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==Sound changes== | |||
# merger of overlong into long vowels | # merger of overlong into long vowels | ||
#: ''*pūkō'' ( < *pūkô) | #: ''*pūkō'' ( < *pūkô) | ||
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# f > hw / _V | # f > hw / _V | ||
#: ''*hwehu'' ( < *fehu) | #: ''*hwehu'' ( < *fehu) | ||
# mb > w̃ / V_V | |||
#: ''law̃ah'' ( < *lambaz ) | |||
# þ > s [unconditionally] | # þ > s [unconditionally] | ||
#: ''sat'' ( < *þat), ''wursā'' < ''*wurþā'' ( < *wurdą) | #: ''sat'' ( < *þat), ''wursā'' < ''*wurþā'' ( < *wurdą) | ||
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# b > v / V_V | # b > v / V_V | ||
#: ''*averanā'' < ''*aberanā'' ( < *gaberaną), ''ēvā'' < ''*ēbā'' ( < *gebō ) | #: ''*averanā'' < ''*aberanā'' ( < *gaberaną), ''ēvā'' < ''*ēbā'' ( < *gebō ) | ||
# b > w / V_jV | |||
#: ''*haujā'' < ''*habjā'' ( < *habjō) | |||
# d > z / V_V | # d > z / V_V | ||
#: ''māzēr'' < ''*māðēr'' ( < *mōdēr) | #: ''māzēr'' < ''*māðēr'' ( < *mōdēr) | ||
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#: ''ējum'' ( < *aigum, {{sc|pres act 1pl}} of *aiganą), ''rīzanā'' ( < *reidaną~rīdaną), ''kiuranā'' ( < *keusaną) | #: ''ējum'' ( < *aigum, {{sc|pres act 1pl}} of *aiganą), ''rīzanā'' ( < *reidaną~rīdaną), ''kiuranā'' ( < *keusaną) | ||
#: ''ērīs'' 'he/she/it frightens' ( < *gaisīþi) cf. ''avajs'' 'he/she/it has' ( < *habaiþi) | #: ''ērīs'' 'he/she/it frightens' ( < *gaisīþi) cf. ''avajs'' 'he/she/it has' ( < *habaiþi) | ||
# /wr/ -> [rʷː] | |||
== | ==Current status== | ||
====1.==== | ====1.==== | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | ||
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| hwarh | | hwarh | ||
| hwarhāh | | hwarhāh | ||
| | | colspan=2 rowspan=3| blātā | ||
| blātā | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Nominative | ! Nominative | ||
| hwarhah | | hwarhah | ||
| hwarhāh | | hwarhāh | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Accusative | ! Accusative | ||
| hwarhā | | hwarhā | ||
| hwarhann | | hwarhann | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Genitive | ! Genitive | ||
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|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
===ō=== | |||
These will probably merge to some extent with the a-stems of ''n'' gender. | These will probably merge to some extent with the a-stems of ''n'' gender. | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Vocative | ! Vocative | ||
| ēvā | | rowspan="2"|ēvā | ||
| ēvāh | | rowspan="3"|ēvāh | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Nominative | ! Nominative | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Accusative | ! Accusative | ||
| ēvō | | ēvō | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Genitive | ! Genitive | ||
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! Dative | ! Dative | ||
| ēvāj | | ēvāj | ||
| ēvāmah | | rowspan="2"|ēvāmah | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Instrumental | ! Instrumental | ||
| ēvā | | ēvā | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
====2.==== | ====2.==== | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Dative | ! Dative | ||
| | |hwiwalsāne | ||
|hwiwalsāmah | |hwiwalsāmah | ||
|- | |- | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Dative | ! Dative | ||
| | |hrārīne | ||
|hrārīnāmah | |hrārīnāmah | ||
|- | |- | ||
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====7.==== | ====7.==== | ||
====8.==== | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | ||
| colspan="8"| r-stems | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="3"| '''māzēr''' ''f'' mother | |||
|- | |||
! || Singular || Plural | |||
|- | |||
! Vocative | |||
|māzer | |||
|māzrih | |||
|- | |||
! Nominative | |||
|māzēr | |||
|māzrih | |||
|- | |||
! Accusative | |||
|māzerū | |||
|māzrunn | |||
|- | |||
! Genitive | |||
|māzur | |||
|māzrō | |||
|- | |||
! Dative | |||
|māzre | |||
|māzrumah | |||
|- | |||
! Instrumental | |||
|māzre | |||
|māzrumah | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
Alternative declension: | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | |||
| colspan="8"| r-stems | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="3"| '''māzēr''' ''f'' mother | |||
|- | |||
! || Singular || Plural | |||
|- | |||
! Vocative | |||
|māzerī | |||
|māzrīnih | |||
|- | |||
! Nominative | |||
|māzērī | |||
|māzrīnih | |||
|- | |||
! Accusative | |||
|māzrīnū | |||
|māzrīnunn | |||
|- | |||
! Genitive | |||
|māzrīnih | |||
|māzrīnō | |||
|- | |||
! Dative | |||
|māzrīni | |||
|māzrināmah | |||
|- | |||
! Instrumental | |||
|māzrīne | |||
|māzrīnāmah | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
====8. z-stems==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | |||
| colspan="8"| z-stems | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="3"| '''lamhah''' ''n'' lamb | |||
|- | |||
! || Singular || Plural | |||
|- | |||
! Vocative | |||
|lamhah | |||
|lamhirā | |||
|- | |||
! Nominative | |||
|lamhah | |||
|lamhirā | |||
|- | |||
! Accusative | |||
|lamhah | |||
|lamhirā | |||
|- | |||
! Genitive | |||
|lamhirih | |||
|lamhirō | |||
|- | |||
! Dative | |||
|lamhirī | |||
|lamhirumah | |||
|- | |||
! Instrumental | |||
|lamhirī | |||
|lamhirumah | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
====ix==== | ====ix==== | ||
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#: sa wulfaz þō fehū ?gaisīþi. ( PIE *'''gheis-''', cf. Goth. ''usgaisjan'') | #: sa wulfaz þō fehū ?gaisīþi. ( PIE *'''gheis-''', cf. Goth. ''usgaisjan'') | ||
#:: 'The wolf terrorizes the cattle.' | #:: 'The wolf terrorizes the cattle.' | ||
==Askājaskā naunā== | |||
===sājanaunā=== | |||
The adjectives of Skájamál are quite peculiar from a sibling perspective - there is no “strong” or “weak” inflection - instead, adjectives are declined for definiteness by a complex process whose origins lie in the ancient addition of a prefix, ''*ja(i)-'', which is usually reflected as ''a-'' before most consonants and disappears before most vowels. However, sound changes and analogical processes make the resultant system quite tricky to navigate. | |||
#preserved pre-consonantal a- | |||
:'''hwēkwaḥ''' vs. '''ahwēkwaḥ''' (weak) | |||
#iotation and loss | |||
:'''ulsīnaḥ''' vs. '''iulsīnaḥ''' (golden);this results from an original *g being preserved as -j- intervocalically and lost initially. | |||
#preserved lenition | |||
:'''bitraḥ''' vs. '''avitraḥ''' (bitter) | |||
#lenition and loss | |||
:'''batistaḥ''' vs. '''vatistaḥ''' (best) | |||
===sansanaunā=== | |||
==Askājaskā wursā== | |||
===ahwēkwā wursā=== | |||
habdō > awdō -> audō -> aujā 1sgpres, audō 1sgpast, aujau 1sgpressubj, audē 1sgpastsubj | |||
#Innovatio I | |||
:The past tense indicative {{sc|1pl}} marker has replaced the equivalent present indicative marker. So, basically a bunch of verbs look a bit like preterite-presents here. | |||
::e.g. '''aujum''' 'we have' ( from an innovated < *'''habjum''', instead of the expected reflex of PGmc. *'''habjamaz''' which would be **aujamah) | |||
#Innovatio II | |||
:Loss of final -i in the ind. pres. ("weak") | |||
:: '''avajs''' 'you have, he has' ( < *'''''habaiþ''''' < PGmc. *'''habaiþi''' AND < *'''''habais''''' < PGmc. *'''habaisi''') | |||
:: | |||
::{|class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
| -jō||-jā | |||
|- | |||
| -aisi||-ajs | |||
|- | |||
| -aiþi||-ajs | |||
|- | |||
| -jum||-jum | |||
|- | |||
| -aiþ||-ajs | |||
|- | |||
| -janþi||-jan | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
#Innovatio III | |||
: The subclasses of w-Class III merge with the stative -ja- spreading into the factitive in the present, while the factitive -a- forms spread to the past. The past participle is formed with *''-adaz'', present with *''-(i)jandz'' | |||
#Innovatio IV | |||
: The spread of -janā to the infinitive from the I and III class to the rest. | |||
::'''wrissājanā''', '''salbājanā''' | |||
====Class I==== | |||
=====s-class I===== | |||
A lot of things happen here: | |||
As for *brūkaną, it's moved into class 2b of the strong verbs but keeps weak participle: briūk-, brauk-, brukadaz -> briūk-, brauk, brukara | |||
then, *būanā joins the third weak class as būjanā (būās, būrāze, būra) | |||
====s-class II==== | |||
todo | |||
====s-class III==== | |||
to a large extent, merged with Class III, with verbs showing alternation between -a- and -i- in the past. | |||
====Class II==== | |||
{|class="wikitable" | |||
!colspan="13"|šemplīas paradịmās: wansājanā (kalaš II - 'mažinatiš') | |||
|- | |||
|colspan="6"| ||present participle: wansānn past participle: wansāraḥ ||colspan="6"| | |||
|- | |||
! ||colspan="6"|indicative||colspan="6"|subjunctive | |||
|- | |||
|colspan="1"| ||colspan="3"|singular||colspan="3"|plural||colspan="3"|singular||colspan="3"|plural | |||
|- | |||
| ||first||second||third||first||second||third||first||second||third||first||second||third | |||
|- | |||
|present||wansā||'''wansās'''||'''wansās'''||wansām||'''wansās'''||wansān||wansō||'''wansā'''||'''wansā'''||wansām||'''wansā'''||wansān | |||
|- | |||
|past||wansārō||'''wansārē'''||'''wansārē'''||wansārzum||wansārzud||wansārzun||'''wansārzī'''||'''wansārzī'''||'''wansārzī'''||wansārzīm||wansārzīd||wansārzīn | |||
|} | |||
====Class III==== | |||
{|class="wikitable" | |||
!colspan="13"|šemplīas paradịmās: aujanā (kalaš III - 'jèmetiš') | |||
|- | |||
|colspan="6"| ||present participle: aujann past participle: avarah ||colspan="6"| | |||
|- | |||
! ||colspan="6"|indicative||colspan="6"|subjunctive | |||
|- | |||
|colspan="1"| ||colspan="3"|singular||colspan="3"|plural||colspan="3"|singular||colspan="3"|plural | |||
|- | |||
| ||first||second||third||first||second||third||first||second||third||first||second||third | |||
|- | |||
|present||aujā||'''avajs'''||'''avajs'''||aujum||'''avajs'''||aujan||aujaū||'''aujai'''||'''aujai'''||aujaim||'''aujai'''||aujain | |||
|- | |||
|past||audō||'''audē'''||'''audē'''||audum||audud||audun||'''audērī'''||'''audērī'''||'''audērī'''||audērīm||audērīd||audērīn | |||
|} | |||
===astarkijā wursā=== | |||
====Class I==== | |||
-ī- -ē- -i- -i- | |||
====Class II==== | |||
a) iu - au - u - u | |||
b) iū - au - u - u < '''Innovatio!''' j- ex a) | |||
====Class III==== | |||
====Class IV==== | |||
====Class V==== | |||
====Class VI==== | |||
====Class VII==== | |||
==Sandhi== | |||
Pronomina often occur in second position (wackernagel), thus sometimes glued onto verb. E.g. | |||
wansā ik → wansājk | |||
wansās sū → wansāru | |||
wansās sa → wansāra | |||
===A man says to another man…=== | ===A man says to another man…=== |