Modern Phrygian: Difference between revisions

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{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|name = Modern Phrygian
|name = Modern Phrygian
|nativename = τα βρουζ̌ικιά ξ̌ώσσα <br /> ta vružigyá kšósa <br /> تَفْرُوژِگَِا كْشوسَا
|nativename = ξ̌ώσσα τα βρουζ̌ικιά <br /> kšósa ta vružigyá <br />  
|pronunciation = ta vɾuʒiˈɟ̊a ˈkʃosa
كْشوسَادا ڤْرُوژِگْيَا
|pronunciation = ˈkʃosa‿d̥a vɾuʒiˈɟ̊a
|creator = [[User:Shariifka|Shariifka]]
|creator = [[User:Shariifka|Shariifka]]
|region = Europe
|region = Europe
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**New ''w'' also became ''v'', or ''f'' after voiceless consonants (e.g. '''βαίνα''' ''véna'' "hyena" < '''ουαίνα''' ''wéna'' < '''ύαινα''' ''(h)úaina''; '''τφω''' ''tfo'' "two" < '''τουω''' ''two'' < '''τύω''' ''túō'').
**New ''w'' also became ''v'', or ''f'' after voiceless consonants (e.g. '''βαίνα''' ''véna'' "hyena" < '''ουαίνα''' ''wéna'' < '''ύαινα''' ''(h)úaina''; '''τφω''' ''tfo'' "two" < '''τουω''' ''two'' < '''τύω''' ''túō'').
*''nt'' > ''nn''
*''nt'' > ''nn''
*Early ''Vns'' > ''Vis''
*Early palatalization of velars before front vowels to alveolar fricatives.
*Early palatalization of velars before front vowels to alveolar fricatives.
*All labiovelars became plain velars.
*All labiovelars became plain velars.
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*In obstruent clusters (except for ''s'' + consonant), the second consonant becomes a fricative.
*In obstruent clusters (except for ''s'' + consonant), the second consonant becomes a fricative.
**Earlier /ʝ/ and /ç/ (from fricatization of original /i, e/ before other vowels) behaves as an obstruent in this situation, causing a preceding fricative to become a stop. They also become postalveolar after dental stops.
**Earlier /ʝ/ and /ç/ (from fricatization of original /i, e/ before other vowels) behaves as an obstruent in this situation, causing a preceding fricative to become a stop. They also become postalveolar after dental stops.
**This also applies to /f/ and /v/ from fricatization of original /u/ before a vowel.
***Note that this is often reversed by analogy.
*Assimilation of ''s'' to following consonant in consonant clusters (except word-initially, where metathesis occurs instead).
**The former also applies to /f/ and /v/ from fricatization of original /u/ before a vowel.
*Assimilation of ''s'' to following voiceless consonant in consonant clusters (except word-initially, where metathesis occurs instead).
**/ç/ (from fricatization of original /i, e/ after /s/ before other vowels) behaves as an obstruent in this situation, becoming a stop /c/. /sc/ then assimilates to /c/ intervocalically, while metathesizing to /kʃ/ initially.
**/ç/ (from fricatization of original /i, e/ after /s/ before other vowels) behaves as an obstruent in this situation, becoming a stop /c/. /sc/ then assimilates to /c/ intervocalically, while metathesizing to /kʃ/ initially.
***Note that this is often reversed by analogy.
**/f/ (from fricatization of original /u/ in the above positions) similarly becomes a stop /p/, which merges with /s/ intervocalically and metathesizes to /ps/ initially.
**/f/ (from fricatization of original /u/ in the above positions) similarly becomes a stop /p/, which merges with /s/ intervocalically and metathesizes to /ps/ initially.
**Loss of /s/ in /s/ + voiced consonant clusters
*In obstruent + nasal clusters:
*In obstruent + nasal clusters:
**Intervocalically: obstruent becomes nasal
**Intervocalically: obstruent becomes nasal
**Initially: nasal becomes fricative (/n/ > /ʃ, ʒ/; /m/ > /f, v/)
**Initially: nasal becomes fricative (/n/ > /ʃ, ʒ/; /m/ > /f, v/) and obstruent becomes stop (if not one already).
*In obstruent + /l/ clusters, /l/ becomes /ʃ, ʒ/ and obstruent becomes stop (if not one already).
*Intervocalic partial voicing of non-geminated voiceless stops.
*Intervocalic partial voicing of non-geminated voiceless stops.
*Voicing of voiceless stops after nasals  
*Voicing of voiceless stops after nasals  
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| '''Δ δ''' || δέλτα || [ˈðeld̥a]
| '''Δ δ''' || δέλτα || [ˈðeld̥a]
|-
|-
| '''Ε ε''' || έμανου || [ˈemanu]
| '''Ε ε''' || έμανο || [ˈemano]
|-
|-
| '''Ζ ζ''' || ζέτα || [ˈzed̥a]
| '''Ζ ζ''' || ζέτα || [ˈzed̥a]
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| '''Ξ̌ ξ̌''' || ξ̌ι || [kʃi]
| '''Ξ̌ ξ̌''' || ξ̌ι || [kʃi]
|-
|-
| '''Ο ο''' || όμανου || [ˈomanu]
| '''Ο ο''' || όμανο || [ˈomano]
|-
|-
| '''Π π''' || πι || [pi]
| '''Π π''' || πι || [pi]
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|preceded by an unvoiced consonant other than ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩ and followed by a vowel
|preceded by an unvoiced consonant other than ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩ and followed by a vowel
| [ç]
| [ç]
| ιμάτ'''ι'''ο [iˈmat'''ç'''o] "cloak"
| τ'''ι'''άρα [ˈt'''ç'''ara] "tiara"
| [tç] and [sç] may instead be pronounced [tʃ] and [ʃ] respectively.
| [tç] and [sç] may instead be pronounced [tʃ] and [ʃ] respectively.
|-
|-
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| before voiced obstruent
| before voiced obstruent
| [ɡ]
| [ɡ]
| ί'''κ'''δις [ˈi'''ɡ'''ðis] "mortar"
| ά'''κ'''δος [ˈa'''ɡ'''ðos] "sorrow"
|  
|  
|-
|-
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| everywhere
| everywhere
| [kʃ]
| [kʃ]
| '''ξ̌'''έκκια [ˈ'''kʃ'''eca] "larger mosque where Friday prayer is established (جامع)"
| '''ξ̌'''έκκια [ˈ'''kʃ'''eca] "congregational mosque"
|
|
|-
|-
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| before voiced obstruent
| before voiced obstruent
| [b]
| [b]
| ε'''π'''δαμάς [e'''b'''ðaˈmas] "week"
| '''π'''δέλλα [ˈ'''b'''ðela] "leech"
|
|
|-
|-
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| [s]
| [s]
| το'''ς''' [to'''s'''] "the (m. nom. sg.)"
| το'''ς''' [to'''s'''] "the (m. nom. sg.)"
|
|-
| σ̌(σ̌)
| everywhere
| [ʃ]
| '''σ̌'''αχ ['''ʃ'''ax] "shah"
|  
|  
|-
|-
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|  
|  
| [dz]
| [dz]
| '''τζ'''αν'''τζ'''άρα ['''dz'''anˈ'''dz'''ara] "mosquito"
| '''τζ'''άγγα [ˈ'''dz'''aŋɡa] "slipper"
|  
|  
|-
|-
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|-
|-
| υι
| υι
| μ'''υί'''ασις [ˈm'''i'''asis] "myiasis"
| β'''υί'''αλος [ˈv'''i'''los] "leaf"
| Very rare.
|  
|-
|-
| ο
| ο
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| style="text-align:center;"|[u]
| style="text-align:center;"|[u]
| κ'''ού'''ρα [ˈk'''u'''ra] "girl"
| κ'''ού'''ρα [ˈk'''u'''ra] "girl"
|
| Often written ȣ in older texts.
|}
|}


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|-
|-
|}
|}
Vowels in hiatus may equivalently be pronounced as rising diphthongs provided that the first vowel is a high vowel.
Vowels in hiatus may be pronounced as rising diphthongs if that the first vowel is a high vowel.


When two adjacent vowels that normally form a digraph are in hiatus or form a diphthong, this is indicated with a diaresis on the second vowel, which is invariably ⟨ι⟩ or ⟨υ⟩.
When two adjacent vowels that normally form a digraph are in hiatus or form a diphthong, this is indicated with a diaresis on the second vowel, which is invariably ⟨ι⟩ or ⟨υ⟩.
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=====Stress=====
=====Stress=====
Primary stress is always indicated in multisyllabic words via an acute accent.
Primary stress is always indicated in multisyllabic words via an acute accent. Monosyllabic words do not indicate stress.


When a syllable with a false diphthong (i.e. αι, ει, οι, υι, αυ, ευ, ηυ) is stressed, the accent is always written on the second vowel letter.
When a syllable with a false diphthong (i.e. αι, ει, οι, υι, αυ, ευ, ηυ) is stressed, the accent is always written on the second vowel letter.


When a syllable with a true diphthong is stressed, the accent is written on the nucleus of the diphthong (i.e. the first vowel letter).
When a syllable with a true diphthong is stressed, the accent is written on the nucleus of the diphthong (i.e. the first vowel letter).
 
<!--
====Latin orthography====
====Latin orthography====
=====Alphabet=====
=====Alphabet=====
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|-
|-
|}
|}
-->
--!>
=====Consonants=====
=====Consonants=====
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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| after nasal; before voiced obstruent
| after nasal; before voiced obstruent
| [b]
| [b]
| kám'''b'''a [ˈkam'''b'''a] "worm"; e'''b'''damás [e'''b'''ðaˈmas] "week"
| kám'''b'''a [ˈkam'''b'''a] "worm"; e'''b'''ďamás [e'''b'''ðaˈmas] "week"
|
|
|-
|-
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| everywhere
| everywhere
| [tʃ]
| [tʃ]
| '''č''éteres [ˈ'''tʃ'''eteres] "four"
| '''č'''éteres [ˈ'''tʃ'''eteres] "four"
|  
|  
|-
|-
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|
|
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
| v
| v
Line 863: Line 874:
|
|
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
| ει
| ει
Line 1,047: Line 1,057:
| <!--⟨ου⟩ remains a vowel in this circumstance if it has an accent (i.e. ⟨ού⟩).-
| <!--⟨ου⟩ remains a vowel in this circumstance if it has an accent (i.e. ⟨ού⟩).-
|-
|-
| otherwise
| otherwise
| [p]
| [p]
Line 1,071: Line 1,080:
|  
|  
|-
|-
| otherwise
| otherwise
| [t]
| [t]
Line 1,146: Line 1,154:
| '''ψ̌'''έμαν [ˈ'''pʃ'''emã] "soul"
| '''ψ̌'''έμαν [ˈ'''pʃ'''emã] "soul"
|  
|  
|--->
|---!>
|}
|}
<!--
<!--
'''Notes:'''
'''Notes:'''
*Voiced and partially voiced stops/affricates are allophones of the same phoneme in the standard language, with the fully voiced forms occurring after nasals and the partially voiced forms occurring otherwise. However, they have been distinguished here because some dialects keep them as separate phonemes.-->
*Voiced and partially voiced stops/affricates are allophones of the same phoneme in the standard language, with the fully voiced forms occurring after nasals and the partially voiced forms occurring otherwise. However, they have been distinguished here because some dialects keep them as separate phonemes.--!>


=====Vowels=====
=====Vowels=====
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| a
| a
| style="text-align:center;"|[a]
| style="text-align:center;"|[a]
| '''a'''krós ['''a'''ˈɡ̊ros] "field"
| '''a'''grós ['''a'''ˈɡ̊ros] "field"
| Actually closer to [ä].
| Actually closer to [ä].
|-
|-
Line 1,185: Line 1,193:
|
|
|}
|}
=====Diphthongs and hiatus=====
=====Diphthongs and hiatus=====
Falling diphthongs are formed by following a non-high vowel with a high vowel.
Falling diphthongs are formed by following a non-high vowel with a high vowel.
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The following falling diphthongs are possible: ''ai, au, ei, eu, oi, ou''.
The following falling diphthongs are possible: ''ai, au, ei, eu, oi, ou''.


Vowels in hiatus may equivalently be pronounced as rising diphthongs provided that the first vowel is a high vowel.
Vowels in hiatus may be pronounced as rising diphthongs if that the first vowel is a high vowel.


=====Stress=====
=====Stress=====
Primary stress is always indicated in multisyllabic words via an acute accent.
Primary stress is always indicated in multisyllabic words via an acute accent.


When a syllable with a diphthong is stressed, the accent is written on the nucleus of the diphthong (i.e. the first vowel letter).
When a syllable with a diphthong is stressed, the accent is written on the nucleus of the diphthong (i.e. the first vowel letter).-->


===Consonants===
===Consonants===
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==Morphology==
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
===Nouns===
===Pronouns===
Nouns may be one of three genders: masculine, feminine, or neuter.
===Adjectives===
====Cases====
===Verbs===
Nouns are declined for four cases:
===Adverbs===
*'''Nominative'''
===Particles===
*'''Genitive'''
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
*'''Oblique'''
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
*'''Vocative'''
Nouns
The cases are used similarly as they are in Ancient Greek, with oblique covering the roles of accusative and dative. Most prepositions take an oblique object.
Adjectives
 
Verbs
====Stress====
Adverbs
Nouns retain their stress on the same syllable throughout their declensions as far as possible.
Particles
 
Derivational morphology
There are a few irregular nouns that shift their stress.
-->
====Citation form====
<!--
The citation form for most nouns is: ''nominative singular, genitive singular''.
===Articles===
 
====Definite Article====
====First declension (a-stems)====
<!--{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
First declension nouns are most often feminine. Neuter first declension nouns are rare.
|+ Essanian definite article
 
The endings are as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ First declension endings
! rowspan="2"|Case !! colspan="3" | Singular !! colspan="3"| Plural
|-
|-
! !! Masculine || Feminine || Neuter
! M !! F !! N !! M !! F !! N
|-
|-
! Singular
! Nominative
| ''el'', <i>l'</i> (before vowels), <i>'l</i> (after vowels) || ''la'', <i>l'</i> (before ''a'') || ''lo'', <i>l'</i> (before vowels)
| -ας || colspan="2" | -α || colspan="2"| -αι || -α
|-
|-
! Plural
! Genitive
| ''los'' || ''les'' || –
| colspan="3" | -ας || colspan="3" | -αν
|}
-->
<!--
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Essanian definite article
|-
|-
! !! Singular || Plural
! Oblique
| colspan="2" | -αν || -α || colspan="2"|-αις || -α
|-
|-
! Masculine
! Vocative
| ''el'', <i>l'</i> (before vowels), <i>'l</i> (after vowels) || ''los''
| colspan="3" | -α || colspan="2"|-αι || -α
|}
 
====Second declension (o-stems)====
Feminine declension nouns are rare.
 
The endings are as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Second declension endings
! rowspan="2"|Case !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2"| Plural
|-
|-
! Feminine
! M/F !! N !! M/F !! N
| ''la'', <i>l'</i> (before ''a'') || ''les''
|-
|-
! Neuter
! Nominative
| ''lo'', <i>l'</i> (before vowels) || –
| -ος || -ο || -οι || -α
|}
'''Notes:'''
#The definite article precedes the noun it modifies. -->
<!--
#When used without an accompanying noun, the singular articles does not contract with a following vowel. The singular masculine, however, contracts with a preceding vowel regardless of whether there is a noun accompanying it or not.-->
<!--#The neuter definite article is generally used with nominalized neuter adjectives or relative clauses that have an abstract/inanimate referent - e.g. ''lo bueno'' "the good/that which is good"; ''lo que pienso'' "what I think/that which I think".-->
<!--
====Indefinite Article====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Essanian indefinite article
|-
|-
! !! Singular || Plural
! Genitive
| colspan="2" | -ους || colspan="2" | -ουν
|-
|-
! Masculine
! Oblique
| ''un'' || ''unos''
| -ουν || -ο || -οις || -α
|-
|-
! Feminine
! Vocative
| ''una'' || ''unes''
| -ε || -ο || -οι || -α
|-
|-
! Neuter
| ''uno'' || –
|}
|}
===Pronouns===
 
====Personal pronouns====
====Third declension====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
There are three sub-classes of third declension nouns: consonant stems, i-stems, and mixed stems.
|+ Essanian personal pronouns
=====Consonant stems=====
Consonant stems often have unpredictable nominative singular forms. These may alternate with forms in ''-ας'' (masc./fem.) or ''-α'' (neut.).
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Consonant stem endings
! rowspan="2"|Case !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2"| Plural
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="4" | Person, Number, Formality, Gender !! colspan="4" | Independent || colspan="4" | Clitic
! M/F !! N !! M/F !! N
|-
|-
! Subject !! Object !! Reflexive Object!! Possessive !! Direct object !! Indirect object !! Reflexive !! Possessive
! Nominative
| -ας/-/... || -α/-/... || -ες || -α
|-
|-
! rowspan="3" | 1<sup>st</sup> !! colspan="3" | Singular
! Genitive
| ''yo'' || colspan="2"| ''mi'' || ''miyu/miyos, miya/miyes, miyo'' || colspan="3" | <i>me, m'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup> || ''mo(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>/mos, ma(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>/mes, mo(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>''
| colspan="2" | -ους || colspan="2" | -ουν
|-
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | Plural !! Masculine
! Oblique
| colspan="3" | ''nós; nosotros'' || rowspan="2" | ''nues/nuesos, nuesa/nueses, nueso'' || rowspan="2" colspan="3"| ''nos'' || rowspan="2" | –
| -αν || -α/-/... || -ες || -α
|-
|-
! Feminine
! Vocative
| colspan="3" | ''nós; nosotres''
| -ας/-/... || -α/-/... || -ες || -α
|-
|-
! rowspan="7" | 2<sup>nd</sup> !! rowspan="3" | Singular || colspan="2" | Informal
|}
| ''tu'' ||colspan="2"| ''ti'' || ''tuw/tuwos, tuwa/tuwes, tuwo'' || colspan="3" | <i>te, t'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup> || ''to(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>/tos, ta(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>/tes, to(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>''
 
=====i-stems=====
Similarly to consonant stems, i-stems may have irregular nominative singular forms, which may alternate with regular forms.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ i-stem endings
! rowspan="2"|Case !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2"| Plural
|-
|-
! rowspan="2"| Formal !! Masculine
! M/F !! N !! M/F !! N
| rowspan="2" colspan="2"| ''vucé'' || rowspan="2"| ''sí'' || rowspan="2"| ''suw/suwos, suwa/suwes, suwo'' || <i>lu, l'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup>, ''-l''<sup><small>3</small></sup> || rowspan="2"| ''lhi'' || rowspan="2"| <i>se, s'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup> || rowspan="2"| ''so(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>/sos, sa(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>/ses, so(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>''
|-
|-
! Feminine
! Nominative
| <i>la, l'</i><sup><small>4</small></sup>
| -ις/-/... || -ι/-ος/-/... || -ες || -ια
|-
|-
! rowspan="4" | Plural !! rowspan="2" | Informal !! Masculine
! Genitive
| colspan="3" | ''vós; vosotros'' || rowspan="2" | ''vues/vuesos, vuesa/vueses, vueso'' || rowspan="2" colspan="3"| ''vos'' || rowspan="2" | –
| colspan="2" | -ιους || colspan="2" | -ιουν
|-
|-
! Feminine
! Oblique
| colspan="3" | ''vós; vosotres''
| -ιν || -ι/-ος/-/... || -ες || -ια
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" | Formal !! Masculine
! Vocative
| rowspan="2" colspan="2"| ''vucés'' || rowspan="8"| ''sí'' ||rowspan="2"| ''lor/loros, lora/lores, loro'' || ''los'' || rowspan="2"| ''lhis'' || rowspan="2"| <i>se, s'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup>, ''-sen''<sup><small>5</small></sup> || rowspan="2"| –
| -ις/-/... || -ι/-ος/-/... || -ες || -ια
|-
|-
! Feminine
|}
| ''les''
 
=====Mixed stems=====
Mixed stems are declined similarly to i-stems, but ''-ι-'' is dropped before vowels. Again, mixed stems may have irregular nominative singular forms.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Mixed stem endings
! rowspan="2"|Case !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2"| Plural
|-
|-
! rowspan="5" | 3<sup>rd</sup> !! rowspan="3" colspan="2" | Singular !! Masculine
! M/F !! N !! M/F !! N
| colspan="2"| ''elh'' || rowspan="3"| ''suw/suwos, suwa/suwes, suwo'' || <i>lu, l'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup>, ''-l''<sup><small>3</small></sup> || rowspan="3"| <i>lhi, lh'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup> || rowspan="3"| <i>se, s'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup>|| rowspan="3"| ''so(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>/sos, sa(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>/ses, so(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>''
|-
|-
! Feminine
! Nominative
| colspan="2"| ''elha'' || <i>la, l'</i><sup><small>4</small></sup>
| -ις/-/... || -ι/-/... || -ες || -α
|-
|-
! Neuter
! Genitive
| colspan="2"| ''elho'' || <i>lo, l'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup>
| colspan="2" | -ους || colspan="2" | -ουν
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Plural !! Masculine
! Oblique
| colspan="2"| ''elhos'' || rowspan="2"| ''lor/loros, lora/lores, loro'' || ''los'' || rowspan="2"| ''lhis'' || rowspan="2"| <i>se, s'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup>, ''-sen''<sup><small>5</small></sup> || rowspan="2"| –
| -ιν || -ι/-/... || -ες || -α
|-
|-
! Feminine
! Vocative
| colspan="2"| ''elhes'' || ''les''
| -ις/-/... || -ι/-/... || -ες || -α
|-
|-
! colspan="4" | Impersonal
| colspan="2" | ''wemo'' || ''suw/suwos, suwa/suwes, suwo'' || <i>lo, l'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup> || <i>lhi, lh'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup> || <i>se, s'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup> || ''so(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>/sos, sa(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>/ses, so(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>''
|}
|}


'''Notes:'''
===Pronouns===
====Personal pronouns====
Personal pronouns have strong and weak forms.
{|class="wikitable"
|+ First and second person pronouns
! rowspan="2"| !! colspan="2" | Nominative !! colspan="2"| Genitive !! colspan="2"| Oblique !! rowspan="2" | Possessive
|-
! Strong !! Weak !! Strong !! Weak !! Strong !! Weak
|-
! 1S
| εγιού || γιου || εμεύ || μευ ||εμέ || με || μευός, -ά, -ό
|-
! 2S
| ετού || του || ετεύ || τευ ||ετέ || τε || τευός, -ά, -ό
|-
! 1P
| ενές || νες || ενιούν || νω ||ενές || νω || νωμός, -ά, -ό
|-
! 2P
| εβές || βες || εβιούν || βω ||εβές || βω || βωμός, -ά, -ό
|-
|}
Third person pronouns are declined as regular first/second declension adjectives with the following citation forms:
*'''Strong:''' απθός, -ά, -ό
*'''Weak:''' θος, -α, -ο
*'''Reflexive:''' βαπθός, -ά, -ό


<sup><small>1</small></sup> Preverbal before vowel.
====Definite article/pronoun====
Declined as a 1st/2nd declension adjective: ''τος, τα, το''.
 
Follows the substantive it modifies. Can also be used as an independent pronoun.
 
====Indefinite pronoun====
Declined as the definite pronoun with initial ''τ-'' replaced with ''κ-''.
====Relative pronoun====
Declined as the definite pronoun with initial ''τ-'' replaced with ''γι-''.
====Demonstrative pronouns====
*'''Near demonstrative:''' σεμός, -ά, -ό
**First/second declension
*'''Middle demonstrative:''' σις, σα, σι, σους
**First/third declension (mixed stem)
*'''Far demonstrative:''' τόττος, -α, -ο
**First/second declension
These can be used with a following noun or on their own.
 
===Adjectives===
====First/second declension====
Declined as second declension in masculine and neuter, and first declension in feminine.
 
This is the most common class of adjectives.
 
The citation form is ''masculine nominative singular, feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular''.
 
'''Examples:'''
*πρώτος, -α, -ο "first"


<sup><small>2</small></sup> -''n'' is appended to the singular clitic possessives when the following word begins in a vowel. Also note that in more archaic forms of Essanian, a glide may be added after the initial consonant of the clitic possessives in both the singular and plural. This glide is ''-i-'' in the first person and ''-u-'' in the second and third persons.
====First/third declension====
Declined as third declension in masculine and neuter, and first declension in feminine.


<sup><small>3</small></sup> Post-verbal after vowel.
The citation form is ''masculine nominative singular, feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular, masculine/neuter genitive singular''.


<sup><small>4</small></sup> Preverbal before ''a''.
'''Examples:'''
*ένας (εις), μια, εν, ένους "one"
*αίδονας (αίδων), αίδοισα, αίδον, αίδονους "burning"


<sup><small>5</small></sup> Post-verbal after non-finite form (infinitive, participles, etc.).
====First declension====
Declined as first declension in all genders.


The neuter gender is used to refer to abstract ideas, infinitives, ''que'' clauses, inanimate interrogatives and indefinites, and similar.
The citation form is ''masculine nominative singular, feminine/neuter nominative singular, genitive singular''.


When a verb has multiple clitic object pronouns, they combine in the following order: ''reflexive OP + indirect OP + direct OP + adverbial OP'' (see below).
'''Examples:'''
*μέκας, μέκα, μέκας "big"


====Adverbial object pronouns====
====Second declension====
The following adverbial clitic object pronouns are used:
Declined as second declension in all genders.
*''y'', <i>b'</i> (pre-verbal before vowels), ''-y'' (post-verbal) = equivalent to French ''y''
*''en'', <i>n'</i> (pre-verbal before vowels), ''-ne'' (post-verbal) = equivalent to French ''en''
When both adverbial object pronouns are used at once, they combine as <i>en b'</i> preverbally before vowels and ''n'y'' otherwise.
===Nouns===
====Gender====
Nouns may be masculine or feminine. Unlike adjectives and pronouns, nouns cannot have neuter gender.


====Number====
This class of adjectives is rare.
Nouns may be singular or plural. Nouns may also be used in the dual, which is borrowed from Arabic.
 
=====Regular plurals=====
The citation form is ''masculine/feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular, genitive singular''.
Nouns are pluralized based on their ending and gender as follows:
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
====Third declension====
|+ Plural of nouns based on ending and gender
Declined as third declension in all genders.
 
The citation form is normally ''masculine/feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular, genitive singular''
 
The exceptions are the numerals ''τρες, τρια'' "three" and ''τσ̌έττερες, τσ̌έττερα'' "four", which do not have singular forms. Their citation forms are ''masculine/feminine nominative plural, neuter nominative plural''.
 
====Usage====
Adjectives can be used in the following ways:
#'''Attributive:''' In this case, the adjective generally follows its noun. Alternatively, it may precede the noun.
#'''Predicative:''' Used as a predicate.
#'''Substantive:''' Used on its own without a noun, generally with a definite article.
<!--Note: I made the definite article, as well as adjectives, follow the nouns they govern. I actually have some justification for this now, both by extension/analogy from Ancient Greek usage (e.g. βασιλεὺς ὁ κακός) and by the fact that I allowed the definite article to act as a pronoun (meaning that, at least originally, substantive adjectives would make more sense to precede it rather than follow it)-->
 
===Verbs===
====Notes on verb conjugation====
#Accent is recessive except in forms with fixed accent, which is indicated with an accent sign in the ending.
#In vowel initial verbs, the past prefix ε- changes form predictably based on the initial vowel as follows:
#*ε- + ε- > α-;
#*ε- is dropped before other front vowels (ι-, ει-, οι-, αι-, η-, υ-, υι-);
#*ε- > γι- before back vowels (α-, ο-, ω-, ου-).
#The future forms are also used as present subjunctive/jussive.
====Principle parts and stems====
 
===Adverbs===
===Particles===
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
Nouns
Adjectives
Verbs
Adverbs
Particles
Derivational morphology
-->
<!--
===Articles===
====Definite Article====
<!--{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Essanian definite article
|-
|-
! width=100| Ending !! width=100| Gender !! width=100 | Plural !!width=100 | Dual !! Remarks
! !! Masculine || Feminine || Neuter
|-
|-
! rowspan="2"| Consonant
! Singular
! most M
| ''el'', <i>l'</i> (before vowels), <i>'l</i> (after vowels) || ''la'', <i>l'</i> (before ''a'') || ''lo'', <i>l'</i> (before vowels)
| ''-os'' || ''-én'' || An exception are nouns ending in ''-nt'' that do not refer to people. Such nouns are masculine in gender but take ''-es'' in the plural.
|-
|-
! F; some M
! Plural
| ''-es'' || ''-én'' || In addition to feminine nouns, masculine inanimate nouns ending in ''-nt'' take ''-es'' in the plural.
| ''los'' || ''les'' || –
|}
-->
<!--
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Essanian definite article
|-
|-
! ''-a''
! !! Singular || Plural
! M/F
| ''-es'' || ''-atén'' || Most words ending in ''-a'' are feminine.
|-
|-
! ''-u''; ''-o''
! Masculine
! M/F
| ''el'', <i>l'</i> (before vowels), <i>'l</i> (after vowels) || ''los''
| ''-os'' || ''-én'' || Most words ending in ''-u'' are masculine. Nouns ending in unstressed ''-o'' are rare.
|-
|-
! ''-e''; ''-i''
! Feminine
! M/F
| ''la'', <i>l'</i> (before ''a'') || ''les''
| ''-es'' || ''-én'' || Nouns ending in unstressed ''-i'' are rare.
|-
|-
! Stressed vowel
! Neuter
! M/F
| ''lo'', <i>l'</i> (before vowels) || –
| ''-s'' || ''-tén'' || These endings are added after the final vowel, which is left unchanged.
|}
'''Notes:'''
#The definite article precedes the noun it modifies. -->
<!--
#When used without an accompanying noun, the singular articles does not contract with a following vowel. The singular masculine, however, contracts with a preceding vowel regardless of whether there is a noun accompanying it or not.-->
<!--#The neuter definite article is generally used with nominalized neuter adjectives or relative clauses that have an abstract/inanimate referent - e.g. ''lo bueno'' "the good/that which is good"; ''lo que pienso'' "what I think/that which I think".-->
<!--
====Indefinite Article====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Essanian indefinite article
|-
! !! Singular || Plural
|-
! Masculine
| ''un'' || ''unos''
|-
! Feminine
| ''una'' || ''unes''
|-
|-
! Neuter
| ''uno'' || –
|}
|}
 
===Pronouns===
=====Irregular plurals=====
====Personal pronouns====
Some words, mostly of Arabic origin, take a plural in ''-ín'' (masculine) or ''-(w)at'' (feminine). There are also some broken plurals.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
 
|+ Essanian personal pronouns
For example:
* ''mumin'' "believer (m.)" → ''muminín'' "believers"
* ''múmina'' "believer (f.)" → ''muminat'' "believers (f.)"
* ''salá'' "prayer" → ''salawat'' "prayers"
* ''sultán'' "sultan" → ''salatín'' "sultans"
 
===Adjectives===
====Endings====
Adjectives take the following endings:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Essanian adjective declension
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" | Type !! colspan="3" width=100 | Singular !! colspan="2" width=100 | Plural
! rowspan="2" colspan="4" | Person, Number, Formality, Gender !! colspan="4" | Independent || colspan="4" | Clitic
|-
|-
! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter !! Masculine !! Feminine
! Subject !! Object !! Reflexive Object!! Possessive !! Direct object !! Indirect object !! Reflexive !! Possessive
|-
|-
! 1
! rowspan="3" | 1<sup>st</sup> !! colspan="3" | Singular
| ''-u'' or consonant || ''-a'' || ''-o'' || ''-os'' || ''-es''
| ''yo'' || colspan="2"| ''mi'' || ''miyu/miyos, miya/miyes, miyo'' || colspan="3" | <i>me, m'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup> || ''mo(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>/mos, ma(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>/mes, mo(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>''
|-
|-
! 2
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | Plural !! Masculine
| ''-e'' || ''-e'' || ''-e'' || ''-es'' || ''-es''
| colspan="3" | ''nós; nosotros'' || rowspan="2" | ''nues/nuesos, nuesa/nueses, nueso'' || rowspan="2" colspan="3"| ''nos'' || rowspan="2" | –
|-
|-
! 3
! Feminine
| Stressed vowel || Same as masc. || Same as masc. || ''-s'' || ''-s''
| colspan="3" | ''nós; nosotres''
|-
! rowspan="7" | 2<sup>nd</sup> !! rowspan="3" | Singular || colspan="2" | Informal
| ''tu'' ||colspan="2"| ''ti'' || ''tuw/tuwos, tuwa/tuwes, tuwo'' || colspan="3" | <i>te, t'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup> || ''to(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>/tos, ta(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>/tes, to(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>''
|-
! rowspan="2"| Formal !! Masculine
| rowspan="2" colspan="2"| ''vucé'' || rowspan="2"| ''sí'' || rowspan="2"| ''suw/suwos, suwa/suwes, suwo'' || <i>lu, l'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup>, ''-l''<sup><small>3</small></sup> || rowspan="2"| ''lhi'' || rowspan="2"| <i>se, s'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup> || rowspan="2"| ''so(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>/sos, sa(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>/ses, so(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>''
|-
! Feminine
| <i>la, l'</i><sup><small>4</small></sup>
|-
! rowspan="4" | Plural !! rowspan="2" | Informal !! Masculine
| colspan="3" | ''vós; vosotros'' || rowspan="2" | ''vues/vuesos, vuesa/vueses, vueso'' || rowspan="2" colspan="3"| ''vos'' || rowspan="2" | –
|-
|-
|}
! Feminine
The neuter gender in adjectives is used for agreement with infinitives, neuter pronouns, impersonal pronouns, or ''que'' phrases. It can also be used as an adverb.
| colspan="3" | ''vós; vosotres''
====Comparatives and Superlatives====
|-
The comparative of adjectives ("more ___") is formed by placing ''plus'' "more" or ''menos'' "less" before the adjective for the positive and negative comparatives respectively.
! rowspan="2" | Formal !! Masculine
 
| rowspan="2" colspan="2"| ''vucés'' || rowspan="8"| ''sí'' ||rowspan="2"| ''lor/loros, lora/lores, loro'' || ''los'' || rowspan="2"| ''lhis'' || rowspan="2"| <i>se, s'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup>, ''-sen''<sup><small>5</small></sup> || rowspan="2"| –
The following adjectives have irregular comparatives:
|-
*''buen'' "good" → ''melhor'' "better"
! Feminine
*''mal'' "bad" → ''peyor'' "worse"
| ''les''
*''joven'' "young" → ''menor'' "younger"
|-
*''vielh'' "old" → ''mayor'' "older"
! rowspan="5" | 3<sup>rd</sup> !! rowspan="3" colspan="2" | Singular !! Masculine
*''muit'' "much, many" → ''plus'' "more"
| colspan="2"| ''elh'' || rowspan="3"| ''suw/suwos, suwa/suwes, suwo'' || <i>lu, l'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup>, ''-l''<sup><small>3</small></sup> || rowspan="3"| <i>lhi, lh'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup> || rowspan="3"| <i>se, s'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup>|| rowspan="3"| ''so(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>/sos, sa(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>/ses, so(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>''
*''pocu'' "little, few" → ''menos'' "less, fewer"
|-
 
! Feminine
The superlative ("most _____") is formed by placing the definite article before the corresponding comparative.
| colspan="2"| ''elha'' || <i>la, l'</i><sup><small>4</small></sup>
|-
! Neuter
| colspan="2"| ''elho'' || <i>lo, l'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup>
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Plural !! Masculine
| colspan="2"| ''elhos'' || rowspan="2"| ''lor/loros, lora/lores, loro'' || ''los'' || rowspan="2"| ''lhis'' || rowspan="2"| <i>se, s'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup>, ''-sen''<sup><small>5</small></sup> || rowspan="2"| –
|-
! Feminine
| colspan="2"| ''elhes'' || ''les''
|-
! colspan="4" | Impersonal
| colspan="2" | ''wemo'' || ''suw/suwos, suwa/suwes, suwo'' || <i>lo, l'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup> || <i>lhi, lh'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup> || <i>se, s'</i><sup><small>1</small></sup> || ''so(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>/sos, sa(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>/ses, so(n)<sup><small>2</small></sup>''
|}


====Absolute Superlative====
'''Notes:'''
In addition to the regular superlative, there is an absolute superlative formed with the suffix ''-íssimu'' (declined as a regular adjective). It means "very ______" or "extremely _______".
 
<sup><small>1</small></sup> Preverbal before vowel.
 
<sup><small>2</small></sup> -''n'' is appended to the singular clitic possessives when the following word begins in a vowel. Also note that in more archaic forms of Essanian, a glide may be added after the initial consonant of the clitic possessives in both the singular and plural. This glide is ''-i-'' in the first person and ''-u-'' in the second and third persons.
 
<sup><small>3</small></sup> Post-verbal after vowel.


===Adverbs===
<sup><small>4</small></sup> Preverbal before ''a''.
====Derivation from adjectives====
Adverbs are commonly derived from adjectives by one of the following methods:
*The neuter form of the adjective - e.g. ''puro'' "purely"
*The feminine form of the adjective suffixed with ''-ment'' - ''purament'' "purely"
When adverbs formed with the suffix ''-ment'' are appended to each other, ''-ment'' is dropped from all but the last adverb.
====Irregular adverbs====
The following adverbs are not regularly derived from their corresponding adjectives:
*''buen'' "good" → ''bien'' "well"
*''mal'' "bad" → ''mal'' "badly"


====Comparative====
<sup><small>5</small></sup> Post-verbal after non-finite form (infinitive, participles, etc.).
The comparative of adverbs is formed in the same way as adjectives: by placing ''plus'' "more" or ''menos'' "less" before the adverb.


The following adverbs have irregular comparative forms:
The neuter gender is used to refer to abstract ideas, infinitives, ''que'' clauses, inanimate interrogatives and indefinites, and similar.
*''bien'' "well" → ''melhor'' "better"
 
*''mal'' "badly" → ''peyor'' "worse"
When a verb has multiple clitic object pronouns, they combine in the following order: ''reflexive OP + indirect OP + direct OP + adverbial OP'' (see below).
*''muito'' "a lot" → ''plus'' "more"
 
*''poco'' "a little" → ''menos'' "less"
====Adverbial object pronouns====
-->
The following adverbial clitic object pronouns are used:
===Numerals===
*''y'', <i>b'</i> (pre-verbal before vowels), ''-y'' (post-verbal) = equivalent to French ''y''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
*''en'', <i>n'</i> (pre-verbal before vowels), ''-ne'' (post-verbal) = equivalent to French ''en''
|+ Phrygian numerals
When both adverbial object pronouns are used at once, they combine as <i>en b'</i> preverbally before vowels and ''n'y'' otherwise.
===Nouns===
====Gender====
Nouns may be masculine or feminine. Unlike adjectives and pronouns, nouns cannot have neuter gender.
 
====Number====
Nouns may be singular or plural. Nouns may also be used in the dual, which is borrowed from Arabic.
=====Regular plurals=====
Nouns are pluralized based on their ending and gender as follows:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Plural of nouns based on ending and gender
|-
|-
! !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Adverbial !! Collective
! width=100| Ending !! width=100| Gender !! width=100 | Plural !!width=100 | Dual !! Remarks
|-
|-
! 0
! rowspan="2"| Consonant
| ματένας (ματείς), ματεμιά, ματένα || ματενάνος, -α, -ο || — || —
! most M
|-  
| ''-os'' || ''-én'' || An exception are nouns ending in ''-nt'' that do not refer to people. Such nouns are masculine in gender but take ''-es'' in the plural.
! 1
|-
| ένας (εις), μια, ένα || πρώτος, -α, -ο || άπαχ || μονάς, -άτους
! F; some M
| ''-es'' || ''-én'' || In addition to feminine nouns, masculine inanimate nouns ending in ''-nt'' take ''-es'' in the plural.
|-
! ''-a''
! M/F
| ''-es'' || ''-atén'' || Most words ending in ''-a'' are feminine.
|-
! ''-u''; ''-o''
! M/F
| ''-os'' || ''-én'' || Most words ending in ''-u'' are masculine. Nouns ending in unstressed ''-o'' are rare.
|-
! ''-e''; ''-i''
! M/F
| ''-es'' || ''-én'' || Nouns ending in unstressed ''-i'' are rare.
|-
! Stressed vowel
! M/F
| ''-s'' || ''-tén'' || These endings are added after the final vowel, which is left unchanged.
|-
|}
 
=====Irregular plurals=====
Some words, mostly of Arabic origin, take a plural in ''-ín'' (masculine) or ''-(w)at'' (feminine). There are also some broken plurals.
 
For example:
* ''mumin'' "believer (m.)" → ''muminín'' "believers"
* ''múmina'' "believer (f.)" → ''muminat'' "believers (f.)"
* ''salá'' "prayer" → ''salawat'' "prayers"
* ''sultán'' "sultan" → ''salatín'' "sultans"
 
===Adjectives===
====Endings====
Adjectives take the following endings:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Essanian adjective declension
|-
! rowspan="2" | Type !! colspan="3" width=100 | Singular !! colspan="2" width=100 | Plural
|-
! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter !! Masculine !! Feminine
|-
! 1
| ''-u'' or consonant || ''-a'' || ''-o'' || ''-os'' || ''-es''
|-
|-
! 2
! 2
| τφω || τφέτερος, -α, -ο || τφις || τφάς, -άτους
| ''-e'' || ''-e'' || ''-e'' || ''-es'' || ''-es''
|-
|-
! 3
! 3
| τρες, τρια || τρίτος, -α, -ο || τρις || τριας, -άτους
| Stressed vowel || Same as masc. || Same as masc. || ''-s'' || ''-s''
|-
|-
! 4
|}
| τσ̌έττερες, τσ̌έττερα || τσ̌ετέρτος, -α, -ο || τσ̌ετράτζ̌ις || τσ̌ετράς
The neuter gender in adjectives is used for agreement with infinitives, neuter pronouns, impersonal pronouns, or ''que'' phrases. It can also be used as an adverb.
|-
====Comparatives and Superlatives====
! 5
The comparative of adjectives ("more ___") is formed by placing ''plus'' "more" or ''menos'' "less" before the adjective for the positive and negative comparatives respectively.
| πίντζε || πίντος, -α, -ο || πίγκιάτζ̌ις || πιντάς, -άτους
 
|-
The following adjectives have irregular comparatives:
! 6
*''buen'' "good" → ''melhor'' "better"
| βεχ || βέκθος, -α, -ο || βεξάτζ̌ις ||
*''mal'' "bad" → ''peyor'' "worse"
|-
*''joven'' "young" → ''menor'' "younger"
! 7
*''vielh'' "old" → ''mayor'' "older"
| επθάν || έπδαμος, -α, -ο || εμμάτζ̌ις ||
*''muit'' "much, many" → ''plus'' "more"
|-
*''pocu'' "little, few" → ''menos'' "less, fewer"
! 8
 
| οκθών || όκδουος, -α, -ο || οκθώτζ̌ις ||
The superlative ("most _____") is formed by placing the definite article before the corresponding comparative.
|-
 
! 9
====Absolute Superlative====
| ενιάν || ένιανος, -α, -ο || ενευνάτζ̌ις ||
In addition to the regular superlative, there is an absolute superlative formed with the suffix ''-íssimu'' (declined as a regular adjective). It means "very ______" or "extremely _______".
|-
 
! 10
===Adverbs===
| τέκαν || τέκανος, -α, -ο || τεκανάτζ̌ις ||
====Derivation from adjectives====
|-
Adverbs are commonly derived from adjectives by one of the following methods:
! 11
*The neuter form of the adjective - e.g. ''puro'' "purely"
| ένεκαν || ενέκανος || ||
*The feminine form of the adjective suffixed with ''-ment'' - ''purament'' "purely"
|-
When adverbs formed with the suffix ''-ment'' are appended to each other, ''-ment'' is dropped from all but the last adverb.
! 12
====Irregular adverbs====
| τφώτεκαν || τφωτέκανος || ||
The following adverbs are not regularly derived from their corresponding adjectives:
*''buen'' "good" → ''bien'' "well"
*''mal'' "bad" → ''mal'' "badly"
 
====Comparative====
The comparative of adverbs is formed in the same way as adjectives: by placing ''plus'' "more" or ''menos'' "less" before the adverb.
 
The following adverbs have irregular comparative forms:
*''bien'' "well" → ''melhor'' "better"
*''mal'' "badly" → ''peyor'' "worse"
*''muito'' "a lot" → ''plus'' "more"
*''poco'' "a little" → ''menos'' "less"
-->
===Numerals===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Phrygian numerals
|-
! !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Adverbial !! Collective
|-
! 0
| ματένας (ματείς), ματεμιά, ματέν, ματένους || ματενάνος, -α, -ο || — || —
|-
! 1
|  ένας (εις), μια, εν, ένους || πρώτος, -α, -ο || άπαχ || μονάς, -άτους
|-
! 2
| τφω || τφέτερος, -α, -ο || τφις || τφάς, -άτους
|-
! 3
| τρες, τρια || τρίτος, -α, -ο || τρις || τριας, -άτους
|-
! 4
| τσ̌έττερες, τσ̌έττερα || τσ̌ετέρτος, -α, -ο || τσ̌ετράτζ̌ις || τσ̌ετράς, -άτους
|-
! 5
| πίντζ̌ε || πίντος, -α, -ο || πίγκιάτζ̌ις || πιντάς, -άτους
|-
! 6
| βεχ || βέκθος, -α, -ο || βεξάτζ̌ις || βεκθάς, -άτους
|-
! 7
| επθάν || έπθαμος, -α, -ο || εμμάτζ̌ις || επθαμάς, -άτους
|-
! 8
| οκθών || όκθουος, -α, -ο || οκθώτζ̌ις || οκθουάς, -άτους
|-
! 9
| ενιάν || ένιανος, -α, -ο || ενευνάτζ̌ις || ενιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 10
| τέκαν || τέκανος, -α, -ο || τεκανάτζ̌ις || τεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 11
| ένεκαν || ενέκανος, -α, -ο || ενεκανάτζ̌ις || ενεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 12
| τφώτεκαν || τφωτέκανος, -α, -ο || τφωτεκανάτζ̌ις || τφωτεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 13
| τρίτεκαν || τριτέκανος, -α, -ο || τριτεκανάτζ̌ις || τριτεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 14
| τσ̌ετέρτεκαν || τσ̌ετερτέκανος, -α, -ο || τσ̌ετερτεκανάτζ̌ις || τσ̌ετερτεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 15
| πίντεκαν || πιντέκανος, -α, -ο || πιντεκανάτζ̌ις || πιντεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 16
| βέκθεκαν || βεκθέκανος, -α, -ο || βεκθεκανάτζ̌ις || βεκθεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 17
| επθάνεκαν || επθανέκανος, -α, -ο || επθανεκανάτζ̌ις || επθανεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 18
| οκθώνεκαν|| οκθωνέκανος, -α, -ο || οκθωνεκανάτζ̌ις || οκθωνεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 19
| ενιάνεκαν|| ενιανέκανος, -α, -ο || ενιανεκανάτζ̌ις || ενιανεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 20
| βίκιανι || βικιοττός, -ά, -ό || βικιανιάτζ̌ις || βικιανιάς, -άτους
|-
! 30
| τριάνα || τριαττός, -ά, -ό || τριανάτζ̌ις || τριανάς, -άτους
|-
! 40
| τσ̌ετράνα || τσ̌ετραττός, -ά, -ό || τσ̌ετρανάτζ̌ις || τσ̌ετρανάς, -άτους
|-
! 50
| πιγκιάνα || πιγκιαττός, -ά, -ό || πιγκιανάτζ̌ις || πιγκιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 60
| βεξάνα || βεξαττός, -ά, -ό || βεξανάτζ̌ις || βεξανάς, -άτους
|-
! 70
| εμμάνα || εμματτός, -ά, -ό || εμμανάτζ̌ις || εμμανάς, -άτους
|-
! 80
| οκθώνα || οκθωττός, -ά, -ό || οκθωνάτζ̌ις || οκθωνάς, -άτους
|-
! 90
| ενευνάνα || ενευναττός, -ά, -ό || ενευνανάτζ̌ις || ενευνανάς, -άτους
|-
! 100
| εκανόυν || εκανοττός, -ά, -ό  || εκανάτζ̌ις || εκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 200
| τφακιάνιοι || τφακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || τφακιανιάτζ̌ις || τφακιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 300
| τριακιάνιοι || τριακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || τριακιανιάτζ̌ις || τριακιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 400
| τσ̌ετρακιάνιοι || τσ̌ετρακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || τσ̌ετρακιανιάτζ̌ις || τσ̌ετρακιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 500
| πιγκιακιάνιοι || πιγκιακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || πιγκιακιανιάτζ̌ις || πιγκιακιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 600
| βεξακιάνιοι || βεξακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || βεξακιανιάτζ̌ις || βεξακιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 700
| εμμακιάνιοι || εμμακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || εμμακιανιάτζ̌ις || εμμακιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 800
| οκθωκιάνιοι || οκθωκιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || οκθωκιανιάτζ̌ις || οκθωκιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 900
| ενευνακιάνιοι || ενευνακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || ενευνακιανιάτζ̌ις || ενευνακιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 1000
| ζέλλια || ζελλιοττός, -ά, -ό || ζελλιάτζ̌ις || ζελλιάς, -άτους
|-
! 2000
| τφωζέλλιαι || τφωζελλιοττός, -ά, -ό || τφωζελλιάτζ̌ις || τφωζελλιάς, -άτους
|-
|}
 
==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->
 
==Vocabulary==
===Time - ''Ώρα τα''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Seasons - ''Γρόνοι τοι''
! English !! Phrygian
|-
| spring || βιαρ, βιάρους
|-
| summer || ζ̌ερός, -ιούς
|-
| fall || οπώρα, -ας
|-
| winter || ζ̌ειμούν, -ους
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Gregorian months - ''Μενές τοι κρεκοριανόι''
! English !! Phrygian
|-
| January || Γιανβάριος, -ιους
|-
| February || Φερβάριος, -ιους
|-
| March || Μάρτσ̌ος, -ιους
|-
| April || Απρίλιος, -ιους
|-
| May || Μάγιος, -ους
|-
| June || Γιούνιος, -ους
|-
| July || Γιούλιος, -ους
|-
| August || Άπγουττος, -ους
|-
| September || Σεπθέμπριος, -ιους
|-
| October || Οκθώβριος, -ιους
|-
| November || Νουέμπριος, -ιους
|-
| December || Δετζ̌έμπριος, -ιους
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Days of the week - ''Άμανα τα πδομάτους τας''
! English !! Phrygian
|-
| Sunday || Κοιρακά
|-
| Monday || Τφέτερα
|-
| Tuesday || Τρίτα
|-
| Wednesday || Τσ̌ετέρτα
|-
| Thursday || Πίντα
|-
| Friday || Τζ̌ούμγα
|-
| Saturday || Σάβατο
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Parts of the day - ''Μέλοι τοι άμανους τους''
! English !! Phrygian
|-
| day || άμαρ, άμανους ''(n.)''
|-
| dawn || απγά, -ς ''(f.)''
|-
| morning || βώς, βώβους ''(f.)''
|-
| noon || μεσαμπριό, -ούς ''(n.)''
|-
| afternoon || τείλα, -ς ''(f.)''
|-
| evening || βεππέρα, -ς ''(f.)''
|-
| dusk || τούτις, τούτιους ''(f.)''
|-
| night || νουκθάς (νουχ), νουκθούς ''(f.)''
|-
| midnight || μεσανουξ̌ά, -ς ''(f.)''
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Units of time - ''Μονάτους ται ώρας τας''
! English !! Phrygian
|-
| second || τφέτερο, -ους ''(n.)''
|-
| minute || λεπθό, -ούς ''(n.)''
|-
| hour || ώρα, -ς ''(f.)''
|-
| day || άμαρ, άμανους ''(n.)''
|-
| week || πδομάς, -άτους ''(f.)''
|-
| month || μένας (μεις), μενούς ''(m.)''
|-
| season || γρόνος, -ους ''(m.)''
|-
| year || βέτος, βείτους ''(n.)''
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Time adverbs - ''Επίβρεμανα τα ωραίκια''
! English !! Phrygian
|-
|-
! 13
| now || νουν
| τρίτεκαν ||  || ||
|-
|-
! 14
| then || άρα; τότζ̌ε
| τσ̌ετέρτεκαν ||  || ||
|-
|-
! 15
| recently, a short time ago || άρτι
| πίντεκαν || πιντέκανος || ||
|-
|-
! 16
| earlier || προς
| βέκθεκαν ||  || ||
|-
|-
! 17
| soon, shortly ||  
| επθάνεκαν ||  || ||
|-
|-
! 18
| later || ψές
| οκθώνεκαν|| || ||
|-
|-
! 19
| always || αει; πάντοτζ̌ε
| ενιάνεκαν|| || ||
|-
|-
! 20
| often || πυιλάτζ̌ις
| βίκιανι || βικιοττός || ||
|-
|-
! 21
| sometimes || κότζ̌ε
| ένας τσ̌ε βίκιανι ||  || ||
|-
|-
! 30
| rarely || παύροτζ̌ε
| τριάνα || τριαττός || ||
|-
|-
! 40
| never || μέκοτζ̌ε
| τσ̌ετράνα ||  || ||
|-
|-
! 50
| ever || κώκοτζ̌ε
| πιγκιάνα ||  || ||
|-
|-
! 60
| still, yet || έτι; κω
| βεξάνα ||  || ||
|-
|-
! 70
| already ||  
| εμμάνα || || ||
|-
|-
! 80
| today || σάμαρουν
| οκθώνα || || ||
|-
|-
! 90
| tonight || σινούκθουν
| ενευνάνα || || ||
|-
|-
! 100
| yesterday || κδες
| εκανόυν || || ||
|-
|-
! 200
| last night ||  
| τφακιάνιοι || || ||
|-
|-
! 300
| tomorrow || αύριουν
| τριακιάνιοι || || ||
|-
|-
! 400
| before yesterday ||  
| τσ̌ετρακιάνιοι || || ||
|-
|-
! 500
| two nights ago ||  
| πιγκιακιάνιοι || || ||
|-
|-
! 600
| after tomorrow ||  
| βεξακιάνιοι || || ||
|-
|-
! 700
| this week ||  
| εμμακιάνιοι || || ||
|-
|-
! 800
| last week ||  
| οκθωκιάνιοι || || ||
|-
|-
! 900
| next week ||  
| ενευνακιάνιοι || || ||
|-
|-
! 1000
| this year || σέτες
| ζέλλια || || ||
|-
|-
! 2000
| last year || πέρουτι
| τφω ζέλλιαι || || ||
|-
|-
| next year ||
|}
|}
==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->


==Example texts==
==Example texts==

Latest revision as of 07:50, 20 March 2024

Modern Phrygian (Native: βρουζ̌ικιά /vɾuʒiˈɟa/) is a modern variety of the Phrygian language.

Modern Phrygian
ξ̌ώσσα τα βρουζ̌ικιά
kšósa ta vružigyá
كْشوسَادا ڤْرُوژِگْيَا
Pronunciation[ˈkʃosa‿d̥a vɾuʒiˈɟ̊a]
Created byShariifka

Introduction

Etymology

Modern Phrygian βρουζ̌ικιά vružigyá < Ancient Phrygian βρυγικά brugikā́ (cognate with Ancient Greek φρυγική pʰrygikḗ).

Features

  • PIE aspirated stops became plain voiced stops.
  • PIE voiced stops were devoiced in some conditions and preserved as voiced in others.
  • PIE voiceless stops were mostly preserved, but were aspirated in some conditions.
  • Like Greek, voiced and aspirated stops were later fricatized.
  • Initial w- preserved (as v-) except before o.
    • New w also became v, or f after voiceless consonants (e.g. βαίνα véna "hyena" < ουαίνα wéna < ύαινα (h)úaina; τφω tfo "two" < τουω two < τύω túō).
  • nt > nn
  • Early Vns > Vis
  • Early palatalization of velars before front vowels to alveolar fricatives.
  • All labiovelars became plain velars.
  • Second palatalization of velars before front vowels to postalveolars.
  • Third palatalization of velars adjacent to front vowels to palatals.
  • In obstruent clusters (except for s + consonant), the second consonant becomes a fricative.
    • Earlier /ʝ/ and /ç/ (from fricatization of original /i, e/ before other vowels) behaves as an obstruent in this situation, causing a preceding fricative to become a stop. They also become postalveolar after dental stops.
      • Note that this is often reversed by analogy.
    • The former also applies to /f/ and /v/ from fricatization of original /u/ before a vowel.
  • Assimilation of s to following voiceless consonant in consonant clusters (except word-initially, where metathesis occurs instead).
    • /ç/ (from fricatization of original /i, e/ after /s/ before other vowels) behaves as an obstruent in this situation, becoming a stop /c/. /sc/ then assimilates to /c/ intervocalically, while metathesizing to /kʃ/ initially.
      • Note that this is often reversed by analogy.
    • /f/ (from fricatization of original /u/ in the above positions) similarly becomes a stop /p/, which merges with /s/ intervocalically and metathesizes to /ps/ initially.
    • Loss of /s/ in /s/ + voiced consonant clusters
  • In obstruent + nasal clusters:
    • Intervocalically: obstruent becomes nasal
    • Initially: nasal becomes fricative (/n/ > /ʃ, ʒ/; /m/ > /f, v/) and obstruent becomes stop (if not one already).
  • In obstruent + /l/ clusters, /l/ becomes /ʃ, ʒ/ and obstruent becomes stop (if not one already).
  • Intervocalic partial voicing of non-geminated voiceless stops.
  • Voicing of voiceless stops after nasals
  • Loss of phonemic gemination, but traces preserved.
    • Lack of intervocalic voicing of original geminated stops.
    • Final -n > nasalization, but -nn > -n

Phonology

Orthography

Note: In this section, all pronunciations are according to the standard dialect unless otherwise specified.

Greek orthography

Alphabet
Letter Name IPA
Α α άλφα [ˈalfa]
Β β βέτα [ˈved̥a]
Γ γ γάμμα [ˈɣama]
Δ δ δέλτα [ˈðeld̥a]
Ε ε έμανο [ˈemano]
Ζ ζ ζέτα [ˈzed̥a]
Ζ̌ ζ̌ ζ̌έτα [ˈʒed̥a]
Η η έτα [ˈed̥a]
Θ θ θέτα [ˈθed̥a]
Ι ι γιώτα [ˈʝod̥a]
Letter Name IPA
Κ κ κάππα [ˈkapa]
Λ λ λάμπδα [ˈlambða]
Μ μ μου [mu]
Ν ν νου [nu]
Ξ ξ ξι [ksi]
Ξ̌ ξ̌ ξ̌ι [kʃi]
Ο ο όμανο [ˈomano]
Π π πι [pi]
Ρ ρ ρο [ro]
Σ σ ς σίγμα [ˈsiŋma]
Letter Name IPA
Σ̌ σ̌ ς̌ σ̌ίγμα [ˈʃiŋma]
Τ τ ταυ [taf]
Υ υ ούψιλο [ˈupsilο]
Φ φ φι [fi]
Χ χ χι [çi]
Ψ ψ ψι [psi]
Ψ̌ ψ̌ ψ̌ι [pʃi]
Ω ω ωμέκα [oˈmeɡ̊a]

The letters with carons ⟨σ̌, ζ̌, ξ̌, ψ̌⟩ can alternatively be written as multigraphs.

With caron As multigraph
before front vowel before back vowel word-finally or before consonant
σ̌ σχ σχι σχ
ζ̌ ζγ ζγι ζγ
ξ̌ ξχ ξχι ξχ
ψ̌ ψχ ψχι ψχ
Consonants
Consonants
Letter Context IPA Examples Remarks
β everywhere [v] βεχ [vex] "six"
γ before front vowels ([e] or [i]). [ʝ] γεν [ʝen] "yen"
before velar consonants ([ɡ] or [x]) or nasal consonants ([m] or [n]) [ŋ] μάγκο [ˈmaŋgo] "mango"; αγνός [aŋˈnos] "pure, chaste" This occurs when the following consonant is ⟨ξ⟩, ⟨ξ̌⟩, non-palatalized ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩, ⟨μ⟩, or ⟨ν⟩.
before palatal consonants ([ɟ] or [ç]) [ɲ] αγκινάρα [aɲɟiˈnara] "artichoke" This occurs when the following consonant is palatalized ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩.
everywhere else [ɣ] γαλκός [ɣalˈɡ̊os] "copper"
γγ before front vowel [ɲ] άγγελος [ˈaɲelos] "angel"
elsewhere [ŋ] άγγουρο [ˈaŋuro] "cucumber"
γι before vowels [ʝ] μαγιά [maˈʝa] "yeast"
γγι before vowels [ɲ] πάρκκιγγιους [ˈparciɲus] "parking (gen.)"
δ everywhere [ð] δούρα [ˈðura] "door"
ζ everywhere [z] ζεμελός [zemeˈlos] "man"
ζ̌ everywhere [ʒ] βρουζ̌ικιά [vruʒiˈɟ̊a] "Phrygian"
θ everywhere [θ] πθουγά [pθuˈɣa] "fold"
ι preceded by ⟨μ⟩ and followed by a vowel [ɲ] μια [mɲa] "one (f.)"
preceded by an unvoiced consonant other than ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩ and followed by a vowel [ç] τιάρα [ˈtçara] "tiara" [tç] and [sç] may instead be pronounced [tʃ] and [ʃ] respectively.
preceded by a voiced consonant other than ⟨γ⟩, ⟨λ⟩, ⟨μ⟩, or ⟨ν⟩ and followed by a vowel [ʝ] τρια [trʝa] "three (n.)" [dʝ] and [zʝ] may instead be pronounced [dʒ] and [ʒ] respectively.
κ after vowel or liquid and before front vowel ([e] or [i]). [ɟ̊] κακοί [kaˈɟ̊i] "bad, harmful (pl.)"
after vowel or liquid otherwise [ɡ̊] κακός [kaˈɡ̊os] "bad, harmful"
after nasal before front vowel [ɟ] αγκινάρα [aɲɟiˈnara] "artichoke"
after nasal otherwise [ɡ] μάγκο [ˈmaŋɡo] "mango"
before voiced obstruent [ɡ] άκδος [ˈaɡðos] "sorrow"
otherwise before front vowel [c] κιττάπ [ciˈtab̥] "book"
everywhere else [k] κακός [kaˈɡ̊os] "bad, harmful"
κκ before front vowel [c] δίκκοι [ˈðici] "discs"
otherwise [k] Μάκκα [ˈmaka] "Makkah"
κι after vowel or liquid and before a vowel [ɟ̊] βρουζ̌ικιά [vruʒiˈɟ̊a] "Phrygian"
after nasal before a vowel [ɟ] άγκιο [ˈaɲɟo] "cup"
otherwise before a vowel [c] κιουριακό [curʝaˈɡ̊o] "mosque"
κκι before a vowel [c] ίκκιο [ˈico] "horse"
λ(λ) everywhere [l] άλφα [ˈalfa] "alpha"
λ(λ)ι before a vowel [ʎ] ζέλλια [ˈzeʎa] "thousand"
μ(μ) everywhere [m] ζεμελός [zemeˈlos] "man"
ν non-final [n] όνομαν [ˈonomã] "name"
final [-̃, ɰ̃] όνομαν [ˈonomã] "name" Nasalizes the preceding vowel.
νν everywhere [n] μάννα [ˈmana] "manna"
ν(ν)ι before a vowel [ɲ] χαλαππένιο [xalaˈpeɲo] "jalapeño"
ξ everywhere [ks] ξούλο [ˈksulo] "tree"
ξ̌ everywhere [kʃ] ξ̌έκκια [ˈkʃeca] "congregational mosque"
ου word-initial before a vowel or between vowels [w] Ουίντζορ [ˈwindzor] "Windsor"
π after vowel or liquid [b̥] κιττάπ [ciˈtab̥] "book"
after nasal [b] κάμπα [ˈkamba] "worm"
before voiced obstruent [b] πδέλλα [ˈbðela] "leech"
otherwise [p] πρώτος [ˈprod̥os] "first"
ππ everywhere [p] κάππαρις [ˈkaparis] "caper"
ρ(ρ) everywhere [r ~ ɾ] κάππαρις [ˈkaparis] "caper" In free variation.
σ(σ) everywhere [s] τος [tos] "the (m. nom. sg.)"
σ̌(σ̌) everywhere [ʃ] σ̌αχ [ʃax] "shah"
τ after vowel or liquid [d̥] πρώτος [ˈprod̥os] "first"
after nasal; before voiced obstruent [d] άντρας [ˈandras] "(adult) man"
otherwise [t] τος [tos] "the"
ττ everywhere [t] άττα [ˈata] "father"
τσ everywhere [ts] πίτσα [ˈpitsa] "pizza"
τσ̌ everywhere [tʃ] τσ̌έττερες [ˈtʃeteres] "four"
τζ [dz] τζάγγα [ˈdzaŋɡa] "slipper"
τζ̌ [dʒ] άντζ̌αρος [ˈandʒaros] "messenger"
υ after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ and before a nasal consonant [m] ενευνάνα [enemˈnana] "ninety"
after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ and word-final or before a voiceless consonant [f] ταυ [taf] "tau"
after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ otherwise [v] μεύος [ˈmevos] "mine"
φ everywhere [f] φυσικά [fisiˈɡ̊a] "physics"
χ before front vowel [ç] χεμικιός [çemiˈɟ̊os] "chemist"
otherwise [x] χάλβα [ˈxalva] "halwa"
χι before vowel [ç] χιούμορ [ˈçumor] "humour"
ψ everywhere [ps] ψουγά [psuˈɣa] "mind"
ψ̌ everywhere [pʃ] ψ̌έμαν [ˈpʃemã] "soul"
Vowels
Monophthong Vowels
Letter IPA Examples Remarks
α [a] ακρός [aˈɡ̊ros] "field" Actually closer to [ä].
ε [e] βέκος [ˈveɡ̊os] "bread" Actually closer to [e̞].
αι βαίνα [ˈvena] "hyena"
ι [i] μιδός [miˈðos] "wage"
η μαθηματικά [maθimad̥iˈɡ̊a] "mathematics" In older texts, instead represents [e] - e.g. τρης [tres] (modern τρες) "three".
υ φυσικά [fisiˈɡ̊a] In older texts, instead represents [u] - e.g. κύγνος (modern κούγνος) /ˈkuŋnos/ "swan".
ει είρος [ˈiros] "child"
οι είροι [ˈiri] "children"
υι βυίαλος [ˈvilos] "leaf"
ο [o] όνομαν [ˈonomã] "name" Actually closer to [o̞].
ω πρώτος [ˈprod̥os] "first"
ου [u] κούρα [ˈkura] "girl" Often written ȣ in older texts.
Diphthongs and hiatus

Falling diphthongs are formed by following a non-high vowel with a high vowel.

The following falling diphthongs are possible:

Diphthongs
offglide→
nucleus↓ 		ι /i/ η /i/ υ /i/ ου /u/
α /a/ αϊ (άι) αη αϋ (άυ) αου
ε /e/ εϊ (έι) εη εϋ (έυ) εου
ο /o/ οϊ (όι) οη οϋ (όυ) οου
ω /o/ ωι ωη ωυ ωου

Vowels in hiatus may be pronounced as rising diphthongs if that the first vowel is a high vowel.

When two adjacent vowels that normally form a digraph are in hiatus or form a diphthong, this is indicated with a diaresis on the second vowel, which is invariably ⟨ι⟩ or ⟨υ⟩.

A diaresis is not used if the first vowel has an accent, since that precludes the possibility of it being a digraph.

A diaresis can also be used on unaccented ⟨ι⟩ before other vowels in order to indicate hiatus when it would otherwise be pronounced as a consonant. This can also be done with initial ⟨ου⟩ (which is written ⟨ο̈υ⟩), but the latter is rare.

Stress

Primary stress is always indicated in multisyllabic words via an acute accent. Monosyllabic words do not indicate stress.

When a syllable with a false diphthong (i.e. αι, ει, οι, υι, αυ, ευ, ηυ) is stressed, the accent is always written on the second vowel letter.

When a syllable with a true diphthong is stressed, the accent is written on the nucleus of the diphthong (i.e. the first vowel letter).

Consonants

Vowels

Prosody

Intonation

Phonotactics

Morphophonology

Phonological history

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns may be one of three genders: masculine, feminine, or neuter.

Cases

Nouns are declined for four cases:

  • Nominative
  • Genitive
  • Oblique
  • Vocative

The cases are used similarly as they are in Ancient Greek, with oblique covering the roles of accusative and dative. Most prepositions take an oblique object.

Stress

Nouns retain their stress on the same syllable throughout their declensions as far as possible.

There are a few irregular nouns that shift their stress.

Citation form

The citation form for most nouns is: nominative singular, genitive singular.

First declension (a-stems)

First declension nouns are most often feminine. Neuter first declension nouns are rare.

The endings are as follows:

First declension endings
Case Singular Plural
M F N M F N
Nominative -ας -α -αι -α
Genitive -ας -αν
Oblique -αν -α -αις -α
Vocative -α -αι -α

Second declension (o-stems)

Feminine declension nouns are rare.

The endings are as follows:

Second declension endings
Case Singular Plural
M/F N M/F N
Nominative -ος -ο -οι -α
Genitive -ους -ουν
Oblique -ουν -ο -οις -α
Vocative -ε -ο -οι -α

Third declension

There are three sub-classes of third declension nouns: consonant stems, i-stems, and mixed stems.

Consonant stems

Consonant stems often have unpredictable nominative singular forms. These may alternate with forms in -ας (masc./fem.) or -α (neut.).

Consonant stem endings
Case Singular Plural
M/F N M/F N
Nominative -ας/-/... -α/-/... -ες -α
Genitive -ους -ουν
Oblique -αν -α/-/... -ες -α
Vocative -ας/-/... -α/-/... -ες -α
i-stems

Similarly to consonant stems, i-stems may have irregular nominative singular forms, which may alternate with regular forms.

i-stem endings
Case Singular Plural
M/F N M/F N
Nominative -ις/-/... -ι/-ος/-/... -ες -ια
Genitive -ιους -ιουν
Oblique -ιν -ι/-ος/-/... -ες -ια
Vocative -ις/-/... -ι/-ος/-/... -ες -ια
Mixed stems

Mixed stems are declined similarly to i-stems, but -ι- is dropped before vowels. Again, mixed stems may have irregular nominative singular forms.

Mixed stem endings
Case Singular Plural
M/F N M/F N
Nominative -ις/-/... -ι/-/... -ες -α
Genitive -ους -ουν
Oblique -ιν -ι/-/... -ες -α
Vocative -ις/-/... -ι/-/... -ες -α

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns have strong and weak forms.

First and second person pronouns
Nominative Genitive Oblique Possessive
Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak
1S εγιού γιου εμεύ μευ εμέ με μευός, -ά, -ό
2S ετού του ετεύ τευ ετέ τε τευός, -ά, -ό
1P ενές νες ενιούν νω ενές νω νωμός, -ά, -ό
2P εβές βες εβιούν βω εβές βω βωμός, -ά, -ό

Third person pronouns are declined as regular first/second declension adjectives with the following citation forms:

  • Strong: απθός, -ά, -ό
  • Weak: θος, -α, -ο
  • Reflexive: βαπθός, -ά, -ό

Definite article/pronoun

Declined as a 1st/2nd declension adjective: τος, τα, το.

Follows the substantive it modifies. Can also be used as an independent pronoun.

Indefinite pronoun

Declined as the definite pronoun with initial τ- replaced with κ-.

Relative pronoun

Declined as the definite pronoun with initial τ- replaced with γι-.

Demonstrative pronouns

  • Near demonstrative: σεμός, -ά, -ό
    • First/second declension
  • Middle demonstrative: σις, σα, σι, σους
    • First/third declension (mixed stem)
  • Far demonstrative: τόττος, -α, -ο
    • First/second declension

These can be used with a following noun or on their own.

Adjectives

First/second declension

Declined as second declension in masculine and neuter, and first declension in feminine.

This is the most common class of adjectives.

The citation form is masculine nominative singular, feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular.

Examples:

  • πρώτος, -α, -ο "first"

First/third declension

Declined as third declension in masculine and neuter, and first declension in feminine.

The citation form is masculine nominative singular, feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular, masculine/neuter genitive singular.

Examples:

  • ένας (εις), μια, εν, ένους "one"
  • αίδονας (αίδων), αίδοισα, αίδον, αίδονους "burning"

First declension

Declined as first declension in all genders.

The citation form is masculine nominative singular, feminine/neuter nominative singular, genitive singular.

Examples:

  • μέκας, μέκα, μέκας "big"

Second declension

Declined as second declension in all genders.

This class of adjectives is rare.

The citation form is masculine/feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular, genitive singular.

Third declension

Declined as third declension in all genders.

The citation form is normally masculine/feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular, genitive singular

The exceptions are the numerals τρες, τρια "three" and τσ̌έττερες, τσ̌έττερα "four", which do not have singular forms. Their citation forms are masculine/feminine nominative plural, neuter nominative plural.

Usage

Adjectives can be used in the following ways:

  1. Attributive: In this case, the adjective generally follows its noun. Alternatively, it may precede the noun.
  2. Predicative: Used as a predicate.
  3. Substantive: Used on its own without a noun, generally with a definite article.

Verbs

Notes on verb conjugation

  1. Accent is recessive except in forms with fixed accent, which is indicated with an accent sign in the ending.
  2. In vowel initial verbs, the past prefix ε- changes form predictably based on the initial vowel as follows:
    • ε- + ε- > α-;
    • ε- is dropped before other front vowels (ι-, ει-, οι-, αι-, η-, υ-, υι-);
    • ε- > γι- before back vowels (α-, ο-, ω-, ου-).
  3. The future forms are also used as present subjunctive/jussive.

Principle parts and stems

Adverbs

Particles

Numerals

Phrygian numerals
Cardinal Ordinal Adverbial Collective
0 ματένας (ματείς), ματεμιά, ματέν, ματένους ματενάνος, -α, -ο — —
1 ένας (εις), μια, εν, ένους πρώτος, -α, -ο άπαχ μονάς, -άτους
2 τφω τφέτερος, -α, -ο τφις τφάς, -άτους
3 τρες, τρια τρίτος, -α, -ο τρις τριας, -άτους
4 τσ̌έττερες, τσ̌έττερα τσ̌ετέρτος, -α, -ο τσ̌ετράτζ̌ις τσ̌ετράς, -άτους
5 πίντζ̌ε πίντος, -α, -ο πίγκιάτζ̌ις πιντάς, -άτους
6 βεχ βέκθος, -α, -ο βεξάτζ̌ις βεκθάς, -άτους
7 επθάν έπθαμος, -α, -ο εμμάτζ̌ις επθαμάς, -άτους
8 οκθών όκθουος, -α, -ο οκθώτζ̌ις οκθουάς, -άτους
9 ενιάν ένιανος, -α, -ο ενευνάτζ̌ις ενιανάς, -άτους
10 τέκαν τέκανος, -α, -ο τεκανάτζ̌ις τεκανάς, -άτους
11 ένεκαν ενέκανος, -α, -ο ενεκανάτζ̌ις ενεκανάς, -άτους
12 τφώτεκαν τφωτέκανος, -α, -ο τφωτεκανάτζ̌ις τφωτεκανάς, -άτους
13 τρίτεκαν τριτέκανος, -α, -ο τριτεκανάτζ̌ις τριτεκανάς, -άτους
14 τσ̌ετέρτεκαν τσ̌ετερτέκανος, -α, -ο τσ̌ετερτεκανάτζ̌ις τσ̌ετερτεκανάς, -άτους
15 πίντεκαν πιντέκανος, -α, -ο πιντεκανάτζ̌ις πιντεκανάς, -άτους
16 βέκθεκαν βεκθέκανος, -α, -ο βεκθεκανάτζ̌ις βεκθεκανάς, -άτους
17 επθάνεκαν επθανέκανος, -α, -ο επθανεκανάτζ̌ις επθανεκανάς, -άτους
18 οκθώνεκαν οκθωνέκανος, -α, -ο οκθωνεκανάτζ̌ις οκθωνεκανάς, -άτους
19 ενιάνεκαν ενιανέκανος, -α, -ο ενιανεκανάτζ̌ις ενιανεκανάς, -άτους
20 βίκιανι βικιοττός, -ά, -ό βικιανιάτζ̌ις βικιανιάς, -άτους
30 τριάνα τριαττός, -ά, -ό τριανάτζ̌ις τριανάς, -άτους
40 τσ̌ετράνα τσ̌ετραττός, -ά, -ό τσ̌ετρανάτζ̌ις τσ̌ετρανάς, -άτους
50 πιγκιάνα πιγκιαττός, -ά, -ό πιγκιανάτζ̌ις πιγκιανάς, -άτους
60 βεξάνα βεξαττός, -ά, -ό βεξανάτζ̌ις βεξανάς, -άτους
70 εμμάνα εμματτός, -ά, -ό εμμανάτζ̌ις εμμανάς, -άτους
80 οκθώνα οκθωττός, -ά, -ό οκθωνάτζ̌ις οκθωνάς, -άτους
90 ενευνάνα ενευναττός, -ά, -ό ενευνανάτζ̌ις ενευνανάς, -άτους
100 εκανόυν εκανοττός, -ά, -ό εκανάτζ̌ις εκανάς, -άτους
200 τφακιάνιοι τφακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό τφακιανιάτζ̌ις τφακιανάς, -άτους
300 τριακιάνιοι τριακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό τριακιανιάτζ̌ις τριακιανάς, -άτους
400 τσ̌ετρακιάνιοι τσ̌ετρακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό τσ̌ετρακιανιάτζ̌ις τσ̌ετρακιανάς, -άτους
500 πιγκιακιάνιοι πιγκιακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό πιγκιακιανιάτζ̌ις πιγκιακιανάς, -άτους
600 βεξακιάνιοι βεξακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό βεξακιανιάτζ̌ις βεξακιανάς, -άτους
700 εμμακιάνιοι εμμακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό εμμακιανιάτζ̌ις εμμακιανάς, -άτους
800 οκθωκιάνιοι οκθωκιανιοττός, -ά, -ό οκθωκιανιάτζ̌ις οκθωκιανάς, -άτους
900 ενευνακιάνιοι ενευνακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό ενευνακιανιάτζ̌ις ενευνακιανάς, -άτους
1000 ζέλλια ζελλιοττός, -ά, -ό ζελλιάτζ̌ις ζελλιάς, -άτους
2000 τφωζέλλιαι τφωζελλιοττός, -ά, -ό τφωζελλιάτζ̌ις τφωζελλιάς, -άτους

Syntax

Constituent order

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Vocabulary

Time - Ώρα τα

Seasons - Γρόνοι τοι
English Phrygian
spring βιαρ, βιάρους
summer ζ̌ερός, -ιούς
fall οπώρα, -ας
winter ζ̌ειμούν, -ους
Gregorian months - Μενές τοι κρεκοριανόι
English Phrygian
January Γιανβάριος, -ιους
February Φερβάριος, -ιους
March Μάρτσ̌ος, -ιους
April Απρίλιος, -ιους
May Μάγιος, -ους
June Γιούνιος, -ους
July Γιούλιος, -ους
August Άπγουττος, -ους
September Σεπθέμπριος, -ιους
October Οκθώβριος, -ιους
November Νουέμπριος, -ιους
December Δετζ̌έμπριος, -ιους
Days of the week - Άμανα τα πδομάτους τας
English Phrygian
Sunday Κοιρακά
Monday Τφέτερα
Tuesday Τρίτα
Wednesday Τσ̌ετέρτα
Thursday Πίντα
Friday Τζ̌ούμγα
Saturday Σάβατο
Parts of the day - Μέλοι τοι άμανους τους
English Phrygian
day άμαρ, άμανους (n.)
dawn απγά, -ς (f.)
morning βώς, βώβους (f.)
noon μεσαμπριό, -ούς (n.)
afternoon τείλα, -ς (f.)
evening βεππέρα, -ς (f.)
dusk τούτις, τούτιους (f.)
night νουκθάς (νουχ), νουκθούς (f.)
midnight μεσανουξ̌ά, -ς (f.)
Units of time - Μονάτους ται ώρας τας
English Phrygian
second τφέτερο, -ους (n.)
minute λεπθό, -ούς (n.)
hour ώρα, -ς (f.)
day άμαρ, άμανους (n.)
week πδομάς, -άτους (f.)
month μένας (μεις), μενούς (m.)
season γρόνος, -ους (m.)
year βέτος, βείτους (n.)
Time adverbs - Επίβρεμανα τα ωραίκια
English Phrygian
now νουν
then άρα; τότζ̌ε
recently, a short time ago άρτι
earlier προς
soon, shortly
later ψές
always αει; πάντοτζ̌ε
often πυιλάτζ̌ις
sometimes κότζ̌ε
rarely παύροτζ̌ε
never μέκοτζ̌ε
ever κώκοτζ̌ε
still, yet έτι; κω
already
today σάμαρουν
tonight σινούκθουν
yesterday κδες
last night
tomorrow αύριουν
before yesterday
two nights ago
after tomorrow
this week
last week
next week
this year σέτες
last year πέρουτι
next year

Example texts

Other resources

Notes

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