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In the [[Antarctican]] language, there are no adjectives. Instead of adjectives meaning "red", "old" or "tall", there are verbs meaning "to be red", "to be old", "to be tall" etc. So instead of saying "the tall tree", you would say "the tree that is tall".
In the [[Antarctican]] language, there are no adjectives. Instead of adjectives meaning "red", "old" or "tall", there are verbs meaning "to be red", "to be old", "to be tall" etc. So instead of saying "the tall tree", you would say "the tree that is tall".


These verbs are clearly marked for transitivity (e.g. a different verb is used in the sentence "The door opened" compared to the sentence "I opened the door", and also inflect for whether they are putting focus on themselves or on nouns in the sentence (done via changing the end of the root). They also take infixes to indicate pronominal objects and voice changes (which is conflated with aspect marking). As well as this, they take prefixes to indicate pronominal subjects (which is conflated with tense marking).
These verbs are clearly marked for transitivity (e.g. a different verb is used in the sentence "The door opened" compared to the sentence "I opened the door".They also take infixes to indicate pronominal objects and voice changes (which is conflated with aspect marking). As well as this, they take prefixes to indicate pronominal subjects (which is conflated with tense marking).


<h3>Focus</h3>
<h3>Direct and Indirect Verbs</h3>


Verbs have a root form, from which various
Verbs have a root form, which in itself is only used in compounds. However from this various other base forms are derived which can stand alone in speech. The two most important of these base forms are the direct base and the indirect base.
other base forms are derived. The two most important of these base forms are
 
the verb-focus base and the noun-focus base. Below is a list of verb roots with their
 
corresponding verb-focus and noun-focus bases:
The direct base is used when the topic of the sentence is a core argument of the verb (subject of an intransitive verb, agent or patient of a transitive verb). The indirect base is used when the topic of a sentence is an oblique argument.
 
 
Below is a list of verb roots with their
corresponding indirect and direct bases:


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
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doleeju /dole&#720;&#607;u/ - to drag,
doleeju /dole&#720;&#607;u/ - to drag,
intransitive, verb-focus
intransitive, indirect


`tùlòoezi /tu&#614;l&#600;&#614;&#720;zi/ –
`tùlòoezi /&#689;tu&#689;l&#600;&#689;&#720;zi/ –
to drag, intransitive, noun-focus
to drag, intransitive, direct


&nbsp;
&nbsp;


`ròedu /&#641;&#600;du/ - red, root
`ròedu /&#689;&#641;&#600;du/ - red, root


`ròedla /&#641;&#600;&#614;d&#622;a/ - red,
`ròedla /&#689;&#641;&#600;&#689;d&#622;a/ - red,
verb-focus
indirect


`ròedù /&#641;&#600;&#614;du&#614;/ - red,
`ròedù /&#689;&#641;&#600;&#689;du&#689;/ - red,
noun-focus
direct 


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
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'kiraeypyu /ki&#641;&#603;ip&#690;u/
'kiraeypyu /ki&#641;&#603;ip&#690;u/
- to become scraped, verb-focus
- to become scraped, indirect
 
'kiraypùe /ki&#641;a;ip&#616;&#689;/
- to become scraped, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
 
<h4>Direct Base</h4>
 
This is the "default" form of the verb that is used normally.
 
&nbsp;
 
<h5>Regular Formation</h5>
 
The default way of forming it is by putting
breathy voice on the final vowel of the base, and changing the vowel quality in
the same way as normal e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
éypyii /&#660;ei&#740;p&#690;i&#720;/ -
to spit out, root
 
éypyùey /&#660;ei&#740;p&#690;&#616;i&#689;/
- to spit out, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
This breathy voice “spreads” to the left
until it hits a voiceless obstruent or a prestopped nasal e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
gowpeyee /goupeje&#720;/ - to suffer a
setback, root


'kiraypùe /ki&#641;a;ip&#616;&#614;/
gowpòeyòoe /goup&#600;&#689;j&#600;&#720;&#689;/
- to become scraped, noun-focus
- to suffer a setback, direct


&nbsp;
&nbsp;


<h4>Verb-Focus Base</h4>
inyelee /&#660;i&#626;ele&#720;/ - to
pierce, root
 
ùenyòelòoe /&#660;&#616;&#689;&#626;&#600;&#689;le&#720;/
- to pierce, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
kiveluun /ki&#613;elu&#720;&#628;/ - to
die, root
 
kùevòelùun /k&#616;&#689;&#613;&#600;&#689;lu&#720;&#628;&#689;/
- to die, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
Remember that Antarctican only permits
voiced obstruents, prestopped nasals, and fricatives other than /s/, before vowels
with modal voice. So if this vowel phonation change would produce such a
forbidden sequence, then the consonant changes e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
hlõ /&#620;&#596;/ - to perform, root
 
lào /l&#604;&#689;/ - to perform, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
These changes do not affect phonation
spreading though, as we can see from:
 
&nbsp;
 
madoze /madoze/ - to give birth,
intransitive, root
 
`màotùsòe /&#689;m&#604;&#689;tu&#689;s&#600;&#689;/
- to give birth, intransitive, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
nyiibe /&#626;i&#720;be/ - to snow, root
 
`nyùeypòe /&#689;&#626;&#616;ip&#600;&#689;/ - to
snow, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
san-gize /sa&#628;gize/ - to bleed, root
 
sàonkùesòe /s&#604;&#628;&#689;k&#616;&#689;s&#604;&#689;/
- to bleed, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
When a consonant such as a voiceless
obstruent or prestopped nasal blocks the phonation spreading, if the vowel
preceding it is /&#616;/ or /&#600;/ with modal voice (or a diphthong beginning
with one), then fronts to /i/ or /e/ respectively e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
yuentorõ /j&#616;&#628;to&#641;&#596;/ -
to introduce oneself, root
 
yintùrào /ji&#628;tu&#689;&#641;&#604;&#689;/
- to introduce oneself, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
imuepu /&#660;im&#616;pu/ - to sit down, root
 
imipù /&#660;imipu&#689;/ - to sit down, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
nuetoze /nitoze/ - to be fed on, root
 
nitùsòe /nitu&#689;s&#600;&#689;/ - to be
fed on, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
poensaa /p&#600;&#628;sa&#720;/ - to be lost
in deep thought, root
 
pensàao /pe&#628;s&#604;&#720;&#689;/ - to
be lost in deep thought, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
If the vowel is /&#603;/, or a diphthong
starting with /&#603;/, before the blocking consonant, then it lowers to /a/
e.g.
 
'kiraeypi /ki&#641;&#603;ipi/ - to
become scraped, root
 
'kiraypùe /ki&#641;aip&#616;&#689;/
- to become scraped, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
<h5>Final Syllable Replacement</h5>
 
In addition to this, some verbs lose their
final syllable, which is replaced with –zi e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
doleegi /dole&#720;gi/ - to drag,
intransitive, root
 
tùlòoezi /tu&#689;l&#600;&#720;&#689;zi/ –
to drag, intransitive, direct (-gùe has been replaced with -zi).
 
&nbsp;
 
bilidli /bilid&#622;i/ - to make it across,
root
 
pùelùezi /p&#616;&#689;l&#616;&#689;zi/ -
to make it across, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
<h4>indirect Base</h4>
 
This is used when the topic of the sentence is an oblique argument of the verb, not a core argument (i.e. not the subject of an intransitive verb or the agent / patient of a transitive verb).


This is used to put focus on the verb ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_(linguistics) ) i.e. when the most important "new" information that is being communicated to the listener is the action being done in the verb, rather than the nouns that are doing it or it is being done to.
How it is formed from the root is regular, but the rules are somewhat complex
How it is formed from the root is regular, but the rules are somewhat complex
and depend on whether the last syllable of the base begins with a soft or hard
and depend on whether the last syllable of the base begins with a soft or hard
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hli-õ /&#620;i&#660;&#596;/ - to perform,
hli-õ /&#620;i&#660;&#596;/ - to perform,
verb-focus
indirect


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
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&nbsp;
&nbsp;


éypyii /&#660;ei&#660;p&#690;i&#720;/ -
éypyii /&#660;ei&#740;p&#690;i&#720;/ -
to spit out, root
to spit out, root


éypyi-eey /&#660;ei&#660;p&#690;i&#660;e&#720;i/
éypyi-eey /&#660;ei&#740;p&#690;i&#660;e&#720;i/
- to spit out, verb-focus
- to spit out, indirect


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
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inyeli-aa /&#660;i&#626;eli&#660;a&#720;/
inyeli-aa /&#660;i&#626;eli&#660;a&#720;/
- to pierce, verb-focus
- to pierce, indirect


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
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kiveli-ewn /ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;/ -
kiveli-ewn /ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;/ -
to die, verb-focus
to die, indirect


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
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yuentolõ /j&#616;&#628;tol&#596;/ - to
yuentolõ /j&#616;&#628;tol&#596;/ - to
introduce oneself, verb-focus
introduce oneself, indirect


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
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nangaluu /na&#331;alu&#720;/ - to flow,
nangaluu /na&#331;alu&#720;/ - to flow,
verb-focus
indirect


&nbsp;
&nbsp;


'kirami /ki&#641;ami/ - to swell
'kirami /&#740;ki&#641;ami/ - to swell
up, root
up, root


'kiramyu /ki&#641;am&#690;u/ - to
'kiramyu /&#740;ki&#641;am&#690;u/ - to
swell up, verb-focus
swell up, indirect


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
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imuepya /&#660;im&#616;p&#690;a/ - to sit
imuepya /&#660;im&#616;p&#690;a/ - to sit
down, verb-focus
down, indirect


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
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nuetoze /n&#616;toze/ - to be fed on, root
nuetoze /n&#616;toze/ - to be fed on, root


nitù /nitu&#614;/ - to be fed on, verb-focus
nitù /nitu&#689;/ - to be fed on, indirect




siboete /sib&#600;te/ - to all be present, root
siboete /sib&#600;te/ - to all be present, root


sipáe /sip&#603;&#660;/ - to all be present, verb-focus (remember that Antarctican does not like voiced obstruents before vowels with breathy voice).
sipáe /sip&#603;&#740;/ - to all be present, indirect (remember that Antarctican does not like plain voiced obstruents before vowels with breathy voice).


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
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intransitive, root
intransitive, root


`màotù /m&#604;&#614;tu&#614;/ - to give
`màotù /&#689;m&#604;&#689;tu&#689;/ - to give
birth, intransitive, verb-focus
birth, intransitive, indirect


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
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nyiibe /&#626;i&#720;be/ - to snow, root
nyiibe /&#626;i&#720;be/ - to snow, root


`nyùue /&#626;&#616;&#720;&#614;/ - to snow,
`nyùue /&#689;&#626;&#616;&#720;&#689;/ - to snow,
verb-focus
indirect


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
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san-gize /sa&#628;gize/ - to bleed, root
san-gize /sa&#628;gize/ - to bleed, root


sàon-gùe /s&#604;&#614;&#628;g&#616;&#614;/
sàon-gùe /s&#604;&#689;&#628;g&#616;&#689;/
- to bleed, verb-focus
- to bleed, indirect


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
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daraeke /da&#641;&#603;ke/ - to cover, root
daraeke /da&#641;&#603;ke/ - to cover, root


tárá /ta&#660;&#641;a&#660;/ - to cover, verb-focus
tárá /ta&#740;&#641;a&#740;/ - to cover, indirect
 
&nbsp;
 
 
<h4>Noun-Focus Base</h4>
 
This is used to put focus on the (non-topicalised)
noun(s) in the sentence.
 
&nbsp;
 
<h5>Regular Formation</h5>
 
The default way of forming it is by putting
breathy voice on the final vowel of the base, and changing the vowel quality in
the same way as normal e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
éypyii /&#660;ei&#660;p&#690;i&#720;/ -
to spit out, root
 
éypyùey /&#660;ei&#660;p&#690;&#616;i&#614;/
- to spit out, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
This breathy voice “spreads” to the left
until it hits a voiceless obstruent or a prestopped nasal e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
gowpeyee /goupeje&#720;/ - to suffer a
setback, root
 
gowpòeyòoe /goup&#600;&#614;j&#600;&#720;&#614;/
- to suffer a setback, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
inyelee /&#660;i&#626;ele&#720;/ - to
pierce, root
 
ùenyòelòoe /&#660;&#616;&#614;&#626;&#600;&#614;le&#720;/
- to pierce, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
kiveluun /ki&#613;elu&#720;&#628;/ - to
die, root
 
kùevòelùun /k&#616;&#614;&#613;&#600;&#614;lu&#720;&#628;&#614;/
- to die, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
Remember that Antarctican only permits
voiced obstruents, prestopped nasals, and fricatives other than /s/, before vowels
with modal voice. So if this vowel phonation change would produce such a
forbidden sequence, then the consonant changes e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
hlõ /&#620;&#596;/ - to perform, root
 
lào /l&#604;&#614;/ - to perform, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
These changes do not affect phonation
spreading though, as we can see from:
 
&nbsp;
 
madoze /madoze/ - to give birth,
intransitive, root
 
`màotùsòe /m&#604;&#614;tu&#614;s&#600;&#614;/
- to give birth, intransitive, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
nyiibe /&#626;i&#720;be/ - to snow, root
 
`nyùeypòe /&#626;&#616;ip&#600;&#614;/ - to
snow, noun-focus


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
san-gize /sa&#628;gize/ - to bleed, root
sàonkùesòe /s&#604;&#628;&#614;k&#616;&#614;s&#604;&#614;/
- to bleed, noun-focus
&nbsp;
When a consonant such as a voiceless
obstruent or prestopped nasal blocks the phonation spreading, if the vowel
preceding it is /&#616;/ or /&#600;/ with modal voice (or a diphthong beginning
with one), then fronts to /i/ or /e/ respectively e.g.
&nbsp;
yuentorõ /j&#616;&#628;to&#641;&#596;/ -
to introduce oneself, root
yintùrào /ji&#628;tu&#614;&#641;&#604;&#614;/
- to introduce oneself, noun-focus
&nbsp;
imuepu /&#660;im&#616;pu/ - to sit down, root
imipù /&#660;imipu&#614;/ - to sit down, noun-focus
&nbsp;
nuetoze /nitoze/ - to be fed on, root
nitùsòe /nitu&#614;s&#600;&#614;/ - to be
fed on, noun-focus
&nbsp;
poensaa /p&#600;&#628;sa&#720;/ - to be lost
in deep thought, root
pensàao /pe&#628;s&#604;&#720;&#614;/ - to
be lost in deep thought, noun-focus
&nbsp;
If the vowel is /&#603;/, or a diphthong
starting with /&#603;/, before the blocking consonant, then it lowers to /a/
e.g.
'kiraeypi /ki&#641;&#603;ipi/ - to
become scraped, root
'kiraypùe /ki&#641;aip&#616;&#614;/
- to become scraped, noun-focus
&nbsp;
<h5>Final Syllable Replacement</h5>
In addition to this, some verbs lose their
final syllable, which is replaced with –zi e.g.
&nbsp;
doleegi /dole&#720;gi/ - to drag,
intransitive, root
tùlòoezi /tu&#614;l&#600;&#720;&#614;zi/ –
to drag, intransitive, noun-focus (-gùe has been replaced with -zi).
&nbsp;
bilidli /bilid&#622;i/ - to make it across,
root
pùelùezi /p&#616;&#614;l&#616;&#614;zi/ -
to make it across, noun-focus
&nbsp;
This process happens under well defined
conditions. Both of the last two syllables of the verb root must have modal
voice. Also the final vowel must be a short /i/ and not followed by a nasal
vowel. The consonant immediately before this must be a voiced obstruent. And,
in the proto-language, the verb root must have had pitch-accent on any syllable
other than the final one.
&nbsp;
<h3>Restrictive / Non-Restrictive Modifiers</h3>
When verbs / adjectives are used as modifiers, the verb-focus form is used when the modifier
is non restrictive ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness ), and the
noun-focus form is used when the modifier is restrictive e.g. from the work teyláae
/teil&#603;&#660;&#720;/ - shirt, we can say:
teyláae `ròedla /teil&#603;&#720;&#660; &#641;&#600;&#614;d&#622;a/ – a red shirt
(non-restrictive)
teyláae `ròedù /teil&#603;&#720;&#660; &#641;&#600;&#614;du&#614;/ – the red shirt
(restrictive)




Line 514: Line 496:
&nbsp;
&nbsp;


ùylòen /&#660;ui&#614;l&#604;&#628;&#614;/
ùylòen /&#660;ui&#689;l&#604;&#628;&#689;/
- island, absolutive
- island, absolutive


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&nbsp;
&nbsp;


péy /pei&#660;/ - book, absolutive
péy /pei&#740;/ - book, absolutive


péykin /pei&#660;ki&#628;/ - book,
péykin /pei&#740;ki&#628;/ - book,
ergative
ergative


péyki /pei&#660;ki/ - to be a book, verb root
péyki /pei&#740;ki/ - to be a book, verb root


&nbsp;
&nbsp;


támá /ta&#660;ma&#660;/ - victim of a scam
támá /ta&#740;ma&#740;/ - victim of a scam
/ swindle, absolutive
/ swindle, absolutive


Line 545: Line 527:
&nbsp;
&nbsp;


màao /m&#604;&#614;&#720;/ - betel nut,
màao /m&#604;&#689;&#720;/ - betel nut,
absolutive
absolutive


Line 556: Line 538:
&nbsp;
&nbsp;


`pùelùe /p&#616;&#614;l&#616;&#614;/ - bridge, absolutive
`pùelùe /&#689;p&#616;&#689;l&#616;&#689;/ - bridge, absolutive


bilidlin /bilid&#622;i&#628;/ - bridge,
bilidlin /bilid&#622;i&#628;/ - bridge,
Line 566: Line 548:
&nbsp;
&nbsp;


`pàoy /p&#604;i&#614;/ - baby, absolutive
`pàoy /&#689;p&#604;i&#689;/ - baby, absolutive


baybyin /baib&#690;i&#628;/ - baby,
baybyin /baib&#690;i&#628;/ - baby,
Line 576: Line 558:
&nbsp;
&nbsp;


pàoy /p&#604;i&#614;/ - page, absolutive
pàoy /p&#604;i&#689;/ - page, absolutive


paydlin /paid&#622;i&#628;/ - page,
paydlin /paid&#622;i&#628;/ - page,
Line 592: Line 574:
&nbsp;
&nbsp;


doleeju /dole&#720;&#607;u/ - to drag, intransitive, verb-focus (as in "his pants were dragging along the ground")
doleeju /dole&#720;&#607;u/ - to drag, intransitive, indirect (as in "his pants were dragging along the ground")


dleeju
dleeju
/d&#622;e&#720;&#607;u/ - to drag, transitive, verb-focus (as in "he was dragging his pants along the ground")
/d&#622;e&#720;&#607;u/ - to drag, transitive, indirect (as in "he was dragging his pants along the ground")


&nbsp;
&nbsp;


`tùlòoezi /tu&#614;l&#600;&#614;&#720;zi/ – to drag, intransitive,
`tùlòoezi /&#689;tu&#689;l&#600;&#689;&#720;zi/ – to drag, intransitive,
noun-focus
direct


`tlòoezi
`tlòoezi
/t&#620;&#600;&#614;&#720;zi/– to drag, transitive, noun-focus
/&#689;t&#620;&#600;&#689;&#720;zi/– to drag, transitive, direct


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
Line 629: Line 611:
&nbsp;
&nbsp;


The transitive roots are then inflected for focus e.g.
The transitive roots are then inflected for indirect vs. direct e.g.


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
Line 636: Line 618:
/çina&#641;i/ - to twist, intransitive, root
/çina&#641;i/ - to twist, intransitive, root


shinali /çinali/ - to twist, intransitive, verb-focus
shinali /çinali/ - to twist, intransitive, indirect


yùenàorùe
yùenàorùe
/j&#616;&#614;n&#604;&#614;&#641;&#616;&#614;/ - to twist, intransitive,
/j&#616;&#689;n&#604;&#689;&#641;&#616;&#689;/ - to twist, intransitive,
noun-focus
direct


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
Line 648: Line 630:


hali
hali
/&#967;ali/ - to twist, transitive, verb-focus
/&#967;ali/ - to twist, transitive, indirect


ràorùe
ràorùe
/&#641;&#604;&#614;&#641;&#616;&#614;/ - to twist, transitive, noun-focus
/&#641;&#604;&#689;&#641;&#616;&#689;/ - to twist, transitive, direct




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|-
|-
|Perfective Antipassive
|Perfective Antipassive
|ut / ów(tq)s (see below)
|ut / óws (see below)
|atl
|atl
|-
|-
Line 719: Line 701:




damaehlu /dam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle, verb-focus
damaehlu /dam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle, indirect


dõsamaehlu /d&#596;sam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle you, verb-focus
dõsamaehlu /d&#596;sam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle you, indirect




damaehlu /dam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam, verb-focus
damaehlu /dam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam, indirect


demamaehlu /dem&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam me / us (not including you), verb-focus
demamaehlu /dem&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam me / us (not including you), indirect




Line 733: Line 715:




pyùu /p&#690;u&#720;&#614;/ - to purify, noun-focus
pyùu /p&#690;u&#720;&#689;/ - to purify, direct


pyùemyùu /p&#690;&#616;&#614;mp&#690;u&#720;&#614;/ - to purify me / us (not including you, noun-focus
pyùemyùu /p&#690;&#616;&#689;mp&#690;u&#720;&#689;/ - to purify me / us (not including you, direct


pyòelùu /p&#690;&#600;&#614;lu&#720;&#614;/ - to purify who, noun-focus
pyòelùu /p&#690;&#600;&#689;lu&#720;&#689;/ - to purify who, direct




Line 745: Line 727:




damaehlu /dam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle, verb-focus
damaehlu /dam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle, indirect


daesamaehlu /d&#603;sam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle us (including you), verb-focus
daesamaehlu /d&#603;sam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle us (including you), indirect


deramaehlu /de&#641;am&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle oneself, verb-focus
deramaehlu /de&#641;am&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle oneself, indirect




Line 758: Line 740:




pyùu /p&#690;u&#720;&#614;/ - to purify,
pyùu /p&#690;u&#720;&#689;/ - to purify,
noun-focus
direct


pyolùu /p&#690;&#596;lu&#720;&#614;/ - to purify you, noun-focus
pyolùu /p&#690;&#596;lu&#720;&#689;/ - to purify you, direct


pyelùu /p&#690;elu&#720;&#614;/ - to purify
pyelùu /p&#690;elu&#720;&#689;/ - to purify
ourselves (including you), noun-focus
ourselves (including you), direct




The last example this is distinct
The last example this is distinct
from pyòelùu /p&#690;&#600;&#614;lu&#720;&#614;/ - to purify who,
from pyòelùu /p&#690;&#600;&#689;lu&#720;&#689;/ - to purify who,
noun-focus, which has breathy voice spreading onto the infix.
direct, which has breathy voice spreading onto the infix.


Note that, for the purposes of the syntax, using any of these infixes turns a transitive verb into an intransitive verb. This means that the subject of such an infixed verb can no longer take ergative case e.g.
Note that, for the purposes of the syntax, using any of these infixes turns a transitive verb into an intransitive verb. This means that the subject of such an infixed verb can no longer take ergative case e.g.
Line 777: Line 759:
*yuenpiloy /j&#616;&#628;piloi/ - employee, ergative
*yuenpiloy /j&#616;&#628;piloi/ - employee, ergative
*sõwdla - /s&#596;ud&#622;/ - soldier, absolutive
*sõwdla - /s&#596;ud&#622;/ - soldier, absolutive
*damasùe - /damas#616;&#614;/ - to scam / swindle, noun-focus
*damasùe - /damas&#616;&#689;/ - to scam / swindle, direct




Line 784: Line 766:
| yuenpiloy || damasùe || sõwdla
| yuenpiloy || damasùe || sõwdla
|-
|-
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || damas#616;&#614; || s&#616;ud&#622;
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || damas&#616;&#689; || s&#616;ud&#622;
|-
|-
|- employee-ERG || scam-NFCS || soldier-ABS
|- employee-ERG || scam || soldier-ABS
|}
|}
An employee scammed a soldier
An employee scammed a soldier
Line 798: Line 780:
| yuenpiluy || daesamasùe
| yuenpiluy || daesamasùe
|-
|-
| j&#616;&#628;pilui || d&#603;samas#616;&#614;
| j&#616;&#628;pilui || d&#603;samas&#616;&#689;
|-
|-
| employee-ABS || <1PS.INC.OBJ>scam-NFCS
| employee-ABS || <1PS.INC.OBJ>scam
|}
|}
An employee scammed us (including you)
An employee scammed us (including you)
Line 812: Line 794:
| daesamasùe || yuenpiluy   
| daesamasùe || yuenpiluy   
|-
|-
| d&#603;samas#616;&#614; || j&#616;&#628;pilui
| d&#603;samas&#616;&#689; || j&#616;&#628;pilui
|-
|-
| <1PS.INC.OBJ>scam-NFCS || employee-ABS
| <1PS.INC.OBJ>scam || employee-ABS
|}
|}
An employee scammed us (including you)
An employee scammed us (including you)
Line 833: Line 815:
| duetamasùe || yuenpiluy
| duetamasùe || yuenpiluy
|-
|-
| d&#616;tamas#616;&#614; || j&#616;&#628;pilui
| d&#616;tamas&#616;&#689; || j&#616;&#628;pilui
|-
|-
| <PFV.AP>scam-NFCS || employee-ABS
| <PFV.AP>scam || employee-ABS
|}
|}
An employee scammed / will scam (someone who does not need to be mentioned here).
An employee scammed / will scam (someone who does not need to be mentioned here).




However, remember that alveolar stops (e.g. /t/) can never occur before /i/ and /&#654;/ (with any phonation), nor before tense voice /e&#660;/ and /&#600;&#660;/, nor before diphthongs starting with these. If a verb begins with a hard consonant followed by one of these vowels, a different infix is used, normally -óws- e.g.
However, remember that alveolar stops (e.g. /t/) can never occur before /i/ and /&#616;/ (with any phonation), nor before tense voice /e&#740;/ and /&#600;&#740;/, nor before diphthongs starting with these. If a verb begins with a hard consonant followed by one of these vowels, a different infix is used, normally -óws- e.g.




inyeli-aa /&#660;i&#626;eli&#660;a&#720;/ - to pierce, verb-focus
inyeli-aa /&#660;i&#626;eli&#660;a&#720;/ - to pierce, indirect


ówsinyeli-aa /&#660;ou&#660;si&#626;eli&#660;a&#720;/ - to pierce, verb-focus, perfective antipassive
ówsinyeli-aa /&#660;ou&#740;si&#626;eli&#660;a&#720;/ - to pierce, indirect, perfective antipassive




kiveliqewn /ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;/ - to die, verb-focus
kiveliqewn /ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;/ - to die, indirect


kówsiveli-ewn /kou&#660;si&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;/ - to die, verb-focus, perfective antipassive
kówsiveli-ewn /kou&#740;si&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;/ - to die, indirect, perfective antipassive




siséychu /sisei&#660;cu/ - to stab, verb focus
'kátla /&#740;ka&#740;t&#620;a/ - to make someone's acquaintance, indirect


sówsiséychu /sou&#660;sisei&#660;cu/ - to stab, verb focus, perfective antipassive
'kówsátla /&#740;kou&#740;sa&#740;t&#620;a/ - to make someone's acquaintance, indirect, perfective antipassive




However, if the first vowel of the verb root had tense voice, the ejective -tqs- is used instead e.g.
éypyi-eey /&#660;ei&#740;p&#690;i&#660;e&#720;i/ - to spit out, indirect


 
ówséypyi-eey /&#660;ou&#740;sei&#740;p&#690;i&#660;e&#720;i/ - to spit out, indirect, perfective antipassive
'kátla /ka&#660;t&#620;a/ - to make someone's acquaintance, verb focus
 
'kówtqsátla /kou&#660;ts&#700;a&#660;t&#620;a/ - to make someone's acquaintance, verb-focus, perfective antipassive
 
 
éypyi-eey /&#660;ei&#660;p&#690;i&#660;e&#720;i/ - to spit out, verb-focus
 
ówtqséypyi-eey /&#660;ou&#660;ts&#700;ei&#660;p&#690;i&#660;e&#720;i/ - to spit out, verb-focus, perfective antipassive




Line 880: Line 854:
| damamasùe || yuenpiluy
| damamasùe || yuenpiluy
|-
|-
| damamas#616;&#614; || j&#616;&#628;pilui
| damamas&#616;&#689; || j&#616;&#628;pilui
|-
|-
| <IMPV.AP>scam-NFCS || employee-ABS
| <IMPV.AP>scam || employee-ABS
|}
|}
An employee is / was / will be scamming (someone who does not need to be mentioned here).
An employee is / was / will be scamming (someone who does not need to be mentioned here).
Line 892: Line 866:




*wonnye /wo&#628;&#626;e/ - to want (something), verb-focus
*`wùnnào /&#689;wu&#689;&#628;n&#604;&#689;/ - to want (something)
*wátonnye /wa&#660;to&#628;&#626;e/ - to want (to do something / something to happen), verb-focus
*'wátùnnào /&#740;wa&#740;tu&#689;&#628;n&#604;&#689;/ - to want (to do something / something to happen)




*chi-iin /ci&#660;i&#720;&#628;/ - to fear (something), verb-focus
*chùun /cu&#720;&#740;&#628;/ - to fear (something)
*cháetli-iin /c&#603;t&#620;i&#660;i&#720;&#628;/ - to fear (that something will happen), verb-focus
*'cháetlùun /&#740;c&#603;&#740;t&#620;u&#720;&#689;&#628;/ - to fear (that something will happen)




Line 916: Line 890:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| yuenpiloy || wonnye || tõn
| yuenpiloy || `wùnnào || tõn
|-
|-
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || wo&#628;&#626;e || t&#596;&#628;
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || &#689;wu&#689;&#628;n&#604;&#689; || t&#596;&#628;
|-
|-
| employee-ERG || want-VFCS || change-ABS
| employee-ERG || want || change-ABS
|}
|}
An employee wants change.
An employee wants change.
Line 927: Line 901:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| yuenpiluy || 'wátonnye || sõwdla || damasùe
| yuenpiluy || 'wátùnnào || sõwdla || damasùe
|-
|-
| j&#616;&#628;pilui || wa&#660;to&#628;&#626;e || s&#596;ud&#622;a || damas&#616;&#614;
| j&#616;&#628;pilui || &#740;wa&#740;tu&#689;&#628;n&#604;&#689; || s&#596;ud&#622;a || damas&#616;&#689;
|-
|-
| employee-ABS || <SPR>want-VFCS || soldier-ABS || scam-NFCS
| employee-ABS || <SPR>want || soldier-ABS || scam
|}
|}
An employee wants to scam a soldier.
An employee wants to scam a soldier.
Line 939: Line 913:




wátonnye yuenpiloy sowdla damasùe
'wátùnnào yuenpiloy sowdla damasùe


yuenpiloy wátonnye damasùe sõwdla
yuenpiloy 'wátùnnào damasùe sõwdla


wátonnye yuenpiloy damasùe sõwdla
'wátùnnào yuenpiloy damasùe sõwdla




Line 950: Line 924:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| yuenpiloy || chi-iin || sõwdla
| yuenpiloy || chùun || sõwdla
|-
|-
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || ci&#660;i&#720;&#628; || s&#596;ud&#622;a
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || cu&#720;&#740;&#628; || s&#596;ud&#622;a
|-
|-
| employee-ERG || fear-VFCS || soldier-ABS
| employee-ERG || fear || soldier-ABS
|}
|}
The employee fears the soldier
The employee fears the soldier
Line 960: Line 934:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| yuenpiloy || 'cháetli-iin || sõwdla || damasùe  
| yuenpiloy || 'cháetlùun || sõwdla || damasùe  
|-
|-
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || c&#603;t&#620;i&#660;i&#720;&#628; || s&#596;ud&#622;a || damas&#616;&#614;
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || &#740;c&#603;&#740;t&#620;u&#720;&#689;&#628; || s&#596;ud&#622;a || damas&#616;&#689;
|-
|-
| employee-ERG || <SPR>fear-VFCS || soldier-ABS || scam-NFCS
| employee-ERG || <SPR>fear || soldier-ABS || scam
|}
|}
The employee fears he will scam / has scammed the soldier.
The employee fears he will scam / has scammed the soldier.
Line 975: Line 949:
| yuenpiloy || 'cháetliqiin || sõwdlan || damasùe  
| yuenpiloy || 'cháetliqiin || sõwdlan || damasùe  
|-
|-
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || c&#603;t&#620;i&#660;i&#720;&#628; || s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || damas&#616;&#614;
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || &#740;c&#603;&#740;t&#620;u&#720;&#689;&#628; || s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || damas&#616;&#689;
|-
|-
| employee-ERG || <SPR>fear-VFCS || soldier-ERG || scam-NFCS
| employee-ERG || <SPR>fear || soldier-ERG || scam
|}
|}
The employee fears the soldier will scam / has scammed him.
The employee fears the soldier will scam / has scammed him.
Line 983: Line 957:


Here, while the word for "employee" can come after the verb meaning "to fear", the word for "soldier", cannot, since it takes the ergative case (as it is the subject of the transitive verb damasù meaning "to scam").
Here, while the word for "employee" can come after the verb meaning "to fear", the word for "soldier", cannot, since it takes the ergative case (as it is the subject of the transitive verb damasù meaning "to scam").
<h4>Vowel Replacement</h4>
All Antarctican verbs use infixation to mark 1st person exclusive objects, whom, what (as a direct object), reflexive objects, the imperfective antipassive, and the superordinate voice. However, there is a subset of verbs that use vowel replacement to mark 1st person inclusive objects, 2nd person objects, and the perfective antipassive.
These are verbs where either a) the first vowel is short, modally voiced /i/, the second vowel has breathy voice, and there is no nasal intervening (plain nasals, prestopped nasals, and the placeless nasal /&#628;/ all count) or b) the first vowel is short, modally voiced /&#654;/, which is immediately followed by a voiceless obstruent, without /&#628;/ intervening or c) the first vowel is short, modally voiced /&#654;/, which is immediately followed by an approximant and then a vowel with breathy voice, without /&#628;/ intervening
The vowel replacements depend on whether the verb begins with a hard or soft consonant, but are regular (and have tense voice) and given in the table below:
{| class="wikitable"
|+Vowel Replacements for Voice and Object Pronouns
|-
|
|Hard Form
|Soft Form
|-
|1PS Inclusive
|á
|áe
|-
|2PS
|áo
|áo
|-
|Perfective Antipassive
|N/A use the -éys- infix instead
|ów
|}
For example:
siséychu /sisei&#660;cu/ - to stab, verb focus
sáséychu /sa&#660;sei&#660;cu/ - to stab us (including you), verb focus
sáoséychu /s&#604;&#660;sei&#660;cu/ - to stab you, verb focus
Note that the perfective antipassive form is created using the infix -éys- i.e. séysiséychu /sei&#660;sisei&#660;cu/ - to stab, verb focus, perfective antipassive. It is only with verbs starting with soft consonants that vowel replacement is used.
Also note that, for the other persons and voices, infixation is used e.g.
semiséychu /semisei&#660;cu/ - to stab me / us (not including you), verb focus
seriséychu /se&#641;isei&#660;cu/ - to stab oneself, verb focus
sariséychu /sa&#641;isei&#660;cu/ - to stab who, verb focus
sabiséychu /sabisei&#660;cu/ - to stab what, verb focus
samiséychu /samisei&#660;cu/ - to stab, verb focus, imperfective antipassive
More examples:
kiràomùe /ki&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;/ - to bite, verb focus
kimyiràomùe /kim&#690;i&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;/ - to bite me / us (not including you), verb focus
'káràomùe /ka&#660;&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;/ - to bite us (including you), verb focus
'káoràomùe /k&#604;&#660;&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;/ - to bite you, verb focus
keriràomùe /ke&#641;i&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;/ - to bite oneself, verb focus
kariràomùe /ka&#641;i&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;/ - to bite who, verb focus
kabiràomùe /kabi&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;/ - to bite what, verb focus
'kówràomùe /kou&#660;&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;/ - to bite, verb focus, perfective antipassive
kamiràomùe /kami&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;/ - to bite, verb focus, imperfective antipassive
shuetinju /&#231;&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count, verb focus
shimyuetinju /&#231;im&#690;&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count me / us (not including you), verb focus
yáetinju /j&#603;&#660;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count us (including you), verb focus
yáotinju /j&#604;&#660;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count you, verb focus
shiluetinju /&#231;il&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count oneself, verb focus
sheluetinju /&#231;el&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count who, verb focus
shebyuetinju /&#231;eb&#690;&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count what, verb focus
yówtinju /jou&#660;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count, verb focus, perfective antipassive
shemyuetinju /&#231;em&#690;&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count, verb focus, imperfective antipassive
(The /&#231;/ is lenited to /j/ when the vowel is replaced, since Antarctican does not like words starting with fricatives other than /s/ if the next vowel has tense voice.




Line 1,090: Line 964:




wonnye /wo&#628;&#626;e/ - to want, verb focus
wonnye /wo&#628;&#626;e/ - to want, indirect


wowonnye /wowo&#628;&#626;e/ - to want each other, verb focus
wowonnye /wowo&#628;&#626;e/ - to want each other, indirect




darakòe /da&#641;ak&#600;&#614;/ - to cover, noun-focus
darakòe /da&#641;ak&#600;&#689;/ - to cover, direct


dadarakòe /dada&#641;ak&#600;&#614;/ - to cover each other, noun-focus
dadarakòe /dada&#641;ak&#600;&#689;/ - to cover each other, direct




shuetinju /&#231;&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count, verb focus
shuetinju /&#231;&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count, indirect


shueshuetinju /&#231;&#616;&#231;&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count each other, verb focus
shueshuetinju /&#231;&#616;&#231;&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count each other, indirect




Line 1,108: Line 982:




ziitlàoji /zi&#720;t&#620;&#604;&#614;&#607;i/ - to know (a person), verb-focus
ziitlàoji /zi&#720;t&#620;&#604;&#689;&#607;i/ - to know (a person), indirect


ziziitlàoji /zizi&#720;t&#620;&#604;&#614;&#607;i/ - to know each other, verb-focus
ziziitlàoji /zizi&#720;t&#620;&#604;&#689;&#607;i/ - to know each other, indirect




yinwùumùe /ji&#628;wu&#720;&#614;m&#616;/ - to turn in, noun-focus
yinwùumùe /ji&#628;wu&#720;&#689;m&#616;/ - to turn in, direct


yiyinwùumùe /jiji&#628;wu&#720;&#614;m&#616;/ - to turn each other in, noun-focus
yiyinwùumùe /jiji&#628;wu&#720;&#689;m&#616;/ - to turn each other in, direct




kaaeykyu /k&#603;&#720;i&k#690;u/ - to sell, verb-focus
kaaeykyu /k&#603;&#720;i&k#690;u/ - to sell, indirect


kaekaaeykyu /k&#603;k&#603;&#720;ik&#690;u/ - to sell each other, verb-focus
kaekaaeykyu /k&#603;k&#603;&#720;ik&#690;u/ - to sell each other, indirect




Line 1,126: Line 1,000:




'kátla /ka&#660;t&#620;a/ - to make someone's acquaintance, verb focus
'kátla /&#740;ka&#740;t&#620;a/ - to make someone's acquaintance, indirect


'kákátla /ka&#660;ka&#660;t&#620;a/ - to make each other's acquaintance, verb focus
'kákátla /&#740;ka&#740;ka&#740;t&#620;a/ - to make each other's acquaintance, indirect




Line 1,134: Line 1,008:




'kamyu /kam&#690;u/ - to inflate (someone's ego), verb-focus
'kamyu /&#740;kam&#690;u/ - to inflate (someone's ego), indirect


'kákamyu /ka&#660;kam&#690;u/ - to inflate each other('s ego), verb-focus
'kákamyu /&#740;ka&#740;kam&#690;u/ - to inflate each other('s ego), indirect




'kaypùe /kaip&#616;&#614;/ - to scrape, noun-focus
'kaypùe /&#740;kaip&#616;&#689;/ - to scrape, direct


'kákaypùe /ka&#660;kaip&#616;&#614;/ - to scrape each other, noun-focus
'kákaypùe /&#740;ka&#740;kaip&#616;&#689;/ - to scrape each other, direct




Line 1,147: Line 1,021:




'puytlù /puit&#620;u&#614;/ - to pick a fight, noun-focus
'puytlù /&#740;puit&#620;u&#689;/ - to pick a fight, direct


'póyputlu /poi&#660;puit&#620;u&#614;/ - to pick a fight with each other, noun-focus
'póyputlu /&#740;poi&#740;puit&#620;u&#689;/ - to pick a fight with each other, direct




Line 1,155: Line 1,029:




hali /&#967;ali/ - to twist, transitive, verb-focus
hali /&#967;ali/ - to twist, transitive, indirect


haehali /&#967;&#603;&#967;ali/ - to twist, transitive, verb-focus
haehali /&#967;&#603;&#967;ali/ - to twist, transitive, indirect




Line 1,163: Line 1,037:




ràorùe /&#641;&#604;&#614;&#641;&#616;&#614;/ - to twist, transitive, noun-focus
ràorùe /&#641;&#604;&#689;&#641;&#616;&#689;/ - to twist, transitive, direct


haràorùe /&#967;a&#641;&#604;&#614;&#641;&#616;&#614;/ - to twist each other, transitive, noun-focus
haràorùe /&#967;a&#641;&#604;&#689;&#641;&#616;&#689;/ - to twist each other, transitive, direct




Line 1,171: Line 1,045:




wùeròen /w&#616;&#614;&#640;&#600;&#628;&#614;/ - friend, absolutive
wùeròen /w&#616;&#689;&#640;&#600;&#628;&#689;/ - friend, absolutive


fiwùeròen /fiw&#616;&#614;&#640;&#600;&#628;&#614;/ - friends (of each other), absolutive
fiwùeròen /fiw&#616;&#689;&#640;&#600;&#628;&#689;/ - friends (of each other), absolutive




wòenzi /w&#600;&#628;&#614;/ - to befriend, noun-focus
wòenzi /w&#600;&#628;&#689;/ - to befriend, direct


fiwòenzi /fiw&#600;&#628;&#614;/ - to befriend each other, noun-focus
fiwòenzi /fiw&#600;&#628;&#689;/ - to befriend each other, direct




Line 1,199: Line 1,073:
| 2PS || nyin || ya || yu
| 2PS || nyin || ya || yu
|-
|-
| 3PS || day || de || daw
| 3PS || zay || ze || zaw
|-
|-
| Who / What || wu || hew || ri
| Who / What || wu || hew || ri
Line 1,213: Line 1,087:




chisàon-gùe /cis&#604;&#614;&#628;g&#616;&#614;/ you bleed, verb-focus
chisàon-gùe /cis&#604;&#689;&#628;g&#616;&#689;/ you bleed, indirect
 
chiisàon-gùe /ci&#720;s&#604;&#614;&#628;g&#616;&#614;/ you (emphatic) bleed, verb-focus
 


However, the emphatic forms cannot be used with noun-focus forms, so while chisàonkùesòe /cis&#604;&#628;&#614;k&#616;&#614;s&#604;&#614;/ - to bleed, noun-focus is grammatical, chiisàonkùesòe /ci&#720;s&#604;&#628;&#614;k&#616;&#614;s&#604;&#614;/ would not be.
chiisàon-gùe /ci&#720;s&#604;&#689;&#628;g&#616;&#689;/ you (emphatic) bleed, indirect




Line 1,224: Line 1,095:




pyõhli-uu /p&#690;&#596;&#620;i&#660;u&#720;/ - purify you, verb focus
pyõhli-uu /p&#690;&#596;&#620;i&#660;u&#720;/ - purify you, indirect
 
pyõohli-uu /p&#690;&#596;&#720;&#620;i&#660;u&#720;/ - purify you (emphatic), verb focus
 
 
If an object would be formed by vowel replacement (instead of an infix), then the emphatic form is created by lengthening the first vowel e.g.
 
 
siséychu /sisei&#660;cu/ - to stab, verb focus


sáoséychu /s&#604;&#660;sei&#660;cu/ - to stab you, verb focus
pyõohli-uu /p&#690;&#596;&#720;&#620;i&#660;u&#720;/ - purify you (emphatic), indirect


sáaoséychu /s&#604;&#720;&#660;sei&#660;cu/ - to stab you (emphatic), verb focus
<!-- Categories -->
[[Category:Antarctican]]
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