Gothedish: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 17:14, 14 May 2023

Gothedish (Native: Guþþydske /ˈɡuːθʏtskə/) is an East Germanic language. One of its most distinctive feature is extensive palatalization, which is most likely due to Slavic influence.

Gothedish
Razde Guþþydske Razdă Γn̄ффindskă 𐍂𐌰𐌶𐌳𐌰 𐌲𐌿𐌸𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐍃𐌺𐌰 رزده گوثثدسکه
Pronunciation	[ˈrɐzdə ˈɡuːˌθʏtskə]
Created by	Shariifka
Language family	Indo-European Germanic East Germanic Gothic Gothedish
Early forms	Gothic Old Gothedish Middle Gothedish

Introduction

Gothedish is a descendant of Gothic, spoken by the Gothedes (Guþþyde).

Etymology

The ethnonym Guþþyde "Gothede" is derived from Gothic 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰 gutþiuda "Goths", from *𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌰 guta "Goth" + 𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰 þiuda "people". Folk etymology derives it from Gud "God" (< Gothic 𐌲𐌿𐌸 guþ "God") + þyde "slave" (< Gothic *𐌸𐌹𐍅𐌰𐌹𐌳𐌰 þiwaida "enslaved"), in which case it means "slave of God". Guþþyde is declined as a strong feminine noun when referring to the Gothedes as whole and as a weak noun when referring to an individual.

Phonology

Consonants

Consonant phonemes of Standard Gothedish
	Labial		Dental		Alveolar		Post-alveolar/palatal		Velar		Guttural
	voiceless	voiced¹	voiceless	voiced	voiceless	voiced	voiceless	voiced	voiceless	voiced	voiceless	voiced
Nasal	m [m]				hn [n̥]	n [n]	nj, mj [ɲ]		(n) [ŋ]²
Stop	p, kv [p]	b, gv [b]			t [t]	d [d]			k, c³ [k]	g [ɡ]
Affricate					tj, ts, c³ [t͡s]		k(j), pj [t͡ʃ]	g(j), bj [d͡ʒ]
Fricative	f, hv [f]	v [v]³	þ [θ]		s [s]	z, dj [z]	sj, sk(j), fj, hj, -g⁴ [ʃ]	zj, rj, zg(j) [ʒ]	ch², -g [x]		h [h]
Approximant	w [w]						j, g⁴ [j]
Lateral					hl [ɬ]	l [l]	lj [ʎ]
Trill					hr [r̥]	r [r]

Notes:

¹ Voiced stops, affricates, and fricatives are devoiced word-finally. Word-final voiced stops and affricates are additionally fricatized, unless preceded by certain consonants (see orthography for more information).

² Allophone of /n/ before velars.

³ In loanwords.

⁴ In palatalizing environments.

Vowels

Vowel phonemes of Standard Gothedish
	Front				Central		Back
	unrounded		rounded		Central		Back
	short¹	long	short	long	short	long	short	long
Close	i [ɪ]	i, ie, ige [iː]	y [ʏ]	y, ye, ygi [yː]			u [ʊ]	u, ue [uː]
Close-mid		e [eː]		ö, eo [øː]	e, i [ə]²			o [oː]
Open-mid	e [ɛ]	ä, ea [ɛː]	ö [œ]		a [ɐ]		o [ɔ]	å, oa [ɔː]
Open	ä [æ]					a [äː]	å [ɒ]
Narrow diphthong	ei, egi, ägi [ɛɪ̯]		oi, eu, ey, ögi [œʏ̯]				ou [ɔʊ̯]
Wide diphthong	ai, agi [aɪ̯]		åi, ågi, ogi [ɔɪ̯]				au [aʊ̯]

Notes:

¹ Any vowel is lengthened when it has an acute accent or circumflex. Similarly, vowels followed by ⟨h⟩ are lengthened even if there is an intervening consonant. An exception is the digraph ⟨hj⟩, which shortens the preceding vowel.

² In unstressed syllables. Dropped when immediately preceded by vowel or followed by vowel in the next syllable, unless that leads to a forbidden consonant cluster. Written ⟨i⟩ after palatalized ⟨g⟩ that is not preceded by ⟨i⟩.

Orthography

Gothedish can be written in various orthographies. The most commonly used is the Latin alphabet.

Latin (Lateinske)	IPA	Perso-Arabic (Arabske)	Old Gothic (Alþgutske)	New Gothic (Neygutske)	Cyrillic (Cyrillske)	Examples
A a	ɐ, aː¹	ــَـ ، ــَا	𐌰	A a, Ā ā	А а (Я я), А́ а́ (Я́ я́)	hand /hɐnt/ "hand", apel /ˈaːpl̩/ "apple"
Á á; Â â	aː¹	ــَا	𐌰	Ā ā; Â â	А́ а́ (Я́ я́)	hábde /ˈhaːbdə/, hâde /ˈhaːdə/ "had"
Ai ai	aɪ̯	ــَىْ	𐌰𐌾	Ag ag	Ай ай (Яй яй)	haiku /ˈhaɪ̯kuː/ "haiku"
Au au	aʊ̯	ــَـوْ	𐌰𐍅	Ay ay	Аў аў (Яў яў)	auto /ˈaʊ̯toː/ "car"
Ä ä	æ, ɛː¹	ــٰـ ، ــٰى	𐌰𐌹	Ai ai, Āi āi	Ѧ ѧ (Ѩ ѩ), Ҍ ҍ (Ꙓ ꙓ)	ärþe /ˈærθə/ "earth", än /ɛːn/ "one"
Ea ea; Êa êa	ɛː¹	ــٰى	𐌰𐌹	Āi āi; Âi âi	Ҍ ҍ (Ꙓ ꙓ)	leazde /lɛːzdə/ "crawled", êan /ɛːn/ "property"
Å å	ɒ, ɔː¹	ــٛـ ، ــٛو	𐌰𐌿	An an, Ān ān	Ѫ ѫ (Ѭ ѭ), Ѡ ѡ (Іѡ іѡ)	åster /ˈɒstr̩/ "east", håbed /ˈhɔːbəθ/ "head"
Oa oa; Ôa ôa	ɔː¹	ــٛو	𐌰𐌿	Ān ān; Ân ân	Ѡ ѡ (Іѡ іѡ)	loakde /lɔːɡdə/ "lapped", hôad /hɔːθ/ "head"
Åi åi	ɔɪ̯	ــٛـىْ	𐍉𐌾	Ωg wg	Ѫй ѫй (Ѭй ѭй)	åi! /ɔɪ̯/ "oops!, ouch!"
B b	b, V/NN-f, N-p²	ب ، ف	𐌱	B b	Б б	barn /bɐrn/ "child", hläb /ɬɛːf/ "bread", lamb /lɐmp/ "sheep"
Bj bj	d͡ʒ, V/NN-ʃ, N-t͡ʃ²	ج ، ش	𐌱𐌾	Bg bg	Бь бь	glåbjen /ˈɡlɒd͡ʒn̩/ "to believe", glåbj /ɡlɒʃ/ "believe (sg. imper.)", ankumbj /ˈaːŋkʊnt͡ʃ/ "relax (sg. imper.)
C c³	k, t͡s	–	–	–	К к; Ц ц	calcien /ˈkɐlt͡sin/ "calcium"
Ch ch	x	خ	𐍇	X x	Ӿ ӿ	duchan /dʊˈxaːn/ "smoke"
D d	d, V-θ, C-t²	د ، ث	𐌳	D d	Д д	dal /daːl/ "valley", god /goːθ/ "good", hund /hʊnt/ "dog"
Dj dj	z, N-d͡z- V/NN-s, N-t͡s²	ز، س	𐌳𐌾	Dg dg	Дь дь	arbedjen /ˈɐrbəzn̩/ "to work", wӓdedj /ˈwɛːdəs/ "robber", andj /ɐnt͡s/ "end"
E e	ɛ, eː ¹	ــٖـ ، ــٖی	𐌴	E e, Ē ē	Е е (Є є), Е́ е́ (Є́ є́)	merjen /ˈmɛʒn̩/ "to preach", weg /weːx/ "storm"
E e, I i	ə⁴	ــَـ ، ــِـ	𐌰	Ă ă	Э э (Ӭ ӭ)	make /ˈmaːkə/ "I make", hugi /huːjə/ "mind, reason"
É é; Ê ê	eː¹	ــٖی	𐌴	Ē ē; Ê ê	Е́ е́ (Є́ є́)	lékjenen /leːt͡ʃnn̩/ "to heal", wêmilhme /ˈweːˌmiːlmə/ "stormcloud"
Ei ei; Êi êi	ɛɪ̯	ــَی	𐌴𐌹	Ei ei	Ей ей (Єй єй)	eis /ɛɪ̯s/ "ice"
Eu eu; Êu êu	œʏ̯	ـٰـوْ	𐌴𐌿	En en	Eў еў (Єў єў)	eu /œʏ̯/ "(for)ever"
Ey ey; Êy êy	œʏ̯	ــٗی	𐌴𐌹𐌿	Ein ein	Ёй ёй (Іёй іёй)	ney /nœʏ̯/ "new"
F f	f	ف	𐍆	F f	Ф ф	fisk /fɪsk/ "fish"
Fj fj	ʃ	ش	𐍆𐌾	Fg fg	Фь фь	hafjen /ˈhɐʃn̩/ "to lift"
G g	ɡ, V-x, C-k²	گ	𐌲	Г r	Г г	god /ɡoːθ/ "good", dag /daːx/ "day", bårg /bɒrk/ "city, town"
G g	d͡ʒ-, V-j-V, -ʃ^2,5	ج ، ی ، ش	𐌲	Ѓ ŕ	Гь гь	giben /ˈd͡ʒiːbn̩/ "to give", huiges /ˈhuːjəs/ "minds", gvärþig /ˈbærθɪʃ/ "peaceful"
Gj gj	d͡ʒ, V-ʃ, C-t͡ʃ	ج	𐌲𐌾	Гg rg	Џ(ь) џ(ь)	hugjen /ˈhʊd͡ʒn̩/ "to think, intend", andågj /anˈdɒʃ/ "face", angj /ɐnt͡ʃ/ "egg"
Gv gv	b, V-f, C-p	ب ، ف	𐍁	Ч ɥ	Гв гв	gvärþj /bærs/ "peace",sangv /sɐmp/ "song"
H h	h, Ø⁶	هـ	𐌷	Һ h	Х х	hund /hʊnt/ "dog", naht /naːt/ "night"
Hj hj	ʃ	ش	𐌷𐌾	Һg hg	Ш(ь) ш(ь)	hlahjen /ɬɐʃn̩/ "to laugh"
Hl hl	ɬ, -ːl(-)	هل ، ل	𐌷𐌻	Һλ hλ	Хл хл	hlahjen /ɬɐʃn̩/ "to laugh", mahle /maːlə/ "juice"
Hn hn	n̥, -ːn(-)	هن ، ن	𐌷𐌽	ҺN hv	Хн хн	hnåt /n̥ɔːt/ "nut", lähn /lɛːn/ "loan"
Hr hr	r̥, -ːr(-)	هر ، ر	𐌷𐍂	Һp hp	Хр хр	hraben /r̥aːbn̩/ "raven", huhr /huːr/ "hunger"
Hv hv	f	ف	𐍈	Θ ɵ	Хв хв	sähven /sɛːfn̩/ "to see"
I i	ɪ, iː¹	ــِـ ، ــِی	𐌹	I i, Ī ī	И и (І і), И́ и́ (Í í)	sähven /ˈsɛːfn̩/ "to see"
Í í; Î î	iː¹	ــِی	𐌹	Ī ī; Î î	И́ и́ (Í í)	niþj /nɪs/ "relative". ik /iːk/ "I"
Ie ie	iː¹	ــِی	𐌹𐌰	Iă iă	Иэ иэ (Іэ іэ)	friend /friːnt/ "friend"
J j	j	ی	𐌾	G g	Й й	jah /jaː/ "and"
K k	k	ک	𐌺	K k	К к	katt /kɐt/ "cat"
K k	t͡ʃ	چ	𐌺	Ḱ ḱ	Ч(ь) ч(ь)	kinn /t͡ʃɪn/ "cheek"
Kj kj	t͡ʃ	چ	𐌺𐌾	Kg kg	Ч(ь) ч(ь)	míkjel /miːt͡ʃl̩/ "big, great"
Kv kv	p	پ	𐌵	U u	Кв кв	kvimen /piːmn̩/ "to come"
L l	l	ل	𐌻	Λ λ	Л л	lamb /lɐmp/ "sheep"
Lj lj	ʎ	ڷ	𐌻𐌾	Λg λg	Ль ль	alj /ɐʎ/ "other"
M m	m	م	𐌼	M m	М м	mäze /mɛːzə/ "bigger"
Mj mj	ɲ	ݧ	𐌼𐌾	Mg mg	Мь мь	tamjen /ˈtɐɲn̩/ "to tame"
N n	n	ن	𐌽	N v	Н н	name /naːmə/ "name"
Nj nj	ɲ	ݧ	𐌽𐌾	Ng ng	Нь нь	sunj /sʊɲ/ "true"
O o	ɔ, oː	ــࣷـ ، ــࣷو	𐍉	Ω w; Ω̄ w̄	О о (Іо іо), О́ о́ (Іо́ іо́)	sokjen /sɔt͡ʃn̩/ "to search, investigate", bok /boːk/ "writing, letter, contract"
Ó ó; Ô ô	oː	ــࣷو	𐍉	Ω̄ w̄; Ω̂ ŵ	О́ о́ (Іо́ іо́)	hólde /hoːldə/ "accused falsely", ôn /oːn/
Ö ö	œ, øː	ــࣹـ ، ــࣹا	𐍉𐌹	Ωi wi; Ω̄i w̄i	Ё ё (Іё іё), Ö ö (Іö іö)	östrogen /œstroˈɡeːn/, fötus /ˈføːtus/ "fetus"
Eo eo; Êo êo	øː	ــࣹو	𐍉𐌹	Ω̄i w̄i; Ω̂i ŵi	Ö ö (Іö іö)
Oi oi; Ôi ôi	œʏ̯	ــࣷی	𐌰𐌿𐌹	Ani ani	Ой ой (Іой іой)
Ou ou; Ôu ôu	ɔʊ̯	ــࣷـوْ	𐍉𐌿	Ωw Ωw	Оў оў (Іоў іоў)
P p	p	پ	𐍀	П ր	П п
Pj pj	t͡ʃ	چ	𐍀𐌾	Пg րg	Пь пь
R r	r	ر	𐍂	R p	Р р
Rj rj	ʒ	ژ	𐍂𐌾	Rg pg	Рь рь
S s	s	س	𐍃	S s	С с
Sj sj	ʃ	ش	𐍃𐌾	Sg sg	Сь сь
Sk sk	sk	سک	𐍃𐌺	Sk sk	Ск ск
Sk sk	ʃ	ش	𐍃𐌺	Sḱ sḱ	Щ(ь) щ(ь)
Skj skj	ʃ	ش	𐍃𐌺𐌾	Skg skg	Щ(ь) щ(ь)	hnaskj /n̥ɐʃ/ "soft"
T t	t	ت	𐍄	T t	Т т
Tj tj	t͡s	ڃ	𐍄𐌾	Tg tg	Ть ть
Þ þ	θ	ث	𐌸	Ψ ф	Ѳ ѳ
Þj þj	s	س	𐌸𐌾	Ψg фg	Ѳь ѳь	niþj /nɪs/ "relative"
U u	ʊ, uː¹	ــُـ ، ــُو	𐌿	Ո n, Ո̄ n̄	У у (Ю ю), У́ у́ (Ю́ ю́)
Ú ú; Û û	uː¹	ــُو	𐌿	Ո̄ n̄; Ո̂ n̂	У́ у́ (Ю́ ю́)
Ue ue	uː¹	ــُو	𐌿𐌰	Ոă nă	Уэ уэ (Юэ юэ)
Ui ui	uː⁷	ــُو	𐌿	Ո̄ n̄	У у (Ю ю)	huig /ˈhuːʃ/ "mind, reason"
V v³	v, -f	ڤ	𐌱	B b	В в
W w	w	و	𐍅	Y y	В в; Ў ў
Y y	ʏ, yː¹	ــࣺـ ، ــࣺو	𐌹𐌿	In in, Īn īn	Ѵ ѵ (Іѵ іѵ), Ѵ́ ѵ́ (Іѵ́ іѵ́)
Ý ‎‎ý; Ŷ ŷ	yː¹	ــࣺو	𐌹𐌿	Īn īn; În în	Ѵ́ ѵ́ (Іѵ́ іѵ́)
Ye ye	yː¹	ــࣺو	𐌹𐌿𐌰	Ină ină	Ѵэ ѵэ (Іѵэ іѵэ)
Z z	z, -s	ز		Z z	З з
Zj zj	ʒ, -ʃ	ژ	𐌶	Zg zg	Зь зь
Zg zg	zɡ	زگ	𐌶𐌲	Zr zg	Зг зг
Zg zg	ʒ	ژ	𐌶𐌲	Zŕ zŕ	Ж(ь) ж(ь)
Zgj zgj	ʒ	ش	𐌶𐌲𐌾	Zrg zrg	Ж(ь) ж(ь)

¹ Unmarked vowels are lengthened by default in “unchecked" syllables (i.e. stressed and followed by no more than one consonant) and are shortened otherwise. Short unchecked vowels are indicated by doubling the following consonant, and long checked vowels are indicated with special long forms. The circumflexed long forms are used when a letter (usually "b" or "g") has been dropped. Compound words and loanwords do not always conform to these rules. Note that long vowels may be pronounced shorter in closed and/or unstressed syllables; however, this shortening is non-phonemic.

² V = vowel; C = consonant; N = nasal consonant; NN = non-nasal consonant; FV = front vowel; VS = voiced sound

³ In loanwords.

⁴ Unstressed. Written ⟨e⟩ in the Latin script, except adjacent to palatalized ⟨g⟩, where it is written ⟨i⟩ if there is no other indicator of palatalization. Dropped in pronunciation when followed by another vowel in the next syllable, unless that leads to a forbidden consonant cluster. Not written before sonorants in Gothic and Cyrillic scripts.

⁵ The velar consonants ⟨k⟩ and ⟨g⟩ as well as the clusters ⟨sk⟩ and ⟨zg⟩ are palatalized before the front vowels ⟨ä, e, i, ö, y⟩ and digraphs beginning in them. The voiced velar ⟨g⟩ is also palatalized after ⟨i⟩ and digraphs ending in it. Note that unstressed ⟨e⟩ /ə/ does not cause palatalization. Unpalatalized /(s)k, (z)g/ only occur before front vowels in loanwords, and may be indicated with a following ⟨h⟩ – i.e. ⟨(s)kh, (z)gh⟩.

⁶ Lengthens preceding vowel, even if an intervening consonant is present.

⁷ Used before palatalized ⟨g⟩ when palatalization would not otherwise be indicated.

Latin alphabet (Lateinske)

Letter	Name	IPA	Alternative forms¹
A a	a	[aː]	á; â
Ä ä	ä brädet	[ɛː brɛːdət]	ea; êa
Å å	å brädet	[ɔː brɛːdət]	oa; ôa
B b	be	[beː]	–
C c	ce	[t͡seː]	–
D d	de	[deː]	–
E e	e	[eː]	é; ê
F f	eff	[ɛf]	–
G g	ge	[d͡ʒeː]	–
Gv gv	gviss	[bɪs]	–
H h	ha	[haː]	–

Letter	Name	IPA	Alternative forms
Hv hv	hvär	[fɛːr]	–
I i	i	[iː]	í; î
J j	jott	[jɔt]	–
K k	ka	[kaː]	–
Kv kv	kvärne	[pærnə]	–
L l	ell	[ɛl]	–
M m	emm	[ɛm]	–
N n	enn	[ɛn]	–
O o	o	[oː]	ó; ô
Ö ö	ö	[øː]	eo; êo
P p	pe	[peː]	–

Letter	Name	IPA	Alternative forms
(Q q)	ku	[kuː]	–
R r	err	[ɛr]	–
S s	ess	[ɛs]	–
T t	te	[teː]	–
Þ þ	þyþ	[θyːθ]	–
U u	u	[uː]	ú; û
V v	vau	[vaʊ̯]	–
W w	we	[weː]	–
(X x)	eks	[ɛks]	–
Y y	y/ypsilon	[yː]/[ʏpsɪlɔn]	ý; ŷ
Z z	zete	[zeːtə]	–

Notes:

¹ These are treated as the same letter for purposes of alphabetization.

Non-alphabetic letters/digraphs

Letter/digraph	Name	IPA
Á á (etc)	a langet (etc)	[aː lɐŋɡət] (etc)
Â â (etc)	a ibenet (etc)	[aː iːbnət] (etc)
Ea ea (etc)	ä brädet langet (etc)	[ɛː brɛːdət lɐŋɡət] (etc)
Bj bj (etc)	be hnaskjet (etc)	[beː n̥ɐʃət] (etc)
Ei ei (etc)	e i (etc)	[eː iː] (etc)
Ch ch	che/ce ha	[xeː]/[t͡seː haː]

Gothic alphabet (Gutske)

Letter			Name		IPA
Alþgutske	Miþgutske	Neygutske	Neygutske	Lateinske	IPA
𐌰	==	A a	avs	ans	[ɐns]
𐌱	==	B b	baipkă	bärke	[bærkə]
𐌲	==	Γ r	rībă	gibe	[d͡ʒiːbə]
𐌳	==	D d	dār	dag	[daːx]
𐌴	==	E e	āiɵ	ähv	[ɛːf]
𐌵	==	U u	uaipvă	kvärne	[pærnə]
𐌶	==	Z z	ēzăk	ezek	[eːzək]
𐌷	==	Һ h	hārλ	hagel	[haːgl̩]
𐌸	==	Ψ ф	фīnф	þyþ	[θyːθ]
𐌹	==	I i	eis	eis	[ɛɪ̯s]
𐌺	==	K k	knsmă	kusme	[kʊzmə]
𐌻	==	Λ λ	λār	lag	[laːx]
𐌼	==	M m	mavvă	manne	[mɐnə]

Letter			Name		IPA
Alþgutske	Miþgutske	Neygutske	Neygutske	Lateinske	IPA
𐌽	==	N v	vānф	nåþ	[nɔːθ]
𐌾	==	G g	gēp	jer	[jeːr]
𐌿	==	Ո n	onp	our	[ɔʊ̯r]
𐍀	==	П ր	րaipфă	pärþe	[pærθə]
𐍁	==	Ч ɥ	ɥiss	gviss	[bɪs]
𐍂	==	R p	pāidă	räde	[rɛːdə]
𐍃	==	S s	saniλ	soil	[sœʏ̯l]
𐍄	==	T t	tein	tey	[tœʏ̯]
𐍅	==	Y y	yivgă	winje	[wɪɲə]
𐍆	==	F f	fāih	fäh	[fɛː]
𐍇	==	X x	ivɥ	ingv	[ɪmp]
𐍈	==	Θ ɵ	ɵāip	hvär	[fɛːr]
𐍉	==	Ω w	w̄фλ	oþel	[oːθl̩]

Accented characters

These occur in the New Gothic (Neygutske) script and optionally in the Middle Gothic (Miþgutske) script.

Character		Name		IPA
Miþgutske	Neygutske	Neygutske	Lateinske	IPA
==	Ā ā (etc)	avs λavrăs (etc)	ans langes (etc)	[ɐns lɐŋɡəs] (etc)
==	Â â (etc)	avs ībvǎs (etc)	ans ibenes (etc)	[ɐns iːbnəs] (etc)
==	Ă ă	avs smāλăs	ans smales	[aː smaːləs]
==	Ѓ ŕ	rībă hvasugă	gibe hnaskje	[d͡ʒiːbə n̥ɐʃə]
==	Ḱ ḱ	knsmă hvasugă	kusme hnaskje	[kʊzmə n̥ɐʃə]
==	Ą ą (etc)¹	avs vāsirăs	ans nasiges	[ɐns naːsiːs]

Notes:

¹ Used for nasal vowels, which do not occur in Standard Modern Gothedish but did occur in earlier forms and still occur in some dialects.

Perso-Arabic (Arabske)

Character	Name		IPA
Character	Arabske	Lateinske	IPA
ا	الف	ällif	[ˈælif]
ب	بی	be	[beː]
پ	پی	pe	[peː]
ت	تی	te	[teː]
ث	ثی	þe	[θeː]
ج	جیم	gim	[d͡ʒiːm]
چ	چیم	kim	[t͡ʃiːm]
ڃ	ڃیم	tjim	[t͡siːm]
ح	حا	ḥa	[ħɑː, hɑː]
خ	خا	cha	[xɑː]
د	دال	däl	[dɛːl]
ذ	ذال	ðäl	[ðɛːl]

Character	Name		IPA
Character	Arabske	Lateinske	IPA
ر	ری	re	[reː]
ز	زی	ze	[zeː]
ۯ	ۯی	zje	[ʒeː]
س	سین	sin	[siːn]
ش	شین	sjin	[ʃiːn]
ص	صاد	ṣad	[s(ˤ)ɑːt]
ض	ضاد	ḍad	[d(ˤ)ɑːt, ð(ˤ)ɑːt]
ط	طا	ṭa	[t(ˤ)ɑː]
ظ	ظا	ẓa	[ð(ˤ)ɑː]
ع	عین	qhain	[(ʕ)aɪ̯n]
غ	غین	ghain	[ɣaɪ̯n]
ف	فی	fe	[feː]

Character	Name		IPA
Character	Arabske	Lateinske	IPA
ڤ	ڤی	ve	[veː]
ق	قاف	qaf	[qɑːf, kɑːf]
ک	کاف	käf	[kɛːf]
گ	گاف	gäf	[ɡɛːf]
ل	لام	läm	[lɛːm]
ڷ	ڷام	ljäm	[ʎɛːm]
م	میم	mim	[miːm]
ن	نون	nun	[nuːn]
ݧ	ݧون	njun	[ɲuːn]
و	واو	wau	[waʊ̯]
ه	هی	he	[heː]
ی	یی	je	[jeː]

Diacritics and non-alphabetical symbols

Symbol	Name			Remarks
Symbol	Arabske	Lateinske	IPA	Remarks
ء، أ، ؤ، ئ	همزه	hamze	[ˈhɐmzə]	Used for glottal stop and/or hiatus between vowels. Depending on position and the surrounding vowels, may be written on its own or on a "supporting" alif, waw, or ya'.
ة	تی بندنه	te bundene	[teː ˈbʊnd.nə]	Used as an ending in mostly feminine nouns, especially those of Arabic origin. Usually replaced with ه or ت.
ـَ		ufertän (fatḥe)	[ˈuːfr̩ˌtɛːn]	Literally "overtwig", used for the vowel a /ɐ, aː/.
ـِ		undertän (kasre)	[ˈʊndr̩ˌtɛːn]	Literally "undertwig", used for the vowel i /ɪ, iː/.
ـُ		uferhranke (ḍamme)	[ˈuːfr̩ˌr̥ɐŋkə]	Literally "overtendril", used for the vowel u /ʊ, uː/.
ـٰ		uferhrunge	[ˈuːfr̩ˌr̥ʊŋə]	Literally "overstaff", used for the vowel ä /æ, ɛː/.
ـٖ		underhrunge	[ˈʊndr̩ˌr̥ʊŋə]	Literally "understaff"', used for the vowel e /ɛ, eː/.
ـٛ		uferhlän	[ˈuːfr̩ˌɬɛːn]	Literally "overhill", used for the vowel å /ɒ, ɔː/.
ـࣷ		ufergilþe	[ˈuːfr̩ˌd͡ʒɪlθə]	Literally "oversickle", used for the vowel o /ɔ, oː/.
ـࣹ		undergilþe	[ˈʊndr̩ˌd͡ʒɪlθə]	Literally "undersickle", used for the vowel ö /œ, øː/.
ـࣺ		underhranke	[ˈʊndr̩ˌr̥ɐŋkə]	Literally "undertendril", used for the vowel y /ʏ, yː/.
ـْ		gehaben (sukun)	[gəˈhaːbn̩]	Literally "withholding", used for a consonant not followed by a vowel.
ـّ		starkjen (tasjdid)	[ˈstɐrt͡ʃn̩]	Literally "strengthening", used for a geminate or pseudo-geminite consonant (mainly in loanwords and at morpheme boundaries).
ـً		twäsinþ ufertän (tanwin fatḥe)		Literally "twice overtwig". Used for -an in Arabic phrases (which may be pronounced as -en /ən/ when used in Gothedish).
ـٍ		twäsinþ undertän (tanwin kasre)		Literally "twice undertwig". Used for -in in Arabic phrases.
ـٌ		twäsinþ uferhranke (tanwin ḍamme)		Literally "twice overtendril". Used for -un in Arabic phrases.

Prosody

Stress

In native words, stress is most often on the first syllable unless the word begins in an unstressed prefix. Loanwords may be stressed on any syllable.

Stress is not normally indicated in writing.

Intonation

Phonotactics

Morphophonology

Word-final devoicing

The following changes affect voiced stops, fricatives, and affricates when they occur word-finally:

b /b/, bj /d͡ʒ/: devoiced to /p, t͡ʃ/ after nasals; otherwise devoiced and fricatized to /f, ʃ/.
d /d/, g /ɡ/ (non-palatal environment), gj /d͡ʒ/: devoiced to /t, k, t͡ʃ/ after consonants; devoiced and fricatized to /θ, x, ʃ/ after vowels.
dj /d͡z/ (after nasal): devoiced to /t͡s/.
dj /z/ (not after nasal): devoiced to /s/.
g /j/ (palatal environment): devoiced and fricatized to /ʃ/.
z /z/, zj /ʒ/, v /v/: devoiced to /s, ʃ, f/.

Loanwords may not undergo fricatization - e.g. kitab /kɪˈtaːp/ "book". Some speakers may avoid this irregularity by completely replacing the final consonant with its unvoiced counterpart - e.g. ketap /kəˈtaːp/ (nativized form of kitab).

Palatalization

All consonants except for w, j, and v can be palatalized by adding j after the consonant. This specific form of palatalization is known as iotation. The originally labiovelar consonants hv, kv, and gv are iotated to hj, kj, and gj respectively.

It is rare for vowels to occur in productively iotating environments, but when that happens, the results are generally as follows (though individual lexemes may behave differently):

a + j → ä
ä, e + j → ei
å, o, ou + j → oi
u, ue + j → y
eu, y + j → ey
i, ei, oi, ie, ye unaffected

There is another form of palatalization that affects the consonants c, k, and g as well as the clusters sk and zg. These are palatalized before front vowels (ä, e, i, ö, y, ei, ey, eu, ie, ye) to /t͡s, t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ- ~ -j-, ʃ, ʒ/ respectively. Additionally, g is palatalized to /-j- ~ -ʃ/ after orthographic i (which therefore excludes the digraph ie and includes the digraphs ei, oi, ai, and ui as well as unstressed i /ə/). Unstressed e /ə/ does not cause palatalization.

The palatalization of (s)k and (z)g can be blocked by adding h after the consonant/cluster (i.e. (s)kh, (z)gh). This only occurs in loanwords. Some common words and morphemes do not indicate the lack of palatalization - e.g. kitab /kɪˈtaːp/ "book", -logie /lɔˈgiː/ "-logy". Many of these have nativized forms that may be preferred by some speakers - e.g. ketap /kəˈtaːp/, -logjie /lɔˈd͡ʒiː/.

Addition of -t-

These changes occur in the past stem of class 1 weak verbs (where -d- becomes -t- after obstruents) and the second person singular past indicative of strong verbs (which has the ending -t). Before applying these changes to class 1 weak verbs, remove the -j- of the present stem.

p, b + t → ft
nt, nd + t → nt
t, d, z, ts + t → st
k, nk, g, ng + t → ht. This leads to the following changes to the preceding vowels (N represents a dropped nasal):
- u + ht → åht
- i + ht → äht
- ou, uN + ht → uht
- ei, iN + ht → iht
- unstressed e /ə/ + ht → aht

Vowel shortening

When the addition of a consonantal suffix causes an originally open syllable preceded by a long vowel to become closed, vowel length is usually preserved. This is indicated with an acute accent or, in the case of ä, å, and ö, by replacing them with ea, oa, and eo respectively. However, the vowel is shortened (unless it has a circumflex or is followed by h) in the following circumstances:

When the following consonant is iotated (-j-) - e.g. skul-en /ˈskuːl-n̩/ "to have to" + -je → skulje /ˈskʊʎə/
When the vowel is followed by three or more consonants - e.g. gute /ˈɡuːtə/ "Goths" + -ske → gutske /ˈɡʊt.skə/ "Gothic"

Compound words

Compound words are head-final (like in German). Note that this differs from noun phrases, which are generally head-initial. The modifying noun(s) undergo the following changes (in this order) before adding onto the head noun:

If the noun ends in an iotated consonant, the iotation is removed.
If the noun now ends in a -b or -d that would be fricativized, replace it with its fricative counterpart (f and þ respectively). However, this replacement does not occur if the consonant is followed by an identical consonant or its voiceless counterpart. Other voiced consonants are devoiced as usual, but this is not indicated in writing.
If the noun ends in a schwa, it is dropped.

In some compounds, the modifying noun occurs in the genitive, in which case the above changes do not apply.

In compound words, the vowel length in each component is independent from the other component words. For example, under normal rules, the -u- in Guþþyde "Gothede" (< Gud "God" + þyde "slave") would be expected to be pronounced short due to being followed by two orthographic consonants. However, since it is followed by a single consonant in Guþ-, it is in fact pronounced long.

Historical phonology

Gothic to Old Gothedish

Nasalization of geminate voiced plosives.
C + j > geminate palatalized consonant
Unstressed vowel shortening/reduction.

Old Gothedish to Middle Gothedish

Further vowel reduction.

Middle Gothedish to Modern Gothedish

Diphthongization of long high vowels.
Palatalization of velars before (and sometimes after) front vowels.
Vowel lengthening in stressed, unchecked syllables and shortening in checked syllables.
Vowel simplifications.
Partial loss of unstressed vowels.
Hardening of voiced fricatives.
Labiovelars > Labials (except /w/).
Analogical changes.

Morphology

Cases

Gothedish has four cases: nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive. The genitive can be further declined as an adjective to agree with the noun it modifies/replaces, in which case final post-vocalic -s becomes -z- and genitives ending in -e add -z-. In formal language outside of poetry, personal pronouns generally use the declined genitive in all cases, while nouns use the invariant genitive unless there is no other indicator of case.

e.g. mag "boy": mages "boyʼs", mage "boysʼ" (undeclined genitive) + -es → magezes "boyʼs / boysʼ (nom. m. sg.)"

Isses ist magezes. "This is a boy's." ≈ Isses ist þas mages. "This is that of a boy."

Nouns

Nouns may be either strong or weak.

Strong nouns

Strong noun declension
		Nominative	Accusative	Dative	Genitive
Singular		-(e)	-(e)	-e	-es
Plural	Masc./fem.	-es	-es	-em	-e
Plural	Neuter	-e	-e	-em	-e

Example of masculine strong noun: *hläb* "bread"
	Nominative	Accusative	Dative	Genitive
Singular	hläb	hläb	hläbe	hläbes
Plural	hläbes	hläbes	hläbem	hläbe

Example of neuter weak noun: *bråd* "crumb"
	Nominative	Accusative	Dative	Genitive
Singular	bråd	bråd	bråde	brådes
Plural	bråde	bråde	brådem	bråde

Weak nouns

Weak noun declension
		Nominative	Accusative	Dative	Genitive
Singular	Masc./fem.	-e	-en	-en	-es
Singular	Neuter	-e	-e	-en	-es
Plural	Masc./fem.	-es	-es	-em	-en
Plural	Neuter	-en	-en	-em	-en

Example of feminine weak noun: *kvine* "woman"
	Nominative	Accusative	Dative	Genitive
Singular	kvine	kvinen	kvinen	kvines
Plural	kvines	kvines	kvinem	kvinen

Example of neuter weak noun: *härte* "heart"
	Nominative	Accusative	Dative	Genitive
Singular	härte	härte	härten	härtes
Plural	härten	härten	härtem	härten

Adjectives

Like nouns, adjectives may be strong or weak. Most adjectives have both forms. The strong forms are used attributively (happy people) and predicatively (they are happy), while the weak forms are used nominally (the happy). Adjectives that only have one form use that form in all usages.

Adjectives have a special unmarked gender that can be used when the gender is unknown/unspecified/unimportant. It is more commonly used in informal language, and is proscribed when referring to an entity with known gender.

Strong adjectives

The gender-unmarked form is identical to the neuter in the plural. However, the masculine plural is used instead when referring to human beings, except in very formal language.

Strong adjective declension
		Nominative	Accusative	Dative	Genitive
Singular	Masculine	-es	-en	-em	-es
	Neuter	-et	-et
	Unmarked	-	-
	Feminine	-e	-e	-es
Plural	Masculine	-e	-es	-em	-es
	Neut./unm.	-e	-e
	Feminine	-es	-es

Example of strong adjective: *skånj* "beautiful"
		Nominative	Accusative	Dative	Genitive
Singular	Masculine	skånjes	skånjen	skånjem	skånjes
	Neuter	skånjet	skånjet
	Unmarked	skånj	skånj
	Feminine	skånje	skånje	skånjes
Plural	Masculine	skånje	skånjes	skånjem	skånjes
	Neut./unm.	skånje	skånje
	Feminine	skånjes	skånjes

Weak adjectives

Declined identically to weak nouns. The gender-unmarked form is identical to the neuter in both the singular and plural. Except in very formal language, the masculine/feminine form is used in place of the unmarked (in both singular and plural) when referring to a human being.

Example of weak adjective: *skånj* "beautiful"
		Nominative	Accusative	Dative	Genitive
Singular	Masc./fem.	skånje	skånjen	skånjen	skånjes
Singular	Neuter/unm.	skånje	skånje	skånjen	skånjes
Plural	Masc./fem.	skånjes	skånjes	skånjem	skånjen
Plural	Neuter/unm.	skånjen	skånjen	skånjem	skånjen

Pronouns and determiners

Personal pronouns

Gothedish personal pronouns
Person and number			Nominative	Accusative	Dative	Genitive
1^st	Singular		ik	mik	mis	mein
	Dual¹		wit	unks	unks	unker
	Plural		weis	uns	uns	unser
2^nd	Singular	Informal²	þou	þuk	þus	þein
	Singular	Formal²	jou	eyk	eys	eyer
	Dual¹		jut	inkvs	inkvs	inkver
	Plural	Informal²	jous	eys	eys	eyer
	Plural	Formal²	jous	izzues	izzues	izzuer
3^rd	Singular	Masculine	sa	hin	himm	his
		Neuter	hit	hit
		Unmarked	þa	þa
		Feminine	si	si	his
	Plural	Masculine	þä	þans	þäm	þis
		Neut./unm.	þo	þo
		Feminine	þos	þos
	Middle		sei	sik	sis	sein

Notes:

¹ In formal language, dual pronouns are used to refer to two people. They are rare in informal language and are considered archaic in most dialects (similar to English "thou").

² Gothedish has a T-V distinction in second person pronouns.

Reflexive pronouns

Gothedish has the reflexive pronoun silbe "self", which can optionally be combined with the stems of personal pronouns to form personal relexive pronouns (as shown in the below table).

Gothedish reflexive pronouns
Person and number			Nominative	Accusative	Dative	Genitive
1^st	Singular		misilbe	misilben	misilben	misilbes
	Dual		unksilbes	unksilbes	unksilbem	unksilben
	Plural		unsilbes	unsilbes	unsilbem	unsilben
2^nd	Singular	Informal	þusilbe	þusilben	þusilben	þusilbes
	Singular	Formal	eysilbe	eysilben	eysilben	eysilbes
	Dual		inkvsilbes	inkvsilbes	inkvsilbem	inkvsilben
	Plural	Informal	eysilbes	eysilbes	eysilbem	eysilben
	Plural	Formal	izzusilbes	izzusilbes	izzusilbem	izzusilben
3^rd	Singular	Masc./fem.	sisilbe	sisilben	sisilben	sisilbes
	Singular	Neuter/unm.	sisilbe	sisilbe	sisilben	sisilbes
	Plural	Masc./fem.	sisilbes	sisilbes	sisilbem	sisilben
	Plural	Neuter/unm.	sisilben	sisilben	sisilbem	sisilben

Demonstratives

Demonstratives can be used independently as pronouns, or postnominally as determiners. There are three demonstratives in Gothedish: near (or proximal), middle (or medial), and far (or distal).

The near demonstrative is used for objects near to the speaker. It is declined as a regular strong adjective with the stem iss-.

Gothedish near demonstrative
		Nominative	Accusative	Dative	Genitive
Singular	Masculine	isses	issen	issem	isses
	Neuter	isset	isset
	Unmarked	iss	iss
	Feminine	isse	isse	isses
Plural	Masculine	isse	isses	issem	isses
	Neut./unm.	isse	isse
	Feminine	isses	isses

The middle demonstrative is used for objects near to the listener. It is also used as a generic demonstrative without reference to distance. It is declined irregularly. Note that the plural forms are identical to the corresponding 3^rd person personal pronouns.

Gothedish middle demonstrative
		Nominative	Accusative	Dative	Genitive
Singular	Masculine	þas	þan	þamm	þis
	Neuter	þat	þat
	Unmarked	þa	þa
	Feminine	þo	þo	þis
Plural	Masculine	þä	þans	þäm	þis
	Neut./unm.	þo	þo
	Feminine	þos	þos

The far demonstrative is used for objects that are far from both the speaker and listener. It declines as a regular strong adjective with the stem jän-.

Gothedish far demonstrative
		Nominative	Accusative	Dative	Genitive
Singular	Masculine	jänes	jänen	jänem	jänes
	Neuter	jänet	jänet
	Unmarked	jän	jän
	Feminine	jäne	jäne	jänes
Plural	Masculine	jäne	jänes	jänem	jänes
	Neut./unm.	jäne	jäne
	Feminine	jänes	jänes

Articles

The definite article occurs before a noun to show that the noun is definite. It always unstressed, and is declined as below:

Gothedish definite article
		Nominative	Accusative	Dative	Genitive
Singular	Masculine	þes	þen	þem	þes
	Neuter	þet	þet
	Unmarked	þe	þe
	Feminine	þe	þe	þes
Plural	Masculine	þe	þes	þem	þes
	Neut./unm.	þe	þe
	Feminine	þes	þes

There is no indefinite article.

Interrogative pronouns

The interrogative pronoun hva "what, who" is declined as the middle demonstrative.

Declension of interrogative pronoun *hva* "what, who"
		Nominative	Accusative	Dative	Genitive
Singular	Masculine	hvas	hvan	hvamm	hvis
	Neuter	hvat	hvat
	Unmarked	hva	hva
	Feminine	hvo	hvo	hvis
Plural	Masculine	hvä	hvans	hväm	hvis
	Neut./unm.	hvo	hvo
	Feminine	hvos	hvos

The interrogative pronouns/determiners hvaþer "which (of two)" and hvarj "which (of many)" are declined as regular strong adjectives.

Numbers

#	Cardinal	Ordinal
0	null	nulde
1	än	frume
2	twa	twade/anþer
3	þrie	þridje
4	fidduer	fidduerde
5	fimf	fimfte
6	sähs	sähste
7	siben	sibende
8	aht	ahtede
9	nyn	nynde
10	tähn	tähnde
11	älb	älfte
12	twálb	twalfte
13	þrietähn	þrietähnde
14	fidduertähn	fidduertähnde
15	fimftähn	fimftähnde
16	sähstähn	sähstähnde
17	sibentähn	sibentähnde
18	ahtähn	ahtähnde
19	nýntähn	nýntähnde
20	twätig	twätigde

#	Cardinal	Ordinal
21	twätig jah än	twätigj jah frume
30	þreitig	þreitigde
40	fidduertig	fidduertigde
50	fimftig	fimftigde
60	sähstig	sähstigde
70	sibentig	sibentigde
80	ahtig	ahtigde
90	nýntig	nýntigde
100	tähntig	tähntigde
110	älftig	älftigde
120	twalftig	twalftigde
130	þrietähntig	þrietähntigde
200	twahunde	twahunte
210	twahunde tähn	twahunde tähnde
300	þriehunde	þriehunte
1,000	þousendj	þousente
2,000	twos þousendjes	twosþousente
10⁶	miljon	miljónde
2 × 10⁶	twos miljones	twosmiljónde
10⁹	miljard	miljarde
2 × 10⁶	twos miljardes	twosmiljarde
10¹²	biljon	biljónde

Null "zero" declines as a masculine strong noun. Än "one" declines as a strong adjective. Twa "two" and þrie "three" decline irregularly as below:

Declension of *twa* "two"
		Nominative	Accusative	Dative	Genitive
Plural	Masculine	twä	twans	twäm	twangj
	Neut./unm.	twa	twa
	Feminine	twos	twos

Declension of *þrie* "three"
		Nominative	Accusative	Dative	Genitive
Plural	Masc./fem.	þreis	þrins	þrim	þringj
	Neut./unm.	þrie	þrie

Numbers from 4-999 that do not end in 1-3 have a dative in -em and genitive in -e and do not otherwise decline. Þousendj "thousand" and higher numbers decline as feminine strong nouns.

Ordinal numbers are declined as weak adjectives (except for anþer "second", which is always strong).

Verbs

Gothedish verbs fall in three main categories: strong verbs, weak verbs, and preterite-present verbs. The conjugation of regular verbs follows the table below.

Gothedish verb conjugation
(– = present stem; ^S– = singular past stem; ^P– = plural past stem; ^PP– = past participle stem)
	Present		Past (strong)		Past (weak)		Imperative
Infinitive				-(e)n¹
Present participle				-(e)nd
Past participle (strong)				^PP-(e)n
Past participle (weak)				-d
	Indicative	Subjunctive	Indicative	Subjunctive	Indicative	Subjunctive	Imperative
1S	-e	-e	^S–	^P-je	-de	-dje	-e
2S	-(e)s	-es	^S-t	^P-jes	-des	-djes	–
3S	-(e)þ	-e	^S–	^P-je	-de	-dje	-eþ
1P	-(e)m	-em	^P-(e)m	^P-jem	-dem	-djem	-em
2P	-(e)ts	-ets	^P-(e)ts	^P-jets	-dets	-djets	-ets
3P	-(e)n	-en	^P-(e)n	^P-jen	-den	-djen	-en

Notes:

¹ -(e)- indicates a schwa that is dropped in vowel-final verbs.

² Preterite-present verbs conjugate as a strong past in the present, and as a weak past in the past. The plural present has the same stem as the infinitive.

Strong verbs

Strong verbs form their past tense and past participle by vowel change (ablaut). There are seven classes of strong verbs, depending on how the stem changes.

Stem vowels of strong verbs by class
Class	Subclass	Present	Past		Past participle
Class	Subclass	Present	Singular	Plural/subj.	Past participle
1	regular	-ei-/-i-/-i[ä]-¹	-ä-	-i[ä]-	-i[ä]-
1	u-stem	-ey-	-eu-	-y-	-y-
2	regular	-y-	-å-	-u[å]-	-u[å]-
3	regular	-i[ä]-	-a-	-u[å]-	-u[å]-
4	regular	-i[ä]-	-a-	-e-	-u[å]-
5	regular	-i[ä]-	-a-	-e-	-i[ä]-
5	u-stem	-y-	-å-	-eu-	-y-
6	regular	-a-	-o-		-a-
7	regular	(varies)	-ä(Ce)-²		(same as present)

Notes:

¹ In strong verbs, expected -i- and -u- are replaced with -ä- and -å- respectively whenever they occur before h, r, or hv. This is represented as -i[ä]- and -u[å]- respectively.

² Class 7 strong verbs have reduplication in the past tense. The exact formation of the past tense depends on the verb, but it generally involves a reduplication of the initial consonant followed by schwa - e.g. släsep "slept" (past of slepen "to sleep"), säse "sowed" (past of sän "to sow"). There are a few irregular strong verbs:

Class 2: glouken, glåk, glukje, gluken "to lock" - irregular present stem vowel
Class 4: truden, trad, tredje, truden "to tread" - irregular present stem vowel
Class 5: bidjen, bad, bedje, biden "to request, pray" - irregular iotation in present stem
Class 5: iten, et, etje, iten "to eat" - irregular past singular stem
Class 5: frähnen, frah, frehje, frähen "to question" - irregular -n- in present stem
Class 6: fraþjen, froþ, froþje, fraþen "to understand" - irregular iotation in present stem
- Similar verbs: hahjen "to raise"; hlahjen "to laugh"; graþjen "to count"; skapjen "to create"; skaþjen "to injure"; wahsjen "to grow"
Class 6: standen, stoþ, stoþje, staþen "to stand" - irregular -n- and voicing in present stem
Unclassified: wisen "to be"; gangen "to go" - these are technically strong verbs, but they are treated separately due to their high degree of irregularity (see suppletive verbs below).

All verbs derived from a prefixed irregular verb are irregular themselves.

Example of regular strong verb: **drinken** "to drink" (class 3)
	Present		Past		Imperative
Infinitive			drinken
Present participle			drinkend
Past participle			drunken
	Indicative	Subjunctive	Indicative	Subjunctive	Imperative
1S	drinke	drinke	drank	drunkje	drinke
2S	drinkes	drinkes	draht	drunkjes	drink
3S	drinkeþ	drinke	drank	drunkje	drinkeþ
1P	drinkem	drinkem	drunkem	drunkjem	drinkem
2P	drinkets	drinkets	drunkets	drunkjets	drinkets
3P	drinken	drinken	drunken	drunkjen	drinken

Example of irregular strong verb: **standen** "to stand" (class 6)
	Present		Past		Imperative
Infinitive			standen
Present participle			standend
Past participle			staþen
	Indicative	Subjunctive	Indicative	Subjunctive	Imperative
1S	stande	stande	stoþ	stoþje	stande
2S	standes	standes	stost	stoþjes	stand
3S	standeþ	stande	stoþ	stoþje	standeþ
1P	standem	standem	stoþem	stoþjem	standem
2P	standets	standets	stoþets	stoþjets	standets
3P	standen	standen	stoþen	stoþen	standen

Weak verbs

Weak verbs form their past tense and past participle with a dental suffix. There are two classes of weak verbs.

Class 1 weak verbs have an iotated present stem. In the past tense, -d- is devoiced to -t- after obstruents, which are fricatized (see morphophonology for more information).

In class 2 weak verbs, the past -d- does not affect the preceding consonant and is only devoiced if preceded by a devoiced consonant. Vowel length is preserved.

Example of class 1 weak verb: **þankjen** "to think"
	Present		Past		Imperative
Infinitive			þankjen
Present participle			þankjend
Past participle			þaht
	Indicative	Subjunctive	Indicative	Subjunctive	Imperative
1S	þankje	þankje	þahte	þahtje	þankje
2S	þankjes	þankjes	þahtes	þahtjes	þankj
3S	þankjeþ	þankje	þahte	þahtje	þankjeþ
1P	þankjem	þankjem	þahtem	þahtjem	þankjem
2P	þankjets	þankjets	þahtets	þahtjets	þankjets
3P	þankjen	þankjen	þahten	þahtjen	þankjen

Example of class 2 weak verb: **skamen** "to shame"
	Present		Past		Imperative
Infinitive			skamen
Present participle			skamend
Past participle			skámd
	Indicative	Subjunctive	Indicative	Subjunctive	Imperative
1S	skame	skame	skámde	skámdje	skame
2S	skames	skames	skámdes	skámdjes	skam
3S	skameþ	skame	skámde	skámdje	skameþ
1P	skamem	skamem	skámdem	skámdjem	skamem
2P	skamets	skamets	skámdets	skámdjets	skamets
3P	skamen	skamen	skámden	skámdjen	skamen

There is one irregular weak verb (along with its derivatives): bringen "to bring" (past stem: braht-).

Conjugation of **bringen** "to bring"
	Present		Past		Imperative
Infinitive			bringen
Present participle			bringend
Past participle			braht
	Indicative	Subjunctive	Indicative	Subjunctive	Imperative
1S	bringe	bringe	brahte	brahtje	bringe
2S	bringes	bringes	brahtes	brahtjes	bring
3S	bringeþ	bringe	brahte	brahtje	bringeþ
1P	bringem	bringem	brahtem	brahtjem	bringem
2P	bringets	bringets	brahtets	brahtjets	bringets
3P	bringen	bringen	brahten	brahtjen	bringen

Preterite-present verbs

Preterite-present verbs are special in that their present tense conjugates as a strong past. In the past tense, they take a dental suffix and conjugate as weak verbs.

Example of preterite-present verb: **witen** "to know"
	Present		Past		Imperative
Infinitive			witen
Present participle			witend
Past participle			wist
	Indicative	Subjunctive	Indicative	Subjunctive	Imperative
1S	wät	witje	wiste	wistje	wite
2S	wäst	witjes	wistes	wistjes	wit
3S	wät	witje	wiste	wistje	witeþ
1P	witem	witjem	wistem	wistjem	witem
2P	witets	witjets	wistets	wistjets	witets
3P	witen	witjen	wisten	wistjen	witen

Preterite-present verbs are a closed class of mostly modal verbs. They are listed with their principal parts in the table below:

List of preterite-present verbs
Infinitive	1S present indicative	Past participle	Meaning	Notes
witen	wät	wist	to know (that)	Witen is used in the sense of knowing a piece of information, while lisen is used for knowledge of people, places, things, or subject matters.
lisen	läs	list	to know; to be familiar (with)
kunnen	kann	kund	to know (how to); to be able (to)	Kunnen means "to be able to" in the sense of having the prerequisite knowledge or capacity, while gemoten means "to be able to" in the sense of having favourable circumstances.
gemoten	gemot	gemost	to be able (to)
þårben	þarb	þårft	to need (to); to have to	Þårben is used for requirements due to need, while skulen is used for requirements due to external factors (rules, laws, commands, expectations, etc). Ägen is similar in meaning to skulen but more emphatic.
skulen	skal	skuld	to have to; to be required (to)
ägen	äg	äht	to have to; to be obligated (to); to owe
magen	mag	maht	will	Forms future tense.
dårsen	dars	dårst	to try (to)
gedårsen	gedars	gedårst	to dare (to)
dugen	dag	dåht	to succeed (in)
munen	man	mund	to think; to believe
gemunen	geman	gemund	to remember (to)
fremunen	freman	fremund	to forget (to)
bemunen	beman	bemund	to remind (to)
unnen	ann	und	to allow (to)
frunnen	frann	frund	to forbid (from)
benåhen	benah	benåht	to be allowed (to)
genåhen	genah	genåht	to suffice; to be enough
ogen	og	oht	to fear

Suppletive verbs

In addition to the irregular strong and weak verbs mentioned above, there are two highly irregular verbs that are generally treated as a class of their own. These are wisen "to be" and gangen "to go". Any verbs derived by prefixing these are conjugated similarly.

Conjugation of **wisen** "to be"
	Present		Past		Imperative
Infinitive			wisen
Present participle			wisend
Past participle			wisen
	Indicative	Subjunctive	Indicative	Subjunctive	Imperative
1S	im	sie	was	wesje	wise
2S	is	sies	wast	wesjes	wis
3S	ist	sie	was	wesje	wiseþ
1P	seim	siem	wesem	wesjem	wisem
2P	seits	siets	wesets	wesjets	wisets
3P	sein	sien	wesen	wesjen	wisen

Conjugation of **gangen** "to go"
	Present		Past		Imperative
Infinitive			gangen
Present participle			gangend
Past participle			gangen
	Indicative	Subjunctive	Indicative	Subjunctive	Imperative
1S	gange	gange	ingje	ingje	gange
2S	ganges	ganges	ingjes	ingjes	gang
3S	gangeþ	gange	ingje	ingje	gangeþ
1P	gangem	gangem	ingjem	ingjem	gangem
2P	gangets	gangets	ingjets	ingjets	gangets
3P	gangen	gangen	ingjen	ingjen	gangen

Principal parts

Strong verbs: infinitive, 1S past indicative, 1S past subjunctive, past participle
Weak verbs: infinitive, past participle
Preterite-present verbs: infinitive, 1S present indicative, past participle
The verb gangen "to go" and derived verbs: infinitive, 1S past indicative, past participle
The verb wisen "to be" and derived verbs: infinitive, 1S present indicative, 1S present subjunctive, 1S past indicative, 1S past subjunctive, past participle

Non-finite forms and derived nouns/adjectives

Infinitive
Present participle: Acts as an adjective, equivalent to English -ing. When nominalized, can function as an agent noun - e.g. gangende "one who goes/is going; goer".
Past participle: Acts as an adjective. Passive for transitive verbs, and active for intransitive verbs. When nominalized, can function as a patient noun for transitive verbs - e.g. itene "that which is eaten; food". Nominalized intransitive past participles form perfect agent nouns - e.g. gangene "one who has gone".
Agent noun: Formed by replacing -n of infinitive with -rj. Similar in meaning to nominalized present participle, but refers to a more permanent state - e.g. bakerj "baker (i.e. someone whose profession is baking)" vs bakende "one who bakes/is baking (i.e. someone who sometimes bakes or who is currently baking, but who may not be a baker by profession)".

Syntax

Constituent order

Gothedish has a relatively free constituent word order, although there are preferred word orders depending on the clause type.

Main clauses

Word order is generally V2, although it may be V1 when the verb's subject is a dropped pronoun. The preverbal position can be occupied by any constituent. If the subject is present and not in the preverbal position, it occurs immediately after the verb. Non-finite verbs can either occur before or after the direct object. They tend to occur clause-finally (like German) in simpler sentences and immediately after the verb (like Swedish) in more complex sentences. Adverbs most often occur before the direct object.

e.g. Hund warþ in Kanada gebåren. (dog was in Canada born) "A dog was born in Canada."

Gebåren warþ hund in Kanada. (born was dog in Canada) "A dog was born in Canada."

Ebenþ warþ hund in Kanada gebåren. (yesterday was dog in Canada born) "A dog was born yesterday in Canada."

Hund warþ gebåren in house míkjelem broþeres meines juhses. (dog was born in house large brother.GEN mine.GEN younger.GEN) "A dog was born in the big house of my younger brother."

Relative clauses

Relative clauses are generally verb-final. However, if the clause has complex arguments, the verb is usually moved to the beginning of the clause (preceded by the subject if applicable).

Adverbial clauses

Adverbial clauses ('if', 'until', etc) follow the same word order rules as main clauses.

Negation

The general negation particle is ne "not". It precedes the word it negates.

Some words combine with a preceding negative particle.

ne + wisen, im, sie, was, wesje, wisen "to be" → nisen, nim, nesie, nas, nesje, nisen "to not be"
ne + wäht "(some)thing" → näht "nothing"
ne + än "one" → nän "none"
ne + wiljen, wild "to want" → niljen, nild "to not want"
ne + witen, wät, wist "to know" → niten, nät, nist "to not know"
ne + wärþen, warþ, wårþje, wårþen "to become" → närþen, narþ, nårþje, nårþen "to not become"
etc

A sentence/clause can be negated by negating the verb, or by placing niss (< earlier nistj < nist ei "[it] is not that") at the beginning of the clause.

Questions

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Tenses, aspects, moods

Simple present: present indicative - e.g. Ik sähve þuk. "I see you."
- Subjunctive: present subjunctive - e.g. Jabe ik sähve þuk, afgange. "If I see you, I will leave."
Simple past: past indicative - e.g. Ik sahv þuk. "I saw you."
- Subjunctive: past subjunctive - e.g. Jabe ik sehje þuk, afingje. "If I saw you, I would leave."
Jussive/hortative: present subjunctive - e.g. Afgange. "I should leave."
Imperative: imperative - e.g. Afgang! "Leave!"
- Negative: ne + present subjunctive - e.g. Ne afganges! "Don't leave!"
Present/past continuous: present/past of wisen "to be" + present participle (agrees with subject) - e.g. Im afgangendes. "I am leaving."
Present/past perfect:
- Intransitive verbs of motion/change of state: present/past of wisen "to be" + past participle (agrees with subject) - e.g. Im afgangenes. "I have left."
- Other verbs: present/past of haben "to have" + past participle (agrees with direct object) - e.g. Habe þuk sähvenes. "I have seen you."
Future: present of magen + infinitive - e.g. Ik mag þuk sähven. "I will see you."
- The future is often left unmarked if clear from context - e.g. Gistredagi sähve ik þuk. "I [will] see you tomorrow."
Present conditional: There are two ways of forming the conditional tenses. The II forms can also be used as a polite way to express wishes.
- I: past subjunctive - e.g. Jabe kvemjes, ik sehje þuk. "If you came, I would see you."
- II: present subjunctive of magen + infinitive - e.g. Ik magje þuk sähven. "I would see you. / I would like to see you."
Past conditional:
- I: past subjunctive of perfect auxiliary (wisen/haben) + past participle (agrees with subject/direct object) - e.g. Jabe hadjes kvumen, ik hadje þuk sähvenes. "If you had come, I would have seen you."
- II: past subjunctive of magen + infinitive - e.g. Ik mahtje þuk sähven. "I would have seen you. / I would have liked to see you."

Voice

Active: Basic form - e.g. Ik sähve þuk. "I see you."
Middle: Use object pronouns for first and second persons, and the middle pronoun for third person - e.g. Þou sähves þuk. "You are visible."
Passive: There are two kinds of passive.
- General passive: appropriate form of wisen "to be" + past participle (agrees with subject) - e.g. Þou wast sähvenes. "You were seen."
- Inchoative passive (refers to beginning of state): appropriate form of wärþen "to become" + past participle (agrees with subject) - e.g. Þou warst sähvenes. "You were sighted."
Reflexive: Use reflexive pronouns - e.g. Ik sähve (mi)silben. "I see myself."
Reciprocal: Use the reciprocal pronoun hvarjander "each other" in the appropriate case - e.g. Jous sähvets hvarjander. "You see each other."

Sentence phrase

Vocabulary

Time - Mel

Seasons - *Jermeles*
English	Gothedish
spring	waser
summer	asen
fall	harbest
winter	winter

Gregorian months - *Ménþes miladies*
English	Gothedish
January	Winterménþ
February	Hårnménþ
March	Waserménþ
April	Paskeménþ
May	Winjeménþ
June	Wäzdeménþ
July	Heuménþ
August	Asenménþ
September	Wiþménþ
October	Wenménþ
November	Harbestménþ
December	Frysménþ

Days of the week - *Wikendages*
English	Gothedish
Sunday	Kyrkje
Monday	Anþerdag
Tuesday	Þriddag
Wednesday	Miþwike
Thursday	Fårskje
Friday	Gjume
Saturday	Sambete

Parts of the day - *Dagesdäles*
English	Gothedish
day	dag
dawn	sunnerrun
morning	mårgjen
noon	middag
afternoon	seiþ
evening	andenaht
dusk	sunnesankv
night	naht
midnight	miþnaht

Units of time - *Meléanþes*
English	Gothedish
second	þänige; sekunde
minute	dakhike; minute
hour	hveile
day	dag
week	wike
month	ménþ
season	jermel
year	jer

Time adverbs - *Biwårdes mellikes*
English	Gothedish
now	nu
then	þan
recently, a short time ago	skårt
earlier	fårþes
soon, shortly	är
later	biþe
always	sinten, eu
often	ufte
sometimes	atmelem
rarely	silden
never	neu
ever	eu
still, yet	nå
already	ju
today	hindage
tonight	hinahte
yesterday	fårdage
last night	fårnahte
tomorrow	gisterdage
before yesterday	fårfårdage
two nights ago	fårfårnahte
after tomorrow	afergisterdage
this week	wike isse
last week
next week

Colours - Ränge

Colours - *Ränge*
English	Gothedish
white	hveit
grey	greu
black	swart
red	råþ
orange	pårtakalen
brown	broun
yellow	gul
green	gronj
blue	bleu
pink	rosen
purple	fjolen
golden	gulþen

Example texts

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)

Latin: Alle manskes wärþen gebårene freie jah ibene in wärde jah rähtem. Fraþje jah miþwist sind behibde, jah skulen hvarjandere in ahmen broþerskepes handelen.

Perso-Arabic: ال منسکس ورثن گبورن فری یاه ایبن ان ورد یاه رهتم۔ فرس یاه مثوست سند بهبد، یاه سکولن فژندر ان اهمن بروثرسکپس هندلن۔

Old Gothic: 𐌰𐌻𐌻𐌰 𐌼𐌰𐌽𐍃𐌺𐌰𐍃 𐍅𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌸𐌰𐌽 𐌲𐌰𐌱𐌰𐌿𐍂𐌽𐌰 𐍆𐍂𐌴𐌹𐌰 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐌹𐌱𐌽𐌰 𐌹𐌽 𐍅𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌳𐌰 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐍂𐌰𐌹𐌷𐍄𐌼˙ 𐍆𐍂𐌰𐌸𐌲𐌰 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐌼𐌹𐌸𐍅𐌹𐍃𐍄 𐍃𐌹𐌽𐌳 𐌱𐌰𐌷𐌹𐌱𐌳𐌰. 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐍃𐌺𐌿𐌻𐌽 𐍈𐌰𐍂𐌾𐌰𐌽𐌳𐍂𐌰 𐌹𐌽 𐌰𐌷𐌼𐌽 𐌱𐍂𐍉𐌸𐍂𐍃𐌺𐌰𐍀𐌰𐍃 𐌷𐌰𐌽𐌳𐌻𐌽˙

New Gothic: Aλλă manskăs yaipфv găbānpvă fpeiă gah ībnă iv yaipdă gah paihtm. Fpaфgă gah miфyist sivd băhibdă, gah skn̄lv ɵapgavdră iv ahmv brw̄фpskăpăs handλv.

Cyrillic: Аллэ манскэс вѧрѳн гэбѡрнэ фрейэ ях и́бнэ ин вѧрдэ ях рѧхтм. Фраѳӭ ях миѳвист синд бэхибдэ, ях ску́лн хваряндрэ ин ахмн бро́ѳрскэпэс хандлн.

Cyrillic 2.0: Алле манскес вӓрҫен гебåрене фреје јах ибене ин вӓрде јах рӓхтем. Фраҫье јах миҫвист синд бехибде, јах скулен хварьандере ин ахмен броҫерскепес ханделен.

IPA: /ˈɐlə ˈmɐnskəs ˈwærθn̩ gəˈbɔːrnə ˈfrɛɪ̯ə jaː ˈiːbnə ɪn ˈwærdə jaː ˈrɛːtm̩ || ˈfrɐsə jaː ˈmɪθwɪst sɪnt bəˈhɪbdə | jaː ˈskuːln̩ ˈfɐʒɐndrə ɪn ˈaːmn̩ ˈbroːθr̩ˌskəpəs ˈhɐndln̩/

Gloss: All-M.NOM.PL human_being-NOM.PL become.PRS-3PL engender.PP-M.NOM.PL free-M.NOM.PL and equal-M.PL.NOM in worth-DAT and right-DAT.PL. Reason.ACC and conscience.ACC be.PRS.3PL bestow.PP-M.NOM.PL, and should.PRS-3PL each_other-DAT in spirit-DAT brotherhood-GEN handle-INF.

Literal translation: All human beings become born free and equal in worth and rights. With reason and conscience they are bestowed, and they should to one another in the spirit of brotherhood behave.

Translation: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Other resources

Swadesh list

Gothedish: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 17:14, 14 May 2023

Introduction

Etymology

Phonology

Consonants

Vowels

Orthography

Latin alphabet (Lateinske)

Non-alphabetic letters/digraphs

Gothic alphabet (Gutske)

Accented characters

Perso-Arabic (Arabske)

Diacritics and non-alphabetical symbols

Prosody

Stress

Intonation

Phonotactics

Morphophonology

Word-final devoicing

Palatalization

Addition of -t-

Vowel shortening

Compound words

Historical phonology

Gothic to Old Gothedish

Old Gothedish to Middle Gothedish

Middle Gothedish to Modern Gothedish

Morphology

Cases

Nouns

Strong nouns

Weak nouns

Adjectives

Strong adjectives

Weak adjectives

Pronouns and determiners

Personal pronouns

Reflexive pronouns

Demonstratives

Articles

Interrogative pronouns

Numbers

Verbs

Strong verbs

Weak verbs

Preterite-present verbs

Suppletive verbs

Principal parts

Non-finite forms and derived nouns/adjectives

Syntax

Constituent order

Main clauses

Relative clauses

Adverbial clauses

Negation

Questions

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Tenses, aspects, moods

Voice

Sentence phrase

Vocabulary

Time - Mel

Colours - Ränge

Example texts

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)

Other resources

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