC₂a- | C₂wasa- |
| Pro. continuous | pros.cont.inan | oC₂osa·C₂ona- | oC₂ona- |
| Pro. progressive | pros.prog.inan | oC₂osa·C₂ara- | oC₂wasa- |
| Pro. iterative | pros.iter.inan | oC₂osa·toC₂a- | toC₂osa- |
Mood marking particles
All mood marking particles are postpositional to the verb they modify. Being there no copula for existencial predication, all mood markers modify verbal phrases directly (see below: negation).
Special cases
i) Counterfactual conditional
The if clause is counterfactual
ii) Deliberative mood
A construction similar to a deliberative mood (delib – sentences of the form “should I do X?”) can be marked by the conflation of the optative mood marker (opt) kŭ either 1) with the interrogative mood marker (int) če; or 2) with the imperative mood marker (imp) kŭ.
delib (int+opt): čekkŭ (< če + kŭ) delib (imp+opt): nakkŭ (< na + kŭ)
iii) Desiderative mood (“wanting to X”)
Participles
The participial verbal forms are formed with the bare root of the verb, marked with the participial marker ppl aC₂(a)- (a modified form of the gnomic aspect marker gnom aC₂C₂a-) and an epenthetic suffix -i/-ĭ that takes over the slot of the person-tense marker. This works as an infinitive participle, and can furtherly be inflected for tense and aspect. The forms of the ppl fused with the verbal tense structural primary verbal aspects, and most used participles are:
| Marking | Conveyed tense | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| -3 | -2 | 0 | 2 | ||
| 1 | ppl aC₂(a)- | perfect C₂a-/C₂o- | √root | subject.non-present | past |
| 2 | Ø | subject.present | present | ||
| 3 | prospective C₂ora-/oC₂osa- | subject.non-present | future | ||
Marked with the forms:
| Participle | ppl | Primary aspect marker | Person-tense marker | Participle prefix (-3)·(-2)- | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Past participle | aC₂(a)- | C₂a-/C₂o- | subject.non-present | aC₂C₂(V)- |
| 2 | Present participle | Ø | subject.present | aC₂(V)- | |
| 3 | Future participle | C₂ora-/oC₂osa- | subject.non-present | aC₂Vr(V)- | |
For example:
‹axxamaxi nēr› /ˈax.xa.ma.xi neːɾ/ {axxa-max-i ne-er} {aC₂C₂(V)-max-i ne-Vr} ppl-to.cut-ppl trees-def.col “the cut trees”
All other combinations of ppl+(aspect marker) are also allowed.
Referent anaphora
Anaphoric reference shift particle
The anaphoric marker states that the referent of the verb has changed. This is to avoid the ambiguity of sentences like the following:
- “Tavar hit Perit. He cried”
Given a sequence of actions like the one above, performed by actuants (A or S) of the same level of semantically adscribed animaciy, it is necessary to mark wether the sequence of actions (hitting, then crying) belongs to the same referent, or if the referent of the first action is different than that of the latter. To mark that the actuant of the crying, S, is now Perit (formerly the non-actuant, O, of the hitting), and no longer Tavar (actuant, A, of the hitting), either the verb itself or the pronoun -most commonly the verb, given the pro-drop feature of the language- is suffixed with one of the following particles:
Particle {-Vn, -an, -on} /C_ -Vn > [√a, o] -an > [√VroundedC] -on > [√VunroundedC] {-Vt, -at, -ot} /C_ -Vt > [√a, o] -at > [√VroundedC] -ot > [√VunroundedC] {-Vk, -ak, -ok} /C_ -Vk > [√a, o] -ak > [√VroundedC] -ok > [√VunroundedC] {-Vs̆, -as̆, -os̆} /C_ -Vs̆ > [√a, o] -as̆ > [√VroundedC] -os̆ > [√VunroundedC]
This would render the aforementioned sentence ("Tavar hit Perit. He cried") into the unambiguously marked:
‹anTavar sakĕssiteš tenPerit. Lamma xabaxlitešen› /an.ta.ˈvaɾ sa.ˈkøs.si.teʃ ten.pe.ˈɾit | ˈlam.ma xa.ˈbax.li.te.ʃen/ {an-Tavar sa-kĕs-siteš ten-Perit | Ø-lam-ma xa-bax-liteš-en} {an-Tavar C₂a-kĕs-liteš tVn-Perit | Ø-lam-Ca C₂a-bax-liteš-Ø-Vn} erg.anim.sg-Tavar perf-to.hit-3s.anim.masc.npres abs.anim.sg-Perit | nom.anim.sg-lam-pron.sg perf-to.cry-3s.anim.masc.npres.ind-shift “Tavar hit Perit. He cried”
Tavar did the hitting, Perit the crying.
Use of the obviate
The obviative form of the tense-person marker, used to mark agreement of verbs with the less animate actor of a clause with different actors of the same semanticly adscribed degree of animacy, as it sepparates actors, can be used on its own to mark the shift in referent within a single clause, while the anaphoric reference shift particle can also be used over longer discourse segments.
Verbal compounding
Two verbal roots are combined to convey a new meaning (see Derivational morphology: Special compositional functions of verbs).
Derivational morphology
.
Derivational affixes
| Marker | Meaning | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ‹› | // | gloss | Name | Slot | |
| -(i)ti | i.ti | agen | agentive | Derives agent nouns from other common nouns or from verbs, denoting someone or something whose role or purpose it is to use the noun (instrumental construction) or to perform or partake in the verb's action. | |
| -(s)im | sim | agen | agentive | The same as -(i)ti. Mostly used for derivation from verbs. | |
| -(r)in | ɾin | agen | agentive | The same as -(i)ti. Mostly used for derivation from other common, but non-agent nouns. | |
| -Can | [C]an | res | resultative | Derives nouns resulting of an action. (e.g. mar to.carve, marran carved.item, statue; mĕr to.write, mĕrran letter, written symbol) | |
| y(V)- | j_ | nlz | nominalizer | (See "Nominalization of a locative adverb") | |
| =la- | la | hyl | hylic | 1 | Material commonly associated with the noun (e.g. -ne- trees, -ne=la- wood) |
| -aš | aʃ | tool | tools | Tool associated with the verb or noun which it modifies. | |
Compounding
Genitive compounds
Genitive compounds are usually binary structures of elements of the same or different parts of speech, though some tripartite compounds can arise. In binary structures, the first element is the determinatum (head element) of the compound. The following compositions are the most common:
- i) A noun₁+noun₂ compound: will yield a compound noun that pertains both elements.
- ii) A noun+verb compound: will yield a noun after the scheme: [noun]-used.for/used.to-[verb]
- iii) A verb₁+verb₂ compound: will yield a compound verb that pertains both elements
- iv) A verb+noun compound: will yield a verb after the scheme: [verb]>>[noun]
When a noun is the first element in a compound, it will be rendered in its construct state (CS) after the following scheme:
- (1) [√-C] → +V(√) if [√C-] | +V(√)m if [√V-]
- (2) [√-V] → +Ø if [√C-] | +m if [√V-]
- (1) If the root of noun₁ ends with a consonant, the CS of that root will be either i) √+V(√) if the root of noun₂/verb begins with a consonant or ii) √+V(√)m if it begins with a vowel.
- (2) If the root of noun₁ ends with a vowel, the CS of that root will be either i) √+Ø if the root of noun₂/verb begins with a consonant or ii) √+m if it begins with a vowel.
The roots of verbs have no CS and the morphemes are subject to regular sandhi phenomena.
Examples:
Composition i) noun₁+noun₂
Noun₁: ĕl /øl/ flesh; CS: √+V(√) → ĕlĕ- {ĕl=ĕ} Noun₂: ne /ne/ trees {tree:COL} ‹ĕlĕne› /ˈø.lø.ne/ {ĕl=ĕ-ne} {flesh=CS-tree:COL} “tree-flesh; wood”
Composition ii) noun+verb
Noun: kaš /kaʃ/ sticks {stick:COL}; CS: √+V(√) → kaša- {kaš=a} Verb: kĕs /køs/ to hit ‹kašakĕs› /ˈka.ʃa.køs/ {kaš=a-kĕs} {stick:COL=CS-to.hit} “hit-sticks; clubs, maces”
Composition iii) verb₁+verb₂
Verb₁: mĕn /ˈmøn/ to.fly Verb₂: koteš /ko.ˈteʃ/ to.hand.over ‹mĕngoteš› /ˈmøn.go.teʃ/ {mĕn-koteš} {to.fly-to.hand.over} "to fly” (transitive)
Composition iv) verb+noun
Verb: max /max/ to.cut Noun: nela /ne.la/ {ne=la} trees-HYL, wood ‹maxnela› /ˈmax.ne.la/ {max-(ne=la)} {to.cut-wood} “to cut wood; woodcutting”
Special compositional functions of verbs
There are some verbs that, being the determinans in a type iii composition (verb₂), act differently than in isolation or as the determinatum of such a composition.
- The verbs ‹kĕs› /køs/ to.hit and ‹huš› /ˈhɯʃ/ to.burn.
They may both act like intensifiers, either forming new lexemes or acting as intensive aspect marker. The verb kĕs to.hit is mostly used for motion verbs, the verb huš to.burn mostly for stative or abstract verbs.
Examples:
to.cleave
Verb₁: max /max/ to.cut Verb₂: kĕs /køs/ to.hit ‹mankĕs› /ˈman.køs/ {max-kĕs} {to.cut-to.hit} “to.cleave”
to.glare
Verb₁: ala /ˈa.la/ to.see Verb₂: huš /ˈhɯʃ/ to.burn ‹alahuš› /ˈa.la.hɯʃ/ {ala-huš} {to.see-to.burn} “to.glare”
Dative compounds
Dative compounds are binary structures, mainly nominal compounds that portray some form of possession (dativus possesivus). The elements can be nominal roots or nominalized verbal roots, adjectives and adverbs. The compositions follow the structure noun₁+noun₂, where the first element is the determinatum (head element) of the compound.
The elements of the dative compound are preceded by the pertinent dative case marker DAT depending on the gender and number of the determinatum. Furthermore, the determinatum is suffixed as follows:
- (1) [√-C] → -i if [√C-] | -Ø if [√V-]
- (2) [√-V] → -Ø if [√C-] | -t if [√V-]
- (1) If the root of noun₁ ends with a consonant, then it will be suffixed either with –i/-ĭ if the root of noun₂ begins with a consonant or not suffixed if it begins with a vowel.
- (2) If the root of noun₁ ends with a vowel, then it will be either not suffixed if the root of noun₂ begins with a consonant, or with -t if it begins with a vowel.
The determinatum suffix is glossed with DS (“determinatum suffix”). The morphemes are then subject to regular sandhi phenomena.
This kind of “triple” marking of the dererminatum (syntactically, through the position in the compound, and morphologically, through prefixation of DAT and suffixation as described above) allows that one of the two morphological ones can be dropped, most typically the DAT prefixation. As the compound attained through a dative of possession can be treated as a noun, this allows for the absolutive case marker ABS to be attached directly to the determinatum instead of to the DAT.
Examples:
-C·C-
Regular form
BALMARAX NELEMER bVl-mar-Vx nelem-Vr Ø DAT.SG.INAN-hills-SG.DET forests-COL.DET-IND “to the hill, there are forests” > “the hill has forests” The forests of the hill
Compound form
BALLARINELEM bVl-mar-i-nelem-Ø DAT.SG.INAN-hills-DS-forests-COL.DET-IND “to the hill, there are forests” > “the hill has forests” The forests of the hill
Regular form
BALMARAX NĒR bVl-mar-Vx ne-Vr Ø DAT.SG.INAN-hills-SG.DET trees-COL.DET-IND “to the hill, there are trees” > “the hill has trees” The trees of the hill
Compound form
BALLARINE bVl-mar-i-ne-Ø DAT.SG.INAN-hills-DS-trees-IND “to the hill, there are trees” > “the hill has trees” The trees of the hill
This kind of compounding is also used to form many words referring to places where something is made or found. This takes different general descriptive words for different kinds of places as determiners in the DEF.SING form. For buildings, it takes the word house, en. For open spaces, it takes the word field, bĕ.
For instance, ‘bakery’ would be bŭllŭkenex {bVl-vŭk-Ø-en-Vx}, literally “to breads, the house”. Furthermore, the word for arsenal or armory, both “weapon storage” and “weapon manufacture”, would be balgašenex {bVl-kaša(s̆)-Ø-en-Vx}, literally “to weapons, the house” (SEE NOUN-VERB COMPOUNDS).
Nominalization
NLZ ‹y(V)-› /j_/ {jV-}
Nominalization of a verb
A verb can be nominalized through the reduplication of the verbal root, which undergoes a mutation of its onset. Regular sandhi rules also apply to this forms. This yields a noun that is an instance of the action conveyed by the verb. This compositions take the following forms:
Replacement of the first consonant through /m/ in the iteration: [√-C], [√-V] → √C·{C>m}V-
-fricative
- kĕs to.hit _________ kĕsmĕs strikes
- max to.cut ________ maxmax cuts
-nasal
- vun to.grow _______ vunnun (<vunmun) growth
- mĕn to.fly ________ mĕnnĕn (<mĕnmĕn) flights
-liquid
- mŭr to.(be).ill ______ mŭrmŭr illnesses
- bul to.go __________ bullul (<bulmul) ways
-vowel
- reta to.eat _______ retama (retam’a < retameta) meals
Lenition of stops: [√-C], [√-V] → √C·{C+lenition}V-
-nasal
-liquid
-vowel
- vun to.grow _______ vunnun (<vunmun) growth
Epenthesis of /b/: VC roots → VC·{b}·VC
- ĕl to.__ _________ ĕppĕl (<ĕlbĕl) ___
- on to.__ _________ ommon (<onbon) ___
- ŭr to.speak _______ ŭrbŭr speech
- ala to.perceive ________ alabal(a)
Verbs that are already composite are normally nominalized with the prefixation of the nominalizer NLZ y(V)- to this same effect.
Nominalization of a locative adverb
A locative (essive) adverbs can be nominalized with use of the nominalizer prefix NLZ y(Y)-. In contrast to what happens with locative and lative adverbs on their own, nominalized locative adverbs can be modified by grammatical case and become the theme (T) or object (O) of a sentence
- E.g.:
‹nekilixtir› | ‹yenekilixtir› /ˈne.ki.lix.tiɾ/ | /je.ˈne.ki.lix.tiɾ/ {ne·kil·Vx·tVr} | {yV·ne·kil·Vx·tVr} tree-SUP-DET.PL-SOME | NLZ-tree-SUP-DET.PL-SOME "on top of some trees" | "the top of some trees"
From wich, for instance:
‹xomaxram yēkennekilixtir› /xo.ˈma.xɾam ˈjeː.ken.ne.ki.ˌlix.tiɾ/ { xo·max·ram ye·eken·ne·kil·ix·tir} {C₂o max-hɾam |yV·VkVn·ne·kil·Vx·tVr} PER.ANIM-to.cut-NPR.ANIM.MASC.1S |NLZ-ABS.INAN.PL-tree-SUP-DET.PL-SOME "I (masc.) cut (past) the top of some trees"
Hypocoristics
Some hypocoristics have since been lexicalized (e.g. yĕmĕr writing, yĕmĕrĭš “little writing” > letter)
Diminutives
-iš/-ĭš
Augmentatives
-(h)kur/-(h)kŭr
SYNTAX
Morphosyntactic allignment
i) transitive verbs (A) – (V) – (O)
ii) intransitive verbs (S) – (V)
iii) ditransitive verbs (A) – (V) – (T) – (O)
(S) NOM
(A) ERG
(T) DAT
(O) i) ABS, iii) ACC
Word order
(S)-V-(O/A)-V-(T)-(O)
A/N
Lexicon
Citation forms:
· Nouns: nominative singular;
· Adjectives: nominative singular
· Verbs: first person singular present indicative active.
Samples
Words:
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