Antarctican/Verbs: Difference between revisions

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In the [[Antarctican]] language, there are no adjectives. Instead of adjectives meaning "red", "old" or "tall", there are verbs meaning "to be red", "to be old", "to be tall" etc. So instead of saying "the tall tree", you would say "the tree that is tall".
In the [[Antarctican]] language, there are no adjectives. Instead of adjectives meaning "red", "old" or "tall", there are verbs meaning "to be red", "to be old", "to be tall" etc. So instead of saying "the tall tree", you would say "the tree that is tall".


These verbs are clearly marked for transitivity (e.g. a different verb is used in the sentence "The door opened" compared to the sentence "I opened the door", and also inflect for whether they are putting focus on themselves or on nouns in the sentence (done via changing the end of the root). They also take infixes to indicate pronominal objects and voice changes (which is conflated with aspect marking). As well as this, they take prefixes to indicate pronominal subjects (which is conflated with tense marking).
These verbs are clearly marked for transitivity (e.g. a different verb is used in the sentence "The door opened" compared to the sentence "I opened the door".They also take infixes to indicate pronominal objects and voice changes (which is conflated with aspect marking). As well as this, they take prefixes to indicate pronominal subjects (which is conflated with tense marking).


<h3>Focus</h3>
<h3>Direct and Indirect Verbs</h3>


Verbs have a root form, from which various
Verbs have a root form, which in itself is only used in compounds. However from this various other base forms are derived which can stand alone in speech. The two most important of these base forms are the direct base and the indirect base.
other base forms are derived. The two most important of these base forms are
 
the verb-focus base and the noun-focus base. Below is a list of verb roots with their
 
corresponding verb-focus and noun-focus bases:
The direct base is used when the topic of the sentence is a core argument of the verb (subject of an intransitive verb, agent or patient of a transitive verb). The indirect base is used when the topic of a sentence is an oblique argument.
 
 
Below is a list of verb roots with their
corresponding indirect and direct bases:


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
Line 16: Line 20:


doleeju /dole&#720;&#607;u/ - to drag,
doleeju /dole&#720;&#607;u/ - to drag,
intransitive, verb-focus
intransitive, indirect


`tùlòoezi /&#689;tu&#689;l&#600;&#689;&#720;zi/ –
`tùlòoezi /&#689;tu&#689;l&#600;&#689;&#720;zi/ –
to drag, intransitive, noun-focus
to drag, intransitive, direct


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
Line 26: Line 30:


`ròedla /&#689;&#641;&#600;&#689;d&#622;a/ - red,
`ròedla /&#689;&#641;&#600;&#689;d&#622;a/ - red,
verb-focus
indirect


`ròedù /&#689;&#641;&#600;&#689;du&#689;/ - red,
`ròedù /&#689;&#641;&#600;&#689;du&#689;/ - red,
noun-focus
direct 


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
Line 37: Line 41:


'kiraeypyu /ki&#641;&#603;ip&#690;u/
'kiraeypyu /ki&#641;&#603;ip&#690;u/
- to become scraped, verb-focus
- to become scraped, indirect


'kiraypùe /ki&#641;a;ip&#616;&#689;/
'kiraypùe /ki&#641;a;ip&#616;&#689;/
- to become scraped, noun-focus
- to become scraped, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
 
<h4>Direct Base</h4>
 
This is the "default" form of the verb that is used normally.
 
&nbsp;
 
<h5>Regular Formation</h5>
 
The default way of forming it is by putting
breathy voice on the final vowel of the base, and changing the vowel quality in
the same way as normal e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
éypyii /&#660;ei&#740;p&#690;i&#720;/ -
to spit out, root
 
éypyùey /&#660;ei&#740;p&#690;&#616;i&#689;/
- to spit out, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
This breathy voice “spreads” to the left
until it hits a voiceless obstruent or a prestopped nasal e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
gowpeyee /goupeje&#720;/ - to suffer a
setback, root
 
gowpòeyòoe /goup&#600;&#689;j&#600;&#720;&#689;/
- to suffer a setback, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
inyelee /&#660;i&#626;ele&#720;/ - to
pierce, root
 
ùenyòelòoe /&#660;&#616;&#689;&#626;&#600;&#689;le&#720;/
- to pierce, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
kiveluun /ki&#613;elu&#720;&#628;/ - to
die, root
 
kùevòelùun /k&#616;&#689;&#613;&#600;&#689;lu&#720;&#628;&#689;/
- to die, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
Remember that Antarctican only permits
voiced obstruents, prestopped nasals, and fricatives other than /s/, before vowels
with modal voice. So if this vowel phonation change would produce such a
forbidden sequence, then the consonant changes e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
hlõ /&#620;&#596;/ - to perform, root
 
lào /l&#604;&#689;/ - to perform, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
These changes do not affect phonation
spreading though, as we can see from:
 
&nbsp;
 
madoze /madoze/ - to give birth,
intransitive, root
 
`màotùsòe /&#689;m&#604;&#689;tu&#689;s&#600;&#689;/
- to give birth, intransitive, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
nyiibe /&#626;i&#720;be/ - to snow, root
 
`nyùeypòe /&#689;&#626;&#616;ip&#600;&#689;/ - to
snow, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
san-gize /sa&#628;gize/ - to bleed, root
 
sàonkùesòe /s&#604;&#628;&#689;k&#616;&#689;s&#604;&#689;/
- to bleed, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
When a consonant such as a voiceless
obstruent or prestopped nasal blocks the phonation spreading, if the vowel
preceding it is /&#616;/ or /&#600;/ with modal voice (or a diphthong beginning
with one), then fronts to /i/ or /e/ respectively e.g.


&nbsp;
&nbsp;


<h4>Verb-Focus Base</h4>
yuentorõ /j&#616;&#628;to&#641;&#596;/ -
to introduce oneself, root
 
yintùrào /ji&#628;tu&#689;&#641;&#604;&#689;/
- to introduce oneself, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
imuepu /&#660;im&#616;pu/ - to sit down, root
 
imipù /&#660;imipu&#689;/ - to sit down, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
nuetoze /nitoze/ - to be fed on, root
 
nitùsòe /nitu&#689;s&#600;&#689;/ - to be
fed on, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
poensaa /p&#600;&#628;sa&#720;/ - to be lost
in deep thought, root
 
pensàao /pe&#628;s&#604;&#720;&#689;/ - to
be lost in deep thought, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
If the vowel is /&#603;/, or a diphthong
starting with /&#603;/, before the blocking consonant, then it lowers to /a/
e.g.
 
'kiraeypi /ki&#641;&#603;ipi/ - to
become scraped, root
 
'kiraypùe /ki&#641;aip&#616;&#689;/
- to become scraped, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
<h5>Final Syllable Replacement</h5>
 
In addition to this, some verbs lose their
final syllable, which is replaced with –zi e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
doleegi /dole&#720;gi/ - to drag,
intransitive, root
 
tùlòoezi /tu&#689;l&#600;&#720;&#689;zi/ –
to drag, intransitive, direct (-gùe has been replaced with -zi).
 
&nbsp;
 
bilidli /bilid&#622;i/ - to make it across,
root
 
pùelùezi /p&#616;&#689;l&#616;&#689;zi/ -
to make it across, direct
 
&nbsp;
 
<h4>indirect Base</h4>
 
This is used when the topic of the sentence is an oblique argument of the verb, not a core argument (i.e. not the subject of an intransitive verb or the agent / patient of a transitive verb).


This is used to put focus on the verb ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_(linguistics) ) i.e. when the most important "new" information that is being communicated to the listener is the action being done in the verb, rather than the nouns that are doing it or it is being done to.
How it is formed from the root is regular, but the rules are somewhat complex
How it is formed from the root is regular, but the rules are somewhat complex
and depend on whether the last syllable of the base begins with a soft or hard
and depend on whether the last syllable of the base begins with a soft or hard
Line 62: Line 230:


hli-õ /&#620;i&#660;&#596;/ - to perform,
hli-õ /&#620;i&#660;&#596;/ - to perform,
verb-focus
indirect


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
Line 75: Line 243:


éypyi-eey /&#660;ei&#740;p&#690;i&#660;e&#720;i/
éypyi-eey /&#660;ei&#740;p&#690;i&#660;e&#720;i/
- to spit out, verb-focus
- to spit out, indirect


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
Line 83: Line 251:


inyeli-aa /&#660;i&#626;eli&#660;a&#720;/
inyeli-aa /&#660;i&#626;eli&#660;a&#720;/
- to pierce, verb-focus
- to pierce, indirect


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
Line 91: Line 259:


kiveli-ewn /ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;/ -
kiveli-ewn /ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;/ -
to die, verb-focus
to die, indirect


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
Line 145: Line 313:


yuentolõ /j&#616;&#628;tol&#596;/ - to
yuentolõ /j&#616;&#628;tol&#596;/ - to
introduce oneself, verb-focus
introduce oneself, indirect


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
Line 158: Line 326:


nangaluu /na&#331;alu&#720;/ - to flow,
nangaluu /na&#331;alu&#720;/ - to flow,
verb-focus
indirect


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
Line 166: Line 334:


'kiramyu /&#740;ki&#641;am&#690;u/ - to
'kiramyu /&#740;ki&#641;am&#690;u/ - to
swell up, verb-focus
swell up, indirect


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
Line 174: Line 342:


imuepya /&#660;im&#616;p&#690;a/ - to sit
imuepya /&#660;im&#616;p&#690;a/ - to sit
down, verb-focus
down, indirect


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
Line 236: Line 404:
nuetoze /n&#616;toze/ - to be fed on, root
nuetoze /n&#616;toze/ - to be fed on, root


nitù /nitu&#689;/ - to be fed on, verb-focus
nitù /nitu&#689;/ - to be fed on, indirect




siboete /sib&#600;te/ - to all be present, root
siboete /sib&#600;te/ - to all be present, root


sipáe /sip&#603;&#740;/ - to all be present, verb-focus (remember that Antarctican does not like voiced obstruents before vowels with breathy voice).
sipáe /sip&#603;&#740;/ - to all be present, indirect (remember that Antarctican does not like plain voiced obstruents before vowels with breathy voice).


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
Line 255: Line 423:


`màotù /&#689;m&#604;&#689;tu&#689;/ - to give
`màotù /&#689;m&#604;&#689;tu&#689;/ - to give
birth, intransitive, verb-focus
birth, intransitive, indirect


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
Line 262: Line 430:


`nyùue /&#689;&#626;&#616;&#720;&#689;/ - to snow,
`nyùue /&#689;&#626;&#616;&#720;&#689;/ - to snow,
verb-focus
indirect


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
Line 269: Line 437:


sàon-gùe /s&#604;&#689;&#628;g&#616;&#689;/
sàon-gùe /s&#604;&#689;&#628;g&#616;&#689;/
- to bleed, verb-focus
- to bleed, indirect


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
Line 278: Line 446:
daraeke /da&#641;&#603;ke/ - to cover, root
daraeke /da&#641;&#603;ke/ - to cover, root


tárá /ta&#740;&#641;a&#740;/ - to cover, verb-focus
tárá /ta&#740;&#641;a&#740;/ - to cover, indirect
 
&nbsp;
 
 
<h4>Noun-Focus Base</h4>
 
This is used to put focus on the (non-topicalised)
noun(s) in the sentence.
 
&nbsp;
 
<h5>Regular Formation</h5>
 
The default way of forming it is by putting
breathy voice on the final vowel of the base, and changing the vowel quality in
the same way as normal e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
éypyii /&#660;ei&#660;p&#690;i&#720;/ -
to spit out, root
 
éypyùey /&#660;ei&#740;p&#690;&#616;i&#689;/
- to spit out, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
This breathy voice “spreads” to the left
until it hits a voiceless obstruent or a prestopped nasal e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
gowpeyee /goupeje&#720;/ - to suffer a
setback, root
 
gowpòeyòoe /goup&#600;&#689;j&#600;&#720;&#689;/
- to suffer a setback, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
inyelee /&#660;i&#626;ele&#720;/ - to
pierce, root
 
ùenyòelòoe /&#660;&#616;&#689;&#626;&#600;&#689;le&#720;/
- to pierce, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
kiveluun /ki&#613;elu&#720;&#628;/ - to
die, root
 
kùevòelùun /k&#616;&#689;&#613;&#600;&#689;lu&#720;&#628;&#689;/
- to die, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
Remember that Antarctican only permits
voiced obstruents, prestopped nasals, and fricatives other than /s/, before vowels
with modal voice. So if this vowel phonation change would produce such a
forbidden sequence, then the consonant changes e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
hlõ /&#620;&#596;/ - to perform, root
 
lào /l&#604;&#689;/ - to perform, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
These changes do not affect phonation
spreading though, as we can see from:
 
&nbsp;
 
madoze /madoze/ - to give birth,
intransitive, root
 
`màotùsòe /&#689;m&#604;&#689;tu&#689;s&#600;&#689;/
- to give birth, intransitive, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
nyiibe /&#626;i&#720;be/ - to snow, root
 
`nyùeypòe /&#689;&#626;&#616;ip&#600;&#689;/ - to
snow, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
san-gize /sa&#628;gize/ - to bleed, root
 
sàonkùesòe /s&#604;&#628;&#689;k&#616;&#689;s&#604;&#689;/
- to bleed, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
When a consonant such as a voiceless
obstruent or prestopped nasal blocks the phonation spreading, if the vowel
preceding it is /&#616;/ or /&#600;/ with modal voice (or a diphthong beginning
with one), then fronts to /i/ or /e/ respectively e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
yuentorõ /j&#616;&#628;to&#641;&#596;/ -
to introduce oneself, root
 
yintùrào /ji&#628;tu&#689;&#641;&#604;&#689;/
- to introduce oneself, noun-focus


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
imuepu /&#660;im&#616;pu/ - to sit down, root
imipù /&#660;imipu&#689;/ - to sit down, noun-focus
&nbsp;
nuetoze /nitoze/ - to be fed on, root
nitùsòe /nitu&#689;s&#600;&#689;/ - to be
fed on, noun-focus
&nbsp;
poensaa /p&#600;&#628;sa&#720;/ - to be lost
in deep thought, root
pensàao /pe&#628;s&#604;&#720;&#689;/ - to
be lost in deep thought, noun-focus
&nbsp;
If the vowel is /&#603;/, or a diphthong
starting with /&#603;/, before the blocking consonant, then it lowers to /a/
e.g.
'kiraeypi /ki&#641;&#603;ipi/ - to
become scraped, root
'kiraypùe /ki&#641;aip&#616;&#689;/
- to become scraped, noun-focus
&nbsp;
<h5>Final Syllable Replacement</h5>
In addition to this, some verbs lose their
final syllable, which is replaced with –zi e.g.
&nbsp;
doleegi /dole&#720;gi/ - to drag,
intransitive, root
tùlòoezi /tu&#689;l&#600;&#720;&#689;zi/ –
to drag, intransitive, noun-focus (-gùe has been replaced with -zi).
&nbsp;
bilidli /bilid&#622;i/ - to make it across,
root
pùelùezi /p&#616;&#689;l&#616;&#689;zi/ -
to make it across, noun-focus
&nbsp;
This process happens under well defined
conditions. Both of the last two syllables of the verb root must have modal
voice. Also the final vowel must be a short /i/ and not followed by a nasal
vowel. The consonant immediately before this must be a voiced obstruent. And,
in the proto-language, the verb root must have had pitch-accent on any syllable
other than the final one.
&nbsp;
<h3>Restrictive / Non-Restrictive Modifiers</h3>
When verbs / adjectives are used as modifiers, the verb-focus form is used when the modifier
is non restrictive ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness ), and the
noun-focus form is used when the modifier is restrictive e.g. from the work teyláae
/teil&#603;&#740;&#720;/ - shirt, we can say:
teyláae `ròedla /teil&#603;&#720;&#740; &#689;&#641;&#600;&#689;d&#622;a/ – a red shirt
(non-restrictive)
teyláae `ròedù /teil&#603;&#720;&#740; &#689;&#641;&#600;&#689;du&#689;/ – the red shirt
(restrictive)




Line 592: Line 574:
&nbsp;
&nbsp;


doleeju /dole&#720;&#607;u/ - to drag, intransitive, verb-focus (as in "his pants were dragging along the ground")
doleeju /dole&#720;&#607;u/ - to drag, intransitive, indirect (as in "his pants were dragging along the ground")


dleeju
dleeju
/d&#622;e&#720;&#607;u/ - to drag, transitive, verb-focus (as in "he was dragging his pants along the ground")
/d&#622;e&#720;&#607;u/ - to drag, transitive, indirect (as in "he was dragging his pants along the ground")


&nbsp;
&nbsp;


`tùlòoezi /&#689;tu&#689;l&#600;&#689;&#720;zi/ – to drag, intransitive,
`tùlòoezi /&#689;tu&#689;l&#600;&#689;&#720;zi/ – to drag, intransitive,
noun-focus
direct


`tlòoezi
`tlòoezi
/&#689;t&#620;&#600;&#689;&#720;zi/– to drag, transitive, noun-focus
/&#689;t&#620;&#600;&#689;&#720;zi/– to drag, transitive, direct


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
Line 629: Line 611:
&nbsp;
&nbsp;


The transitive roots are then inflected for focus e.g.
The transitive roots are then inflected for indirect vs. direct e.g.


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
Line 636: Line 618:
/çina&#641;i/ - to twist, intransitive, root
/çina&#641;i/ - to twist, intransitive, root


shinali /çinali/ - to twist, intransitive, verb-focus
shinali /çinali/ - to twist, intransitive, indirect


yùenàorùe
yùenàorùe
/j&#616;&#689;n&#604;&#689;&#641;&#616;&#689;/ - to twist, intransitive,
/j&#616;&#689;n&#604;&#689;&#641;&#616;&#689;/ - to twist, intransitive,
noun-focus
direct


&nbsp;
&nbsp;
Line 648: Line 630:


hali
hali
/&#967;ali/ - to twist, transitive, verb-focus
/&#967;ali/ - to twist, transitive, indirect


ràorùe
ràorùe
/&#641;&#604;&#689;&#641;&#616;&#689;/ - to twist, transitive, noun-focus
/&#641;&#604;&#689;&#641;&#616;&#689;/ - to twist, transitive, direct




Line 702: Line 684:
|-
|-
|Perfective Antipassive
|Perfective Antipassive
|ut / ów(tq)s (see below)
|ut / óws (see below)
|atl
|atl
|-
|-
Line 719: Line 701:




damaehlu /dam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle, verb-focus
damaehlu /dam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle, indirect


dõsamaehlu /d&#596;sam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle you, verb-focus
dõsamaehlu /d&#596;sam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle you, indirect




damaehlu /dam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam, verb-focus
damaehlu /dam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam, indirect


demamaehlu /dem&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam me / us (not including you), verb-focus
demamaehlu /dem&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam me / us (not including you), indirect




Line 733: Line 715:




pyùu /p&#690;u&#720;&#689;/ - to purify, noun-focus
pyùu /p&#690;u&#720;&#689;/ - to purify, direct


pyùemyùu /p&#690;&#616;&#689;mp&#690;u&#720;&#689;/ - to purify me / us (not including you, noun-focus
pyùemyùu /p&#690;&#616;&#689;mp&#690;u&#720;&#689;/ - to purify me / us (not including you, direct


pyòelùu /p&#690;&#600;&#689;lu&#720;&#689;/ - to purify who, noun-focus
pyòelùu /p&#690;&#600;&#689;lu&#720;&#689;/ - to purify who, direct




Line 745: Line 727:




damaehlu /dam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle, verb-focus
damaehlu /dam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle, indirect


daesamaehlu /d&#603;sam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle us (including you), verb-focus
daesamaehlu /d&#603;sam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle us (including you), indirect


deramaehlu /de&#641;am&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle oneself, verb-focus
deramaehlu /de&#641;am&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle oneself, indirect




Line 759: Line 741:


pyùu /p&#690;u&#720;&#689;/ - to purify,
pyùu /p&#690;u&#720;&#689;/ - to purify,
noun-focus
direct


pyolùu /p&#690;&#596;lu&#720;&#689;/ - to purify you, noun-focus
pyolùu /p&#690;&#596;lu&#720;&#689;/ - to purify you, direct


pyelùu /p&#690;elu&#720;&#689;/ - to purify
pyelùu /p&#690;elu&#720;&#689;/ - to purify
ourselves (including you), noun-focus
ourselves (including you), direct




The last example this is distinct
The last example this is distinct
from pyòelùu /p&#690;&#600;&#689;lu&#720;&#689;/ - to purify who,
from pyòelùu /p&#690;&#600;&#689;lu&#720;&#689;/ - to purify who,
noun-focus, which has breathy voice spreading onto the infix.
direct, which has breathy voice spreading onto the infix.


Note that, for the purposes of the syntax, using any of these infixes turns a transitive verb into an intransitive verb. This means that the subject of such an infixed verb can no longer take ergative case e.g.
Note that, for the purposes of the syntax, using any of these infixes turns a transitive verb into an intransitive verb. This means that the subject of such an infixed verb can no longer take ergative case e.g.
Line 777: Line 759:
*yuenpiloy /j&#616;&#628;piloi/ - employee, ergative
*yuenpiloy /j&#616;&#628;piloi/ - employee, ergative
*sõwdla - /s&#596;ud&#622;/ - soldier, absolutive
*sõwdla - /s&#596;ud&#622;/ - soldier, absolutive
*damasùe - /damas#616;&#689;/ - to scam / swindle, noun-focus
*damasùe - /damas&#616;&#689;/ - to scam / swindle, direct




Line 784: Line 766:
| yuenpiloy || damasùe || sõwdla
| yuenpiloy || damasùe || sõwdla
|-
|-
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || damas#616;&#689; || s&#616;ud&#622;
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || damas&#616;&#689; || s&#616;ud&#622;
|-
|-
|- employee-ERG || scam-NFCS || soldier-ABS
|- employee-ERG || scam || soldier-ABS
|}
|}
An employee scammed a soldier
An employee scammed a soldier
Line 798: Line 780:
| yuenpiluy || daesamasùe
| yuenpiluy || daesamasùe
|-
|-
| j&#616;&#628;pilui || d&#603;samas#616;&#689;
| j&#616;&#628;pilui || d&#603;samas&#616;&#689;
|-
|-
| employee-ABS || <1PS.INC.OBJ>scam-NFCS
| employee-ABS || <1PS.INC.OBJ>scam
|}
|}
An employee scammed us (including you)
An employee scammed us (including you)
Line 812: Line 794:
| daesamasùe || yuenpiluy   
| daesamasùe || yuenpiluy   
|-
|-
| d&#603;samas#616;&#689; || j&#616;&#628;pilui
| d&#603;samas&#616;&#689; || j&#616;&#628;pilui
|-
|-
| <1PS.INC.OBJ>scam-NFCS || employee-ABS
| <1PS.INC.OBJ>scam || employee-ABS
|}
|}
An employee scammed us (including you)
An employee scammed us (including you)
Line 833: Line 815:
| duetamasùe || yuenpiluy
| duetamasùe || yuenpiluy
|-
|-
| d&#616;tamas#616;&#689; || j&#616;&#628;pilui
| d&#616;tamas&#616;&#689; || j&#616;&#628;pilui
|-
|-
| <PFV.AP>scam-NFCS || employee-ABS
| <PFV.AP>scam || employee-ABS
|}
|}
An employee scammed / will scam (someone who does not need to be mentioned here).
An employee scammed / will scam (someone who does not need to be mentioned here).




However, remember that alveolar stops (e.g. /t/) can never occur before /i/ and /&#654;/ (with any phonation), nor before tense voice /e&#740;/ and /&#600;&#740;/, nor before diphthongs starting with these. If a verb begins with a hard consonant followed by one of these vowels, a different infix is used, normally -óws- e.g.
However, remember that alveolar stops (e.g. /t/) can never occur before /i/ and /&#616;/ (with any phonation), nor before tense voice /e&#740;/ and /&#600;&#740;/, nor before diphthongs starting with these. If a verb begins with a hard consonant followed by one of these vowels, a different infix is used, normally -óws- e.g.




inyeli-aa /&#660;i&#626;eli&#660;a&#720;/ - to pierce, verb-focus
inyeli-aa /&#660;i&#626;eli&#660;a&#720;/ - to pierce, indirect


ówsinyeli-aa /&#660;ou&#740;si&#626;eli&#660;a&#720;/ - to pierce, verb-focus, perfective antipassive
ówsinyeli-aa /&#660;ou&#740;si&#626;eli&#660;a&#720;/ - to pierce, indirect, perfective antipassive




kiveliqewn /ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;/ - to die, verb-focus
kiveliqewn /ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;/ - to die, indirect


kówsiveli-ewn /kou&#740;si&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;/ - to die, verb-focus, perfective antipassive
kówsiveli-ewn /kou&#740;si&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;/ - to die, indirect, perfective antipassive




However, if the first vowel of the verb root had tense voice, the ejective -tqs- is used instead e.g.
'kátla /&#740;ka&#740;t&#620;a/ - to make someone's acquaintance, indirect


'kówsátla /&#740;kou&#740;sa&#740;t&#620;a/ - to make someone's acquaintance, indirect, perfective antipassive


'kátla /&#740;ka&#740;t&#620;a/ - to make someone's acquaintance, verb focus


'kówtqsátla /&#740;kou&#740;ts&#700;a&#740;t&#620;a/ - to make someone's acquaintance, verb-focus, perfective antipassive
éypyi-eey /&#660;ei&#740;p&#690;i&#660;e&#720;i/ - to spit out, indirect


 
ówséypyi-eey /&#660;ou&#740;sei&#740;p&#690;i&#660;e&#720;i/ - to spit out, indirect, perfective antipassive
éypyi-eey /&#660;ei&#740;p&#690;i&#660;e&#720;i/ - to spit out, verb-focus
 
ówtqséypyi-eey /&#660;ou&#740;ts&#700;ei&#740;p&#690;i&#660;e&#720;i/ - to spit out, verb-focus, perfective antipassive




Line 875: Line 854:
| damamasùe || yuenpiluy
| damamasùe || yuenpiluy
|-
|-
| damamas#616;&#689; || j&#616;&#628;pilui
| damamas&#616;&#689; || j&#616;&#628;pilui
|-
|-
| <IMPV.AP>scam-NFCS || employee-ABS
| <IMPV.AP>scam || employee-ABS
|}
|}
An employee is / was / will be scamming (someone who does not need to be mentioned here).
An employee is / was / will be scamming (someone who does not need to be mentioned here).
Line 887: Line 866:




*wonnye /wo&#628;&#626;e/ - to want (something), verb-focus
*`wùnnào /&#689;wu&#689;&#628;n&#604;&#689;/ - to want (something)
*'wátonnye /&#740;wa&#740;to&#628;&#626;e/ - to want (to do something / something to happen), verb-focus
*'wátùnnào /&#740;wa&#740;tu&#689;&#628;n&#604;&#689;/ - to want (to do something / something to happen)




*chi-iin /ci&#660;i&#720;&#628;/ - to fear (something), verb-focus
*chùun /cu&#720;&#740;&#628;/ - to fear (something)
*cháetli-iin /c&#603;&#740;t&#620;i&#660;i&#720;&#628;/ - to fear (that something will happen), verb-focus
*'cháetlùun /&#740;c&#603;&#740;t&#620;u&#720;&#689;&#628;/ - to fear (that something will happen)




Line 911: Line 890:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| yuenpiloy || wonnye || tõn
| yuenpiloy || `wùnnào || tõn
|-
|-
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || wo&#628;&#626;e || t&#596;&#628;
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || &#689;wu&#689;&#628;n&#604;&#689; || t&#596;&#628;
|-
|-
| employee-ERG || want-VFCS || change-ABS
| employee-ERG || want || change-ABS
|}
|}
An employee wants change.
An employee wants change.
Line 922: Line 901:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| yuenpiluy || 'wátonnye || sõwdla || damasùe
| yuenpiluy || 'wátùnnào || sõwdla || damasùe
|-
|-
| j&#616;&#628;pilui || &#740;wa&#740;to&#628;&#626;e || s&#596;ud&#622;a || damas&#616;&#689;
| j&#616;&#628;pilui || &#740;wa&#740;tu&#689;&#628;n&#604;&#689; || s&#596;ud&#622;a || damas&#616;&#689;
|-
|-
| employee-ABS || <SPR>want-VFCS || soldier-ABS || scam-NFCS
| employee-ABS || <SPR>want || soldier-ABS || scam
|}
|}
An employee wants to scam a soldier.
An employee wants to scam a soldier.
Line 934: Line 913:




wátonnye yuenpiloy sowdla damasùe
'wátùnnào yuenpiloy sowdla damasùe


yuenpiloy wátonnye damasùe sõwdla
yuenpiloy 'wátùnnào damasùe sõwdla


wátonnye yuenpiloy damasùe sõwdla
'wátùnnào yuenpiloy damasùe sõwdla




Line 945: Line 924:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| yuenpiloy || chi-iin || sõwdla
| yuenpiloy || chùun || sõwdla
|-
|-
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || ci&#660;i&#720;&#628; || s&#596;ud&#622;a
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || cu&#720;&#740;&#628; || s&#596;ud&#622;a
|-
|-
| employee-ERG || fear-VFCS || soldier-ABS
| employee-ERG || fear || soldier-ABS
|}
|}
The employee fears the soldier
The employee fears the soldier
Line 955: Line 934:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| yuenpiloy || 'cháetli-iin || sõwdla || damasùe  
| yuenpiloy || 'cháetlùun || sõwdla || damasùe  
|-
|-
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || &#740;c&#603;t&#620;i&#660;i&#720;&#628; || s&#596;ud&#622;a || damas&#616;&#689;
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || &#740;c&#603;&#740;t&#620;u&#720;&#689;&#628; || s&#596;ud&#622;a || damas&#616;&#689;
|-
|-
| employee-ERG || <SPR>fear-VFCS || soldier-ABS || scam-NFCS
| employee-ERG || <SPR>fear || soldier-ABS || scam
|}
|}
The employee fears he will scam / has scammed the soldier.
The employee fears he will scam / has scammed the soldier.
Line 970: Line 949:
| yuenpiloy || 'cháetliqiin || sõwdlan || damasùe  
| yuenpiloy || 'cháetliqiin || sõwdlan || damasùe  
|-
|-
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || &#740;c&#603;t&#620;i&#660;i&#720;&#628; || s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || damas&#616;&#689;
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || &#740;c&#603;&#740;t&#620;u&#720;&#689;&#628; || s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || damas&#616;&#689;
|-
|-
| employee-ERG || <SPR>fear-VFCS || soldier-ERG || scam-NFCS
| employee-ERG || <SPR>fear || soldier-ERG || scam
|}
|}
The employee fears the soldier will scam / has scammed him.
The employee fears the soldier will scam / has scammed him.
Line 985: Line 964:




wonnye /wo&#628;&#626;e/ - to want, verb focus
wonnye /wo&#628;&#626;e/ - to want, indirect


wowonnye /wowo&#628;&#626;e/ - to want each other, verb focus
wowonnye /wowo&#628;&#626;e/ - to want each other, indirect




darakòe /da&#641;ak&#600;&#689;/ - to cover, noun-focus
darakòe /da&#641;ak&#600;&#689;/ - to cover, direct


dadarakòe /dada&#641;ak&#600;&#689;/ - to cover each other, noun-focus
dadarakòe /dada&#641;ak&#600;&#689;/ - to cover each other, direct




shuetinju /&#231;&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count, verb focus
shuetinju /&#231;&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count, indirect


shueshuetinju /&#231;&#616;&#231;&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count each other, verb focus
shueshuetinju /&#231;&#616;&#231;&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count each other, indirect




Line 1,003: Line 982:




ziitlàoji /zi&#720;t&#620;&#604;&#689;&#607;i/ - to know (a person), verb-focus
ziitlàoji /zi&#720;t&#620;&#604;&#689;&#607;i/ - to know (a person), indirect


ziziitlàoji /zizi&#720;t&#620;&#604;&#689;&#607;i/ - to know each other, verb-focus
ziziitlàoji /zizi&#720;t&#620;&#604;&#689;&#607;i/ - to know each other, indirect




yinwùumùe /ji&#628;wu&#720;&#689;m&#616;/ - to turn in, noun-focus
yinwùumùe /ji&#628;wu&#720;&#689;m&#616;/ - to turn in, direct


yiyinwùumùe /jiji&#628;wu&#720;&#689;m&#616;/ - to turn each other in, noun-focus
yiyinwùumùe /jiji&#628;wu&#720;&#689;m&#616;/ - to turn each other in, direct




kaaeykyu /k&#603;&#720;i&k#690;u/ - to sell, verb-focus
kaaeykyu /k&#603;&#720;i&k#690;u/ - to sell, indirect


kaekaaeykyu /k&#603;k&#603;&#720;ik&#690;u/ - to sell each other, verb-focus
kaekaaeykyu /k&#603;k&#603;&#720;ik&#690;u/ - to sell each other, indirect




Line 1,021: Line 1,000:




'kátla /&#740;ka&#740;t&#620;a/ - to make someone's acquaintance, verb focus
'kátla /&#740;ka&#740;t&#620;a/ - to make someone's acquaintance, indirect


'kákátla /&#740;ka&#740;ka&#740;t&#620;a/ - to make each other's acquaintance, verb focus
'kákátla /&#740;ka&#740;ka&#740;t&#620;a/ - to make each other's acquaintance, indirect




Line 1,029: Line 1,008:




'kamyu /&#740;kam&#690;u/ - to inflate (someone's ego), verb-focus
'kamyu /&#740;kam&#690;u/ - to inflate (someone's ego), indirect


'kákamyu /&#740;ka&#740;kam&#690;u/ - to inflate each other('s ego), verb-focus
'kákamyu /&#740;ka&#740;kam&#690;u/ - to inflate each other('s ego), indirect




'kaypùe /&#740;kaip&#616;&#689;/ - to scrape, noun-focus
'kaypùe /&#740;kaip&#616;&#689;/ - to scrape, direct


'kákaypùe /&#740;ka&#740;kaip&#616;&#689;/ - to scrape each other, noun-focus
'kákaypùe /&#740;ka&#740;kaip&#616;&#689;/ - to scrape each other, direct




Line 1,042: Line 1,021:




'puytlù /&#740;puit&#620;u&#689;/ - to pick a fight, noun-focus
'puytlù /&#740;puit&#620;u&#689;/ - to pick a fight, direct


'póyputlu /&#740;poi&#740;puit&#620;u&#689;/ - to pick a fight with each other, noun-focus
'póyputlu /&#740;poi&#740;puit&#620;u&#689;/ - to pick a fight with each other, direct




Line 1,050: Line 1,029:




hali /&#967;ali/ - to twist, transitive, verb-focus
hali /&#967;ali/ - to twist, transitive, indirect


haehali /&#967;&#603;&#967;ali/ - to twist, transitive, verb-focus
haehali /&#967;&#603;&#967;ali/ - to twist, transitive, indirect




Line 1,058: Line 1,037:




ràorùe /&#641;&#604;&#689;&#641;&#616;&#689;/ - to twist, transitive, noun-focus
ràorùe /&#641;&#604;&#689;&#641;&#616;&#689;/ - to twist, transitive, direct


haràorùe /&#967;a&#641;&#604;&#689;&#641;&#616;&#689;/ - to twist each other, transitive, noun-focus
haràorùe /&#967;a&#641;&#604;&#689;&#641;&#616;&#689;/ - to twist each other, transitive, direct




Line 1,071: Line 1,050:




wòenzi /w&#600;&#628;&#689;/ - to befriend, noun-focus
wòenzi /w&#600;&#628;&#689;/ - to befriend, direct


fiwòenzi /fiw&#600;&#628;&#689;/ - to befriend each other, noun-focus
fiwòenzi /fiw&#600;&#628;&#689;/ - to befriend each other, direct




Line 1,094: Line 1,073:
| 2PS || nyin || ya || yu
| 2PS || nyin || ya || yu
|-
|-
| 3PS || day || de || daw
| 3PS || zay || ze || zaw
|-
|-
| Who / What || wu || hew || ri
| Who / What || wu || hew || ri
Line 1,108: Line 1,087:




chisàon-gùe /cis&#604;&#689;&#628;g&#616;&#689;/ you bleed, verb-focus
chisàon-gùe /cis&#604;&#689;&#628;g&#616;&#689;/ you bleed, indirect


chiisàon-gùe /ci&#720;s&#604;&#689;&#628;g&#616;&#689;/ you (emphatic) bleed, verb-focus
chiisàon-gùe /ci&#720;s&#604;&#689;&#628;g&#616;&#689;/ you (emphatic) bleed, indirect




However, the emphatic forms cannot be used with noun-focus forms, so while chisàonkùesòe /cis&#604;&#628;&#689;k&#616;&#689;s&#604;&#689;/ - to bleed, noun-focus is grammatical, chiisàonkùesòe /ci&#720;s&#604;&#628;&#689;k&#616;&#689;s&#604;&#689;/ would not be.
This lengthening can also be used on infixes marking objects e.g.
 


This lengthening can also be used on infixes marking objects e.g.


pyõhli-uu /p&#690;&#596;&#620;i&#660;u&#720;/ - purify you, indirect


pyõhli-uu /p&#690;&#596;&#620;i&#660;u&#720;/ - purify you, verb focus
pyõohli-uu /p&#690;&#596;&#720;&#620;i&#660;u&#720;/ - purify you (emphatic), indirect


pyõohli-uu /p&#690;&#596;&#720;&#620;i&#660;u&#720;/ - purify you (emphatic), verb focus
<!-- Categories -->
[[Category:Antarctican]]

Latest revision as of 05:15, 22 August 2013

In the Antarctican language, there are no adjectives. Instead of adjectives meaning "red", "old" or "tall", there are verbs meaning "to be red", "to be old", "to be tall" etc. So instead of saying "the tall tree", you would say "the tree that is tall".

These verbs are clearly marked for transitivity (e.g. a different verb is used in the sentence "The door opened" compared to the sentence "I opened the door".They also take infixes to indicate pronominal objects and voice changes (which is conflated with aspect marking). As well as this, they take prefixes to indicate pronominal subjects (which is conflated with tense marking).

Direct and Indirect Verbs

Verbs have a root form, which in itself is only used in compounds. However from this various other base forms are derived which can stand alone in speech. The two most important of these base forms are the direct base and the indirect base.


The direct base is used when the topic of the sentence is a core argument of the verb (subject of an intransitive verb, agent or patient of a transitive verb). The indirect base is used when the topic of a sentence is an oblique argument.


Below is a list of verb roots with their corresponding indirect and direct bases:

 

doleegi /doleːgi/ - to drag, intransitive, root

doleeju /doleːɟu/ - to drag, intransitive, indirect

`tùlòoezi /ʱtuʱlɘʱːzi/ – to drag, intransitive, direct

 

`ròedu /ʱʁɘdu/ - red, root

`ròedla /ʱʁɘʱdɮa/ - red, indirect

`ròedù /ʱʁɘʱduʱ/ - red, direct

 

'kiraeypyi /kiʁɛipʲi/ - to become scraped, root

'kiraeypyu /kiʁɛipʲu/ - to become scraped, indirect

'kiraypùe /kiʁa;ipɨʱ/ - to become scraped, direct

 


Direct Base

This is the "default" form of the verb that is used normally.

 

Regular Formation

The default way of forming it is by putting breathy voice on the final vowel of the base, and changing the vowel quality in the same way as normal e.g.

 

éypyii /ʔeiˤpʲiː/ - to spit out, root

éypyùey /ʔeiˤpʲɨiʱ/ - to spit out, direct

 

This breathy voice “spreads” to the left until it hits a voiceless obstruent or a prestopped nasal e.g.

 

gowpeyee /goupejeː/ - to suffer a setback, root

gowpòeyòoe /goupɘʱjɘːʱ/ - to suffer a setback, direct

 

inyelee /ʔiɲeleː/ - to pierce, root

ùenyòelòoe /ʔɨʱɲɘʱleː/ - to pierce, direct

 

kiveluun /kiɥeluːɴ/ - to die, root

kùevòelùun /kɨʱɥɘʱluːɴʱ/ - to die, direct

 

Remember that Antarctican only permits voiced obstruents, prestopped nasals, and fricatives other than /s/, before vowels with modal voice. So if this vowel phonation change would produce such a forbidden sequence, then the consonant changes e.g.

 

hlõ /ɬɔ/ - to perform, root

lào /lɜʱ/ - to perform, direct

 

These changes do not affect phonation spreading though, as we can see from:

 

madoze /madoze/ - to give birth, intransitive, root

`màotùsòe /ʱmɜʱtuʱsɘʱ/ - to give birth, intransitive, direct

 

nyiibe /ɲiːbe/ - to snow, root

`nyùeypòe /ʱɲɨipɘʱ/ - to snow, direct

 

san-gize /saɴgize/ - to bleed, root

sàonkùesòe /sɜɴʱkɨʱsɜʱ/ - to bleed, direct

 

When a consonant such as a voiceless obstruent or prestopped nasal blocks the phonation spreading, if the vowel preceding it is /ɨ/ or /ɘ/ with modal voice (or a diphthong beginning with one), then fronts to /i/ or /e/ respectively e.g.

 

yuentorõ /jɨɴtoʁɔ/ - to introduce oneself, root

yintùrào /jiɴtuʱʁɜʱ/ - to introduce oneself, direct

 

imuepu /ʔimɨpu/ - to sit down, root

imipù /ʔimipuʱ/ - to sit down, direct

 

nuetoze /nitoze/ - to be fed on, root

nitùsòe /nituʱsɘʱ/ - to be fed on, direct

 

poensaa /pɘɴsaː/ - to be lost in deep thought, root

pensàao /peɴsɜːʱ/ - to be lost in deep thought, direct

 

If the vowel is /ɛ/, or a diphthong starting with /ɛ/, before the blocking consonant, then it lowers to /a/ e.g.

'kiraeypi /kiʁɛipi/ - to become scraped, root

'kiraypùe /kiʁaipɨʱ/ - to become scraped, direct

 

Final Syllable Replacement

In addition to this, some verbs lose their final syllable, which is replaced with –zi e.g.

 

doleegi /doleːgi/ - to drag, intransitive, root

tùlòoezi /tuʱlɘːʱzi/ – to drag, intransitive, direct (-gùe has been replaced with -zi).

 

bilidli /bilidɮi/ - to make it across, root

pùelùezi /pɨʱlɨʱzi/ - to make it across, direct

 

indirect Base

This is used when the topic of the sentence is an oblique argument of the verb, not a core argument (i.e. not the subject of an intransitive verb or the agent / patient of a transitive verb).

How it is formed from the root is regular, but the rules are somewhat complex and depend on whether the last syllable of the base begins with a soft or hard consonant:

Final Consonant is Soft

If the final consonant (not including any placeless nasal /ɴ/) is soft, infix -iq-/iʔ/ immediately after it e.g.

 

hlõ /ɬɔ/ - to perform, root

hli-õ /ɬiʔɔ/ - to perform, indirect

 

However, many vowels shift when this happens e.g.

 

éypyii /ʔeiˤpʲiː/ - to spit out, root

éypyi-eey /ʔeiˤpʲiʔeːi/ - to spit out, indirect

 

inyelee /ʔiɲeleː/ - to pierce, root

inyeli-aa /ʔiɲeliʔaː/ - to pierce, indirect

 

kiveluun /kiɥeluːɴ/ - to die, root

kiveli-ewn /kiɥeliʔeuɴ/ - to die, indirect

 

These vowel shifts are all in a roughly anti-clockwise directions around the vowel space. The shifts are listed below:

i /i/ -> e /e/

ii /iː/ -> ey /ei/

e /e/ -> a /a/

ee /eː/ -> aa /aː/

a /a/ -> u /u/

aa /aː/ -> uu /uː/

u /u/ -> i /i/

uu /uː/ -> ew /eu/

ey /ei/ -> ay /ai/

eey /eːi/ -> aay /aːi/

ay /ai/ -> uy /ui/

aay /aːi/ -> uuy /uːi/

uy /ui/ -> ii /iː/

ew /eu/ -> aw /au/

eew /eːu/ -> aaw /aːu/

aw /au/ -> ow /ou/

aaw /aːu/ -> oow /oːu/

 

Final Consonant is Hard

If the final consonant (not including any placeless nasal /ɴ/) is hard, change it to be soft e.g.

 

yuentorõ /jɨɴtoʁɔ/ - to introduce oneself, root

yuentolõ /jɨɴtolɔ/ - to introduce oneself, indirect

 

However, many vowels shift when this happens e.g.

 

nangarew /naŋaʁeu/ - to flow, root

nangaluu /naŋaluː/ - to flow, indirect

 

'kirami /ˤkiʁami/ - to swell up, root

'kiramyu /ˤkiʁamʲu/ - to swell up, indirect

 

imuepu /ʔimɨpu/ - to sit down, root

imuepya /ʔimɨpʲa/ - to sit down, indirect

 

These vowel changes are often the reverse of what happens if the final vowel of the stem is a soft consonant. The vowel shifts are all roughly clockwise around the vowel space, and are listed below:

i /i/ -> u /u/

u /u/ -> a /a/

uu /uː/ -> aa /aː/

a /a/ -> e /e/

aa /aː/ -> ee /eː/

e /e/ -> i /i/ * For some words only, see below.

ee /eː/ -> ii /iː/

ii /iː/ -> uy /ui/

uy /ui/ -> ay /ai/

uuy /uːi/ -> aay /aːi/

ay /ai/ -> ey /ei/

aay /aːi/ -> eey /eːi/

ey /ei/ -> ii /iː/

eey /eːi/ -> ii /iː/

ow /ou/ -> aw /au/

oow /oːu/ -> aaw /aːu/

aw /au/ -> ew /eu/

aaw /aːu/ -> eew /eːu/

ew /eu/ -> uu /uː/

eew /eːu/ -> uu /uː/

 

Vowel Phonation Changes

A few verb stems that end in a hard consonant and e /e/ behave differently. If the consonant is an obstruent and the vowel is short, has modal voice and not followed by -n /ɴ/, then the syllable is deleted and voice put onto the preceding syllable(s). This voice is breathy if the deleted obstruent was voiced, and tense if it was voiceless e.g.

 

nuetoze /nɨtoze/ - to be fed on, root

nitù /nituʱ/ - to be fed on, indirect


siboete /sibɘte/ - to all be present, root

sipáe /sipɛˤ/ - to all be present, indirect (remember that Antarctican does not like plain voiced obstruents before vowels with breathy voice).

 

The breathy voice “spreads” backwards through the word, changing vowel phonation with it, until it hits a voiceless obstruent or prestopped nasal e.g.

 

madoze /madoze/ - to give birth, intransitive, root

`màotù /ʱmɜʱtuʱ/ - to give birth, intransitive, indirect

 

nyiibe /ɲiːbe/ - to snow, root

`nyùue /ʱɲɨːʱ/ - to snow, indirect

 

san-gize /saɴgize/ - to bleed, root

sàon-gùe /sɜʱɴgɨʱ/ - to bleed, indirect

 

Tense voice "spreads" backwards in a similar way, except that it passes through voiceless stops and not through voiced stops, fricatives, or prestopped nasals e.g.


daraeke /daʁɛke/ - to cover, root

tárá /taˤʁaˤ/ - to cover, indirect

 


Verbalisation

Antarctican has a very productive process for to convert a noun N into an intransitive verb root meaning “to become N” / “to be N / to do what N does”. How this is done depends on the voicing of the last vowel of the absolutive form of the noun

 

Last Vowel of Abs. Form has Modal Voice

In this case, the verb root is identical to the absolutive form e.g.

 

zive /ziɥe/ - boat, absolutive

zive /ziɥe/ - to be a boat, verb root

 

buraza /buʁaza/ - brother, absolutive

buraza /buʁaza/ - to be a brother, verb root

 

yuenpiluy - /jɨɴpilui/ - employee, absolutive

yuenpiluy - /jɨɴpilui/ - employee, verb root

 

Other Cases

However, if the final vowel of the absolutive form has tense or breathy voice, the verb stem is formed from the ergative form of the noun, minus any final –n e.g.

 

ùylòen /ʔuiʱlɜɴʱ/ - island, absolutive

oylendun /ʔoileɴdun/ - island, ergative

oylendu /ʔoileɴdu/ - to be an island, verb root

 

péy /peiˤ/ - book, absolutive

péykin /peiˤkiɴ/ - book, ergative

péyki /peiˤki/ - to be a book, verb root

 

támá /taˤmaˤ/ - victim of a scam / swindle, absolutive

damaesin /damɛsiɴ/ - victim of a scam / swindle, ergative

damaesi /damɛsi/ - to be a victim of a scam / swindle, verb root

 

màao /mɜʱː/ - betel nut, absolutive

pmaagin /pmaːgiɴ/ - betel nut, ergative

pmaagi /pmaːgi/ - to be a betel nut, verb stem

 

`pùelùe /ʱpɨʱlɨʱ/ - bridge, absolutive

bilidlin /bilidɮiɴ/ - bridge, ergative

bilidli /bilidɮi/ - to be bridge / to make it across, verb stem

 

`pàoy /ʱpɜiʱ/ - baby, absolutive

baybyin /baibʲiɴ/ - baby, ergative

baybyi /baibʲi/ - to be a baby, verb stem

 

pàoy /pɜiʱ/ - page, absolutive

paydlin /paidɮiɴ/ - page, ergative

paydli /paidɮi/ - to be a page, verb stem

Transitivity

 

Whether a verb is transitive or intransitive Transitivity[*] is very important in Antarctican syntax. Unlike English, where a verb such as "drag" can either be used transitively (as in the sentence "He was dragging his pants along the ground"), or intransitively (as in the sentence "His pants were dragging along the ground"), Antarctican uses distinct verb roots for each case e.g.

 

doleeju /doleːɟu/ - to drag, intransitive, indirect (as in "his pants were dragging along the ground")

dleeju /dɮeːɟu/ - to drag, transitive, indirect (as in "he was dragging his pants along the ground")

 

`tùlòoezi /ʱtuʱlɘʱːzi/ – to drag, intransitive, direct

`tlòoezi /ʱtɬɘʱːzi/– to drag, transitive, direct

 

Very commonly, transitive roots are formed from intransitive roots by deletion of the first vowel and the second consonant. And if, out of the first and second consonants, one was soft and the other hard, the first consonant is changed to agree in hardness / softness with the second (deleted) consonant e.g.

 

doleegi /doleːgi/ - to drag, intransitive, root

dleegi /dɮeːgi/ - to drag, intransitive, root

 

shinari /çinaʁi/ - to twist, intransitive, root

hari /χaʁi/ - to twist, transitive, root

 

The transitive roots are then inflected for indirect vs. direct e.g.

 

shinari /çinaʁi/ - to twist, intransitive, root

shinali /çinali/ - to twist, intransitive, indirect

yùenàorùe /jɨʱnɜʱʁɨʱ/ - to twist, intransitive, direct

 

hari /χaʁi/ - to twist, transitive, root

hali /χali/ - to twist, transitive, indirect

ràorùe /ʁɜʱʁɨʱ/ - to twist, transitive, direct


Voice and Object Marking

Grammatical voice is very important in Antarctican. It is conflated with pronominal object marking, both only affecting transitive verbs and usually using infixes that come immediately after the first consonant of the verb base. As with elsewhere in the language, these are not differentiated for number, although there is an inclusive and exclusive “us”.

Infixation

This is the default way of marking pronominal objects and grammatical voice. In each case there are two forms of the infix, one that contains a hard consonant that is used with verbs beginning with hard consonants, and another that contains a soft consonant that is used with verbs beginning with soft consonants. Note that there is no infix to mark 3rd person objects. Instead the antipassive voice is used. The infixes are listed below in pairs, with the hard version coming first and then the soft version.

Infixes for Voice and Object Pronouns
Hard Form Soft Form
1PS Exclusive em imy
1PS Inclusive as ehl
2PS õs õhl
who ar el
what ab eby
Reflexive er il
Perfective Antipassive ut / óws (see below) atl
Imperfective Antipassive am emy
Superordinate át(q) áet(q)l


These come immediately after the first consonant of the verb base e.g.


damaehlu /damɛɬu/ - to scam / swindle, indirect

dõsamaehlu /dɔsamɛɬu/ - to scam / swindle you, indirect


damaehlu /damɛɬu/ - to scam, indirect

demamaehlu /demɛɬu/ - to scam me / us (not including you), indirect


All of the usual rules about phonation spreading apply e.g.


pyùu /pʲuːʱ/ - to purify, direct

pyùemyùu /pʲɨʱmpʲuːʱ/ - to purify me / us (not including you, direct

pyòelùu /pʲɘʱluːʱ/ - to purify who, direct


The infixes with non-back vowels and voiceless consonants also undergo vowel mutation if the following vowel has modal voice. This is the exact same as has been described before for noun and verb prefixes e.g.


damaehlu /damɛɬu/ - to scam / swindle, indirect

daesamaehlu /dɛsamɛɬu/ - to scam / swindle us (including you), indirect

deramaehlu /deʁamɛɬu/ - to scam / swindle oneself, indirect


If the first vowel of the verb base has breathy or tense voice, and the infix inserted would contain /ɬ/ (which can only occur before modal voice vowels), then it becomes /l/ and /tɬ/ respectively. However it still blocks the spread of the voicing e.g.


pyùu /pʲuːʱ/ - to purify, direct

pyolùu /pʲɔluːʱ/ - to purify you, direct

pyelùu /pʲeluːʱ/ - to purify ourselves (including you), direct


The last example this is distinct from pyòelùu /pʲɘʱluːʱ/ - to purify who, direct, which has breathy voice spreading onto the infix.

Note that, for the purposes of the syntax, using any of these infixes turns a transitive verb into an intransitive verb. This means that the subject of such an infixed verb can no longer take ergative case e.g.


  • yuenpiluy - /jɨɴpilui/ - employee, absolutive
  • yuenpiloy /jɨɴpiloi/ - employee, ergative
  • sõwdla - /sɔudɮ/ - soldier, absolutive
  • damasùe - /damasɨʱ/ - to scam / swindle, direct


yuenpiloy damasùe sõwdla
jɨɴpiloi damasɨʱ sɨudɮ

An employee scammed a soldier


Above, we can see that the word for "employee" is in the ergative case, and must come before the verb. However, when the object is a pronoun, the word for "employee" must take the absolutive case e.g.


yuenpiluy daesamasùe
jɨɴpilui dɛsamasɨʱ
employee-ABS <1PS.INC.OBJ>scam

An employee scammed us (including you)


Antarctican also permits the subjects of intransitive verbs to come after the verb, so the following sentence is also grammatical (and perhaps more common):


daesamasùe yuenpiluy
dɛsamasɨʱ jɨɴpilui
<1PS.INC.OBJ>scam employee-ABS

An employee scammed us (including you)


Antipassive Voice


Antarctican has extremely productive antipassivisation (Antipassive_voice[*]). There are two infixes, which depend on whether the verb has perfective or imperfective aspect.


Perfective Antipassive

This is used for when the action described by the verb is not viewed as having any internal structure (Perfective_aspect[*]). It can be used for past, present or future actions e.g.

duetamasùe yuenpiluy
dɨtamasɨʱ jɨɴpilui
<PFV.AP>scam employee-ABS

An employee scammed / will scam (someone who does not need to be mentioned here).


However, remember that alveolar stops (e.g. /t/) can never occur before /i/ and /ɨ/ (with any phonation), nor before tense voice /eˤ/ and /ɘˤ/, nor before diphthongs starting with these. If a verb begins with a hard consonant followed by one of these vowels, a different infix is used, normally -óws- e.g.


inyeli-aa /ʔiɲeliʔaː/ - to pierce, indirect

ówsinyeli-aa /ʔouˤsiɲeliʔaː/ - to pierce, indirect, perfective antipassive


kiveliqewn /kiɥeliʔeuɴ/ - to die, indirect

kówsiveli-ewn /kouˤsiɥeliʔeuɴ/ - to die, indirect, perfective antipassive


'kátla /ˤkaˤtɬa/ - to make someone's acquaintance, indirect

'kówsátla /ˤkouˤsaˤtɬa/ - to make someone's acquaintance, indirect, perfective antipassive


éypyi-eey /ʔeiˤpʲiʔeːi/ - to spit out, indirect

ówséypyi-eey /ʔouˤseiˤpʲiʔeːi/ - to spit out, indirect, perfective antipassive


Imperfective Antipassive

This is used for ongoing, habitual and repeated action (Imperfective_aspect[*]).


damamasùe yuenpiluy
damamasɨʱ jɨɴpilui
<IMPV.AP>scam employee-ABS

An employee is / was / will be scamming (someone who does not need to be mentioned here).


Superordinate Voice

Like the antipassive, this also reduces a transitive verb's valency (the number of arguments it has, see here http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valency_(linguistics)) by one, and requires that its subject take the absolutive case. However, it requires some other verb to come afterwards to be subordinate to it e.g.


  • `wùnnào /ʱwuʱɴnɜʱ/ - to want (something)
  • 'wátùnnào /ˤwaˤtuʱɴnɜʱ/ - to want (to do something / something to happen)


  • chùun /cuːˤɴ/ - to fear (something)
  • 'cháetlùun /ˤcɛˤtɬuːʱɴ/ - to fear (that something will happen)


So using the nouns below:

  • yuenpiluy - /jɨɴpilui/ - employee, absolutive
  • yuenpiloy /jɨɴpiloi/ - employee, ergative
  • sõwdla - /sɔudɮ/ - soldier, absolutive
  • sõwdlan - /sɔudɮɴ/ - soldier, ergative
  • nayba /naiba/ - neighbour, absolutive
  • nayban /naibaɴ/ - neighbour, ergative
  • tõn /tɔɴ/ - change (as in coins, money), absolutive
  • tãn /tɒɴ/ - change, ergative


We can say:

yuenpiloy `wùnnào tõn
jɨɴpiloi ʱwuʱɴnɜʱ tɔɴ
employee-ERG want change-ABS

An employee wants change.


yuenpiluy 'wátùnnào sõwdla damasùe
jɨɴpilui ˤwaˤtuʱɴnɜʱ sɔudɮa damasɨʱ
employee-ABS <SPR>want soldier-ABS scam

An employee wants to scam a soldier.


Note that in the second sentence, the case for the word "employee" has changed from ergative to absolutive. And since Antarctican allows nouns in the absolutive case to also come after the verb, the following sentences would also be grammatical, and all mean roughly the same thing:


'wátùnnào yuenpiloy sowdla damasùe

yuenpiloy 'wátùnnào damasùe sõwdla

'wátùnnào yuenpiloy damasùe sõwdla


Similarly, using the verb meaning "to fear", we can say:

yuenpiloy chùun sõwdla
jɨɴpiloi cuːˤɴ sɔudɮa
employee-ERG fear soldier-ABS

The employee fears the soldier

yuenpiloy 'cháetlùun sõwdla damasùe
jɨɴpiloi ˤcɛˤtɬuːʱɴ sɔudɮa damasɨʱ
employee-ERG <SPR>fear soldier-ABS scam

The employee fears he will scam / has scammed the soldier.


The words in this sentence can be ordered in the same fashion as before.

yuenpiloy 'cháetliqiin sõwdlan damasùe
jɨɴpiloi ˤcɛˤtɬuːʱɴ sɔudɮaɴ damasɨʱ
employee-ERG <SPR>fear soldier-ERG scam

The employee fears the soldier will scam / has scammed him.


Here, while the word for "employee" can come after the verb meaning "to fear", the word for "soldier", cannot, since it takes the ergative case (as it is the subject of the transitive verb damasù meaning "to scam").


Reciprocal Voice

One other voice that needs to be mentioned here is the reciprocal voice. This carries to meaning of "to do to each other / one another". It is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the verb base e.g.


wonnye /woɴɲe/ - to want, indirect

wowonnye /wowoɴɲe/ - to want each other, indirect


darakòe /daʁakɘʱ/ - to cover, direct

dadarakòe /dadaʁakɘʱ/ - to cover each other, direct


shuetinju /çɨtiɴɟu/ - to count, indirect

shueshuetinju /çɨçɨtiɴɟu/ - to count each other, indirect


However, the reduplicated syllable cannot contain a long vowel, a diphthong, or the placeless nasal /ɴ/. If the first syllable of the verb base contains any of these, then it is truncated e.g.


ziitlàoji /ziːtɬɜʱɟi/ - to know (a person), indirect

ziziitlàoji /ziziːtɬɜʱɟi/ - to know each other, indirect


yinwùumùe /jiɴwuːʱmɨ/ - to turn in, direct

yiyinwùumùe /jijiɴwuːʱmɨ/ - to turn each other in, direct


kaaeykyu /kɛːi&k#690;u/ - to sell, indirect

kaekaaeykyu /kɛkɛːikʲu/ - to sell each other, indirect


The reduplicated syllable has whatever floating phonation is at the start of the word e.g.


'kátla /ˤkaˤtɬa/ - to make someone's acquaintance, indirect

'kákátla /ˤkaˤkaˤtɬa/ - to make each other's acquaintance, indirect


This may not be the same phonation as is on the first syllable of the word e.g.


'kamyu /ˤkamʲu/ - to inflate (someone's ego), indirect

'kákamyu /ˤkaˤkamʲu/ - to inflate each other('s ego), indirect


'kaypùe /ˤkaipɨʱ/ - to scrape, direct

'kákaypùe /ˤkaˤkaipɨʱ/ - to scrape each other, direct


Any changes to vowel quality that happen because of vowel phonation changes, also happen here e.g.


'puytlù /ˤpuitɬuʱ/ - to pick a fight, direct

'póyputlu /ˤpoiˤpuitɬuʱ/ - to pick a fight with each other, direct


As well as all the other regular vowel quality changes that happen when a noun takes a prefix e.g.


hali /χali/ - to twist, transitive, indirect

haehali /χɛχali/ - to twist, transitive, indirect


As with reciprocal possession, a few verbs have irregular forms in the reciprocal voice e.g.


ràorùe /ʁɜʱʁɨʱ/ - to twist, transitive, direct

haràorùe /χaʁɜʱʁɨʱ/ - to twist each other, transitive, direct


Generally, if a noun has an irregular reciprocal possessive form, then any verbs derived from it will also have irregular reciprocal voice forms e.g.


wùeròen /wɨʱʀɘɴʱ/ - friend, absolutive

fiwùeròen /fiwɨʱʀɘɴʱ/ - friends (of each other), absolutive


wòenzi /wɘɴʱ/ - to befriend, direct

fiwòenzi /fiwɘɴʱ/ - to befriend each other, direct


These irregularities happen for the same reason in reciprocal verbs as they do in reciprocal nouns, namely because there is an underlying initial consonant that changes form to something else because it is before a vowel with breathy voice or tense voice (which prohibit some consonants from coming before it). However, if there is modal floating phonation, then the underlying forms can resurface in the reduplication.


Pronominal Subject Prefixes

Instead of using pronouns to indicate subject, Antarctican uses prefixes on verbs. Which prefix is used depends on the tense of the verb (normally unmarked). They do not inflect for number. They are listed in the table below:


Past Present Future
1PS Exclusive uy omyi ow
1PS Inclusive chi we wi
2PS nyin ya yu
3PS zay ze zaw
Who / What wu hew ri


Note that, for habitual actions in the present, the past tense is used. Also the present tense is used for imminent actions in the future (where English might use "about to").


Emphatic Forms

All of the pronomnial affixes have emphatic forms that are generated by lengthening the vowel e.g.


chisàon-gùe /cisɜʱɴgɨʱ/ you bleed, indirect

chiisàon-gùe /ciːsɜʱɴgɨʱ/ you (emphatic) bleed, indirect


This lengthening can also be used on infixes marking objects e.g.


pyõhli-uu /pʲɔɬiʔuː/ - purify you, indirect

pyõohli-uu /pʲɔːɬiʔuː/ - purify you (emphatic), indirect