Scellan/Syntax: Difference between revisions

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A mostly-analytic language, Eevo (Skellan) is strongly head-initial (with exceptions in poetry). It usually uses topic-prominent, V2 word order; the topicalized constituent is fronted.
A mostly-analytic language, Eevo (Scellan) is focus-prominent and strongly head-initial (with exceptions in poetry), like Salishan and Polynesian languages.
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==Topic-prominence==
Fundamental to Skellan syntax is its topic-prominent V2 word order, a unique feature among Talman languages. Sentences usually, but not always, use the following word order in main clauses:
 
topic [preverbs] verb subject ...
 
The subject that follows the verb will be a pronoun referring to the subject, if the topic is also the subject.
 
Subordinate clauses, which have no topic of their own, use verb-initial word order.
 
A direct object pronoun is not needed when it refers to the topic:
:'''''A duvwñ mol a tehd.'''''
:SPEC.SG teacher thank SPEC.SG child
:''The child thanks the teacher.''
 
Topic-prominent sentences can have different syntaxes from English:
:'''''Berð leð ind þyb orð.'''''
:palm be_in_state 3PL.POSS.PL leaf big
:''Palms have big leaves.'' [lit. palms-in-general, their leaves are big]
===Exceptions===
Sentences that are typically ''not'' topic prominent include:
 
*Focused sentences: when a noun is specific and its existence or relevance is new information (e.g. is focused), it is not topicalized. Such a noun will commonly, but not necessarily, be indefinite in English.
*Topic-focused comment: Some component might be focused within the comment clause for the topic, and that focused constituent may be fronted within the comment clause. This sometimes makes sentences SOV. This construction is usually used for contrasting two (or more) topics.
** ''Fiar þyl a leeð ais, naw jyçár a leeð ain.'' (thou sword CLEFT be_located with-thee, I machine_gun CLEFT be_located with-me) 'You have a sword, and I have a machine gun.'
** In colloquial speech, pronouns referring to the topic can be omitted whenever the relation and the topic are clear: ''Fiar þyl a leeð, naw jyçár a leeð.''
*Weather: ''Dy tøøh ñwi.'' = It's raining.
-->
==Noun phrase==
Scellan uses an unusual article system from the perspective of other Talman languages. It has a specific article (like Windermere) but no definite article (unlike Windermere and other Talmic languages), and number is only marked for specific nouns.
*no article for non-specific or collective (number neutral)
*''a(ð)'' for specific singular
*''na'' for specific plural
 
Singulative and plurative (called "singular" and "plural" below for convenience) refer to one resp. more than one specific instances of the noun. A noun in the collective form refers to "[noun] in general" or "the set of all [noun]". This distinction also applies to abstract nouns (which often use unmarked collectives). A non-specific abstract noun refers to the quality in general, and the singulative and plurative refer to one or more specific instances or manifestations of the abstract noun. For example, the collective ''fosgu'' means 'valor (in general)'; the singulative ''a fosgu'' means 'a/the (specific) valiant deed'; the plurative ''na fosgu'' means '(the) valiant deeds'.
 
Non-specific nouns are referred to with plural pronouns.
 
===Modifiers===
Genitives, adjectives, and relative clauses all come after the head noun, but numerals and most determiners precede it.
 
When the article of a genitive NP is omitted, speakers may parse it as an attributive noun (serving a similar purpose to English attributive nouns and compounding).
 
TODO: The canonical order of modifiers


TODO: topic comment syntax
==Faulty accusative==
==Faulty accusative==
The faulty accusative particle is ''ym''.
The faulty accusative particle is ''ym'', which etymologically was a filler word like "um...". It is not a case marker; it comes before a constituent noun phrase X in phrases of the form HEAD Y X, when X is not a prepositional phrase or an adjunct.
 
:'''''A duvwñ mol a tehd ym ob.'''''
:SPEC teacher thank SPEC child FA 3SG.M
:''The child thanks the teacher.'' (lit. 'The teacher, the child thanks him.')
 
:'''''Room llyn ym þail byðai!''''' (also ''Room þail byðai llyn'', with no ''ym'')
:exist DAT-1SG FA milk blue
:''I have blue milk!''
 
''ym'' is optional when the subject is a pronoun:
:'''''A tehd mol o'm a duvwñ.'''''
:SPEC child thank 3SG.M FA SPEC teacher
:''The child thanks the teacher.'' (lit. 'The child, he thanks the teacher.')
 
''ym'' is not used when the constituent that would get the ''ym'' contains a content question:
:'''''A tehd mol ob (*ym) tua?'''''
:SPEC child thank 3SG.M who
:''Whom does the child thank?''
 
==Questions==
===Polar questions===
For polar questions, i.e. yes/no questions, particles are placed at the beginning of the sentence:
*''TOPIC sec VERB ...?'' = as for TOPIC, is it the case that...?
*''TOPIC sia VERB ...?'' = as for TOPIC, is it not the case that...?
*Literary style may use the question particle ''es'', inherited from Tigol.
 
Like in Early Modern English, there are ''four'' possible answers to yes/no questions:
*''ec'' = 'yes' to a ''positive'' question; also used to agree with an affirmative statement
*''ia'' = 'no' to a ''positive'' question; also used to contradict an affirmative statement
*''vwa'' = 'yes' to a ''negative'' question; also used to contradict a negative statement
*''ter'' = 'no' to a ''negative'' question: also used to agree with a negative statement
These four words will be glossed with their Early Modern English translations, "yea", "nay", "yes", and "no" respectively.


:'''''A duvwñ, mol a tehd ym ab.'''''
===Content questions===
:''The teacher, the child thanks him''
As a consequence of topic-first verb-second word order, Skellan is wh-in-situ unlike English:
 
:'''''Iar casin iar taw lly bløgin dia tarsiad rreem?'''''
:2SG eat.PERF 2SG what for lunch LOC-SPEC school today
:''What did you have for lunch in school today?''


==Negation==
==Negation==
The usual negative particle is ''twm'', which is placed before the verb. ''hob'' 'don't!' is used for the negative imperative. The word for giving a negative answer is ''ter''. In literary or poetic language, ''ia'' (indicative) and ''daw'' (irrealis) can also be found.
The usual negative particle is ''twm'', which is placed before the verb. ''hob'' 'don't!' is used for the negative imperative. In literary or poetic language, ''daw'' (irrealis) can also be found for the prohibitive.


===Negative pronouns===
===Negative pronouns===
*''twm sahn'' (lit. not a thing) = nothing  
*''twm sahn'' (lit. not a thing) = nothing  
*''twm lias'' (lit. not a soul) = no one
*''twm lias'' (lit. not a soul) = no one
*''twm tlaw'' (lit. nowhere) = nowhere
*''fuad'' = never


===On double negation===
===On double negation===
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:'''''Twm sahn a twm roféelin.'''''
:'''''Twm sahn a twm roféelin.'''''
:NEG thing DET NEG change-PRET
:NEG thing A NEG change-PRET
:'Everything changed.' (literally 'Nothing did not change.')
:''Everything changed.'' (literally 'Nothing did not change.')
 
:'''''Twm ñorn dia tarsíad a twm hlawb o gyl ee.'''''
:NEG girl in-SPEC school A NEG good 3SG.M from 3SG.F
:''Every girl in school likes him.'' ('There's no girl in school that doesn't like him.')


===Interrogative===
===Interrogative===
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*''sder'' = negative interrogative
*''sder'' = negative interrogative


:'''''Sder bo croð niañt dyb çuþ?'''''
:'''''Sder bo croð hniañt dyb çuþ?'''''
:NEG.INTERR COL human also in-COL animal
:NEG.INTERR COL human also in-COL animal
:''Are humans, too, not animals?''
:''Are humans, too, not animals?''


''es'' may be used in archaic Eevo.
The interrogative particle ''es'' may be used in archaic Eevo.


==Copular sentences==
==Copular sentences==
There are two (non-interchangeable) ways to say 'X is Y' where X, Y are nouns. (Khmer makes a similar distinction.)
There are two (non-interchangeable!) ways to say 'Noun X is noun Y':
 
#''Equality'' is expressed using ''X (COP) Y (PRON)''. This asserts that noun phrases X and Y refer to the same thing.
#''Y (COP) DET X'' - This is used to assert that nouns X and Y refer the same thing.
#:'''''Ñen a fawl ry ñiþúin awr dy.'''''
#:'''''Ñen a fawl ry ñiþúin awr dy.'''''
#:DEM.DIST DET.SG year REL enter-PRET 3PL in
#:DEM.DIST DET.SG year REL enter-PRET 3PL in
#:That was the year in which they entered.
#:That was the year in which they entered.
#''dyb Y (COP) DET X'' (lit. X is in the set of all Y's) - This is used to assert that "X is-a Y".
#''Membership'' is expressed using ''X COP dyb Y (PRON)'' (etym. "X is in all Y's"). This asserts "X is-a Y", i.e. "X is in the set of all Y's".
#:'''''Dyb croð a Socrátes, paryçtá bo croð. Ceeda paryçtá a Socrátes.'''''
#:'''''Dyb croð Soocrátees, dyb baryçtá bo croð. Ceeda dyb paryçta Soocrátee..'''''
#:in-COL human DET.SG Socrates, mortal DET.COL human. therefore mortal DET.SG Socrates
#: is_a human Socrates, is_a mortal COL human. therefore is_a mortal Socrates.
#:Socrates is human; humans are mortal. Hence Socrates is mortal.
#:Socrates is human; humans are mortal. Hence Socrates is mortal.


Example:
Example:
Sder bo croð niañt dyb çuþ?
Sia bo croð niañt dyb çuþ?
NEG.INTERR COL human also in-COL animal
NEG.INTERR COL human also in-COL animal
Are humans, too, not animals?
Are humans, too, not animals?
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When fronting of a noun occurs, the remaining verb phrase becomes a noun phrase, thus a determiner must be used.
When fronting of a noun occurs, the remaining verb phrase becomes a noun phrase, thus a determiner must be used.


:''Twm ziráð syrñ bo [toxrorégin] '''a''' go þarcǿma að smøøh bo sbenopats.''
:''Twm ziráð syrñ bo [toxrorégin] '''a''' go þarcǿma a hmøøh bo sbenopats.''
:NEG only new COL evolve-PASS.PART DET PST.IPFV inhabit SG world COL dinosaur
:NEG only new COL evolve-PASS.PART DET PST.IPFV inhabit SG world COL dinosaur
:The world of the dinosaurs was not solely occupied by the newly-evolved.
:The world of the dinosaurs was not solely occupied by the newly-evolved.
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===Contrasting===
===Contrasting===
Contrastive "partial clauses" just use the topic without repeating the comment.
Contrastive partial clauses simply treat the contrasting element as the new topic, without necessarily repeating the comment.
:''Sani dy ell ee Maið, ah Hmorill ter.''
:''Sani dy ell ee Maið, ah Hmorill ia.''
:S. PROG love 3SG.F M., but H. no
:S. PROG love 3SG.F M., but H. nay
: Sani loves Maið, but Hmorill does not [love him].
: Sani loves Maið, but Hmorill does not [love him].


:''Maið dy ell Sani ym ob, ah Gelli ter.''
:''Maið dy ell Sani ym o, ah Gelli ia.''
:M. PROG love S. FA 3SG.M, but G. no
:M. PROG love S. FA 3SG.M, but G. nay
:Sani loves Maið, but she does not love Gelli.
:Sani loves Maið, but she does not love Gelli.
The syntactic role of the contrasting element is clear in both sentences because the comment tells us how the topic behaves syntactically.
"Also" clauses are analogous:
:''Sani dy ell ee Maið, as Hmorill iañt ec.''
:S. PROG love 3SG.F M., and H. also yea
: Sani loves Maið, and Hmorill does too.


==Existence==
==Existence==
The verb ''room'' is used for existence.
The verb ''room'' is used for existence. For "there is no", ''twm'' is used instead of ''twm room''.


==Clause types==
==Clause types==
===Time clauses===
===Time clauses===
Deranked time clauses can be formed by using a preposition, most commonly ''dy'' 'when', ''ñal'' 'before', and 'tyn' 'after'. The subject of the time clause is marked with the genitive ''ry''.
''Balanced'' time clauses can be formed with the conjunctions ''tev'' 'when', ''ñal'' 'before', ''tynd'' 'after', or ''hiañ'' 'while'. Balanced clauses use finite verb forms, hence always mark tense.
 
''Deranked'' time clauses can be formed by using a preposition, most commonly ''dy'' 'when', ''jwiva'' 'until', ''ñal'' 'before', and ''tynd'' 'after'. The subject of the time clause is marked with a genitive construction, either by the preposition ''ry'' or by using a possessive pronoun. Deranked time clauses have no inherent tense. Similar deranked clause constructions can be found in Irish and Hebrew. Deranked clauses are somewhat higher-register than balanced clauses (but in other Talmic languages such as [[Anbirese]] they're less marked).
 
Ex:
*''dy cri rib'' (LOC walk.VN of-1EX) 'when we walk'


Ex.
When there is no possessor the subject is assumed to be an impersonal subject: ''dy cri'' 'when one walks'.
*''dy cri riav'' 'when we walk', lit. 'at our walking', or ''dy cri'' 'when walking'.


===Relative clauses===
===Relative clauses===
*no relativizer is used when the head is the subject in the relative clause
*no relativizer is used when the head is the subject in the relative clause
*''ry'' is used otherwise, possibly with a resumptive pronoun
*''ry'' is used otherwise, possibly with a resumptive pronoun
*resumptive pronouns are optional - hence relative clauses can end in a preposition as in English
*resumptive pronouns are optional - hence relative clauses can end in a preposition as in English
**This state of affairs came about because the older resumptive pronominal affixes on prepositions elided and the emphatic pronoun remained optional.
**This came about because the older resumptive pronominal affixes on prepositions elided and the emphatic pronoun remained optional.
*for places, ''cah'' 'there' can be used as a resumptive pronoun
**when oblique, the resumptive pronoun may replace the relativizer, as in Modern Hebrew
*in formal writing, the head may be repeated instead of using a resumptive pronoun to eliminate ambiguity (cf. mathematical writing)
:'''''Mes na dlïah yryñéel ry twm go orr awb sovl ber (awr)!''''' (or: '''''...ber awr twm go orr awb sovl''''')
*for relativizing sentences or statements, ''taw'' 'what' is used
:this_PRON SPEC.PL event terrible REL NEG IPFV should 1EX hear about (3PL)
:'''''... taw þwmoñéed emb vyðár tyþ.'''''
:''These are terrible events that we should not have heard of!''
:what confirm COMP equal two
*for places and locations, ''cah'' 'there' can be used as a resumptive pronoun instead of a preposition
:''...which confirms that the two are equal.''
*in formal writing, to eliminate ambiguity ''mes'' 'this' may be used as a resumptive pronoun
 
*for relativizing sentences or statements, the relativizer ''taw'' 'what' is used
:'''''dlïahar ry twm go sovl awb ber (awr)'''''
:'''''... taw þwmoñéed emb þur na tyþ, ñi þyñém.'''''
:event-PLV REL NEG IPFV hear 1EX about (3PL)
:what confirm COMP equal SPEC.PL two as desire
:''events that we did not hear of''
:''...which confirms that the two are equal, as desired.''
*Non-restrictive relative clauses (more precisely, those relative clauses that ''cannot'' be restrictive) are indicated by simple appositi


===Complement clauses===
===Complement clauses===
The complementizer is ''emb''.
The complementizer is ''emb''.
 
Eevo provides other syntaxes for complement clauses which are non-finite...


===Conditional clauses===
===Conditional clauses===
Generally true statement:
====Gnomic conditionals====
:'''''I tøøh a ñwi, (coþ) gias a cnoo.''''' [also found in high register: ''Tøøhor a barah, ...'']
Conditional clauses that express a general truth use ''i'' + a verb in the present tense in the protasis. The form of ''i'' used with copular sentences with a zero copula is ''il''.
:'''''I tøøh ñwi, (coþ) gias a cnoo.'''''  
:if precipitate rain (then) wet SPEC grass
:''If it rains, (then) the grass is wet.''
:''If it rains, (then) the grass is wet.''
Also found in literary contexts with the same meaning: ''Tøøhor a barah, ...'' lit. 'Let it rain...'


Conditional on a possible future event:
====Future conditionals====
:'''''I tøøht a ñwi, faht gias a cnoo.'''''
Clauses describing something conditional on a possible future event use ''i'' + future tense:
:'''''I tøøht ñwi, faht gias a cnoo.'''''  
:if precipitate-FUT rain be.FUT wet SPEC grass
:''If it rains [lit. if it will rain] the grass will be wet.''
:''If it rains [lit. if it will rain] the grass will be wet.''


:'''''Tahd a fiar a criht, naw a criht.''
Time clauses (when, while, before, after) work similarly to non-counterfactual conditional clauses.
:whither A 2SG A go.FUT, 1SG A go.FUT
 
:''Wherever you go, I will go.''
:'''''Criht naw tahd iañt breñt iar.'''''
:go-FUT 1SG whither also say-FUT 2SG
:''I'll go wherever you tell me.''


Hypothetical supposition/a less likely "if":
====Counterfactual conditionals====
Counterfactual suppositions use a different conjunction ''gab'', plus the present tense, and the apodosis uses a verb in the conditional tense:
:'''''Gab tøøh a ñwi, liað gias a cnoo.'''''
:if_counterfactual precipitate SPEC rain be.COND wet SPEC grass
:If it rained, the grass would be wet.
:If it rained, the grass would be wet.
Counterfactual supposition:
:Had it rained, the grass would have been wet.
Time clauses (when, while, before, after) work similarly.


===Method clauses===
===Method clauses===
Method clauses ("by X-ing") use the construction ''nai + VN''.
Method clauses ("by X-ing") use the construction ''nai + VN''.
==="Whatever" clauses===
"whatever" is translated as interrogative + iañt


==Modal expressions==
==Modal expressions==
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**The possessive pronoun can be omitted in casual speech.
**The possessive pronoun can be omitted in casual speech.
*''Ulyn naw...'' = I might... (probabilistic)
*''Ulyn naw...'' = I might... (probabilistic)
===Evidentials or epistemics===


==Telic verbs==
==Telic verbs==
*''asliþda'' = to fake one's way, to cheat one's way < ''liþda'' = to cheat
*''asliþda'' = to fake one's way, to cheat one's way < ''liþda'' = to cheat
*''asmiþgwñ'' = to seduce successfully < ''miþgwñ'' = to seduce
*''asmiþgwñ'' = to seduce successfully < ''miþgwñ'' = to seduce or attempt to


==Infinitive absolute==
==Infinitive absolute==
In an infinitive absolute construction, the verb is repeated once before being "conjugated" for TAM. This construction is used to express the meaning of "indeed" or "it's true that", but often a "but" clause follows.
In an infinitive absolute construction, the verb is repeated once before being "conjugated" for TAM. There are two variants of this construction.
 
The first is used to express the meaning of "indeed" or "it's true that", but often a "but" clause follows.
 
:'''''Fyñg fyñgt ob rree ciab.'''''
:die.INF die-FUT 3SG.M day one
:''It's true that he'll die one day.'' [lit. it is a dying that he will die]


:'''''Fyñg lly fyñg ob rree ciab.'''''
The second, which has a more literary flavor, is used to emphasize that the fact is true. It uses a fossilized cleft clause particle "a(ð)".
:die FUT.PERF die 3SG.M day one
:'''''Fohor a joll ñal gwad dy hnwil. Ah fyój a fyójt gwad, as fyój a beðeg!'''''
:''It's true that he'll die one day.'' [lit. a dying he is to die]
:JUSS SG path before 1PL.IN PRED steep. but triumph A triumph 1PL.IN, and triumph A must-1PL.IN
:''The path before us may be difficult/steep. But triumph we will, and triumph we must!'' (lit. "[It is] triumphing that we shall triumph")

Latest revision as of 07:28, 20 January 2023

A mostly-analytic language, Eevo (Scellan) is focus-prominent and strongly head-initial (with exceptions in poetry), like Salishan and Polynesian languages.

Noun phrase

Scellan uses an unusual article system from the perspective of other Talman languages. It has a specific article (like Windermere) but no definite article (unlike Windermere and other Talmic languages), and number is only marked for specific nouns.

  • no article for non-specific or collective (number neutral)
  • a(ð) for specific singular
  • na for specific plural

Singulative and plurative (called "singular" and "plural" below for convenience) refer to one resp. more than one specific instances of the noun. A noun in the collective form refers to "[noun] in general" or "the set of all [noun]". This distinction also applies to abstract nouns (which often use unmarked collectives). A non-specific abstract noun refers to the quality in general, and the singulative and plurative refer to one or more specific instances or manifestations of the abstract noun. For example, the collective fosgu means 'valor (in general)'; the singulative a fosgu means 'a/the (specific) valiant deed'; the plurative na fosgu means '(the) valiant deeds'.

Non-specific nouns are referred to with plural pronouns.

Modifiers

Genitives, adjectives, and relative clauses all come after the head noun, but numerals and most determiners precede it.

When the article of a genitive NP is omitted, speakers may parse it as an attributive noun (serving a similar purpose to English attributive nouns and compounding).

TODO: The canonical order of modifiers

Faulty accusative

The faulty accusative particle is ym, which etymologically was a filler word like "um...". It is not a case marker; it comes before a constituent noun phrase X in phrases of the form HEAD Y X, when X is not a prepositional phrase or an adjunct.

A duvwñ mol a tehd ym ob.
SPEC teacher thank SPEC child FA 3SG.M
The child thanks the teacher. (lit. 'The teacher, the child thanks him.')
Room llyn ym þail byðai! (also Room þail byðai llyn, with no ym)
exist DAT-1SG FA milk blue
I have blue milk!

ym is optional when the subject is a pronoun:

A tehd mol o'm a duvwñ.
SPEC child thank 3SG.M FA SPEC teacher
The child thanks the teacher. (lit. 'The child, he thanks the teacher.')

ym is not used when the constituent that would get the ym contains a content question:

A tehd mol ob (*ym) tua?
SPEC child thank 3SG.M who
Whom does the child thank?

Questions

Polar questions

For polar questions, i.e. yes/no questions, particles are placed at the beginning of the sentence:

  • TOPIC sec VERB ...? = as for TOPIC, is it the case that...?
  • TOPIC sia VERB ...? = as for TOPIC, is it not the case that...?
  • Literary style may use the question particle es, inherited from Tigol.

Like in Early Modern English, there are four possible answers to yes/no questions:

  • ec = 'yes' to a positive question; also used to agree with an affirmative statement
  • ia = 'no' to a positive question; also used to contradict an affirmative statement
  • vwa = 'yes' to a negative question; also used to contradict a negative statement
  • ter = 'no' to a negative question: also used to agree with a negative statement

These four words will be glossed with their Early Modern English translations, "yea", "nay", "yes", and "no" respectively.

Content questions

As a consequence of topic-first verb-second word order, Skellan is wh-in-situ unlike English:

Iar casin iar taw lly bløgin dia tarsiad rreem?
2SG eat.PERF 2SG what for lunch LOC-SPEC school today
What did you have for lunch in school today?

Negation

The usual negative particle is twm, which is placed before the verb. hob 'don't!' is used for the negative imperative. In literary or poetic language, daw (irrealis) can also be found for the prohibitive.

Negative pronouns

  • twm sahn (lit. not a thing) = nothing
  • twm lias (lit. not a soul) = no one
  • twm tlaw (lit. nowhere) = nowhere
  • fuad = never

On double negation

Double negation usually resolves to a positive, since litotes involving negative pronouns are commonly used for emphasis. For example:

Twm sahn a twm roféelin.
NEG thing A NEG change-PRET
Everything changed. (literally 'Nothing did not change.')
Twm ñorn dia tarsíad a twm hlawb o gyl ee.
NEG girl in-SPEC school A NEG good 3SG.M from 3SG.F
Every girl in school likes him. ('There's no girl in school that doesn't like him.')

Interrogative

The common question particles (placed at the beginning of the sentence) are:

  • sec = interrogative
  • sder = negative interrogative
Sder bo croð hniañt dyb çuþ?
NEG.INTERR COL human also in-COL animal
Are humans, too, not animals?

The interrogative particle es may be used in archaic Eevo.

Copular sentences

There are two (non-interchangeable!) ways to say 'Noun X is noun Y':

  1. Equality is expressed using X (COP) Y (PRON). This asserts that noun phrases X and Y refer to the same thing.
    Ñen a fawl ry ñiþúin awr dy.
    DEM.DIST DET.SG year REL enter-PRET 3PL in
    That was the year in which they entered.
  2. Membership is expressed using X COP dyb Y (PRON) (etym. "X is in all Y's"). This asserts "X is-a Y", i.e. "X is in the set of all Y's".
    Dyb croð Soocrátees, dyb baryçtá bo croð. Ceeda dyb paryçta Soocrátee..
    is_a human Socrates, is_a mortal COL human. therefore is_a mortal Socrates.
    Socrates is human; humans are mortal. Hence Socrates is mortal.

Example: Sia bo croð niañt dyb çuþ? NEG.INTERR COL human also in-COL animal Are humans, too, not animals?

Noun phrase

Number is marked by a preposed determiner; the determiner is optional for proper nouns.

There is a genitive particle ry, but it is optional.

Determiners can be omitted in elevated language.

Predicates

Eevo has no copula. Instead, the "predicate" or the focused constituent is fronted:

e.g. Dy eell naw ee. = I love her; Ee a (fa) dy eell ren. = It's her that I love

When fronting of a noun occurs, the remaining verb phrase becomes a noun phrase, thus a determiner must be used.

Twm ziráð syrñ bo [toxrorégin] a go þarcǿma a hmøøh bo sbenopats.
NEG only new COL evolve-PASS.PART DET PST.IPFV inhabit SG world COL dinosaur
The world of the dinosaurs was not solely occupied by the newly-evolved.

In some tenses (progressive, perfect) the particle fa can be used after the a when fronting.

Dy iant a duvwñ.
The teacher is sleeping.
Duvwñ a (fa) dy iant.
It's the teacher who is sleeping.

Contrasting

Contrastive partial clauses simply treat the contrasting element as the new topic, without necessarily repeating the comment.

Sani dy ell ee Maið, ah Hmorill ia.
S. PROG love 3SG.F M., but H. nay
Sani loves Maið, but Hmorill does not [love him].
Maið dy ell Sani ym o, ah Gelli ia.
M. PROG love S. FA 3SG.M, but G. nay
Sani loves Maið, but she does not love Gelli.

The syntactic role of the contrasting element is clear in both sentences because the comment tells us how the topic behaves syntactically.

"Also" clauses are analogous:

Sani dy ell ee Maið, as Hmorill iañt ec.
S. PROG love 3SG.F M., and H. also yea
Sani loves Maið, and Hmorill does too.

Existence

The verb room is used for existence. For "there is no", twm is used instead of twm room.

Clause types

Time clauses

Balanced time clauses can be formed with the conjunctions tev 'when', ñal 'before', tynd 'after', or hiañ 'while'. Balanced clauses use finite verb forms, hence always mark tense.

Deranked time clauses can be formed by using a preposition, most commonly dy 'when', jwiva 'until', ñal 'before', and tynd 'after'. The subject of the time clause is marked with a genitive construction, either by the preposition ry or by using a possessive pronoun. Deranked time clauses have no inherent tense. Similar deranked clause constructions can be found in Irish and Hebrew. Deranked clauses are somewhat higher-register than balanced clauses (but in other Talmic languages such as Anbirese they're less marked).

Ex:

  • dy cri rib (LOC walk.VN of-1EX) 'when we walk'

When there is no possessor the subject is assumed to be an impersonal subject: dy cri 'when one walks'.

Relative clauses

  • no relativizer is used when the head is the subject in the relative clause
  • ry is used otherwise, possibly with a resumptive pronoun
  • resumptive pronouns are optional - hence relative clauses can end in a preposition as in English
    • This came about because the older resumptive pronominal affixes on prepositions elided and the emphatic pronoun remained optional.
    • when oblique, the resumptive pronoun may replace the relativizer, as in Modern Hebrew
Mes na dlïah yryñéel ry twm go orr awb sovl ber (awr)! (or: ...ber awr twm go orr awb sovl)
this_PRON SPEC.PL event terrible REL NEG IPFV should 1EX hear about (3PL)
These are terrible events that we should not have heard of!
  • for places and locations, cah 'there' can be used as a resumptive pronoun instead of a preposition
  • in formal writing, to eliminate ambiguity mes 'this' may be used as a resumptive pronoun
  • for relativizing sentences or statements, the relativizer taw 'what' is used
... taw þwmoñéed emb þur na tyþ, ñi þyñém.
what confirm COMP equal SPEC.PL two as desire
...which confirms that the two are equal, as desired.
  • Non-restrictive relative clauses (more precisely, those relative clauses that cannot be restrictive) are indicated by simple appositi

Complement clauses

The complementizer is emb.

Conditional clauses

Gnomic conditionals

Conditional clauses that express a general truth use i + a verb in the present tense in the protasis. The form of i used with copular sentences with a zero copula is il.

I tøøh ñwi, (coþ) gias a cnoo.
if precipitate rain (then) wet SPEC grass
If it rains, (then) the grass is wet.

Also found in literary contexts with the same meaning: Tøøhor a barah, ... lit. 'Let it rain...'

Future conditionals

Clauses describing something conditional on a possible future event use i + future tense:

I tøøht ñwi, faht gias a cnoo.
if precipitate-FUT rain be.FUT wet SPEC grass
If it rains [lit. if it will rain] the grass will be wet.

Time clauses (when, while, before, after) work similarly to non-counterfactual conditional clauses.

Criht naw tahd iañt breñt iar.
go-FUT 1SG whither also say-FUT 2SG
I'll go wherever you tell me.

Counterfactual conditionals

Counterfactual suppositions use a different conjunction gab, plus the present tense, and the apodosis uses a verb in the conditional tense:

Gab tøøh a ñwi, liað gias a cnoo.
if_counterfactual precipitate SPEC rain be.COND wet SPEC grass
If it rained, the grass would be wet.

Method clauses

Method clauses ("by X-ing") use the construction nai + VN.

"Whatever" clauses

"whatever" is translated as interrogative + iañt

Modal expressions

  • ñiwð naw = I want to
  • Beð ryn a... = I have to (lit. it is my part to)
    • Colloquially: beðyn, beðes, beðeb, beðee, beðyñ, beðiav, beðeg, beðed, beðer, beðy çar
  • Cwllyn a... = I can (< it is open for me to)
    • Conjugation: cwllyn, cwlles, cwlleb, cwllee, cwllyñ, cwlliav, cwlleg, cwlled, cwller, cwlly çar
  • Orr llyn a... = I should...
  • Dewm ryn a... = I may... (lit. it is my right to)
    • The possessive pronoun can be omitted in casual speech.
  • Ulyn naw... = I might... (probabilistic)

Evidentials or epistemics

Telic verbs

  • asliþda = to fake one's way, to cheat one's way < liþda = to cheat
  • asmiþgwñ = to seduce successfully < miþgwñ = to seduce or attempt to

Infinitive absolute

In an infinitive absolute construction, the verb is repeated once before being "conjugated" for TAM. There are two variants of this construction.

The first is used to express the meaning of "indeed" or "it's true that", but often a "but" clause follows.

Fyñg fyñgt ob rree ciab.
die.INF die-FUT 3SG.M day one
It's true that he'll die one day. [lit. it is a dying that he will die]

The second, which has a more literary flavor, is used to emphasize that the fact is true. It uses a fossilized cleft clause particle "a(ð)".

Fohor a joll ñal gwad dy hnwil. Ah fyój a fyójt gwad, as fyój a beðeg!
JUSS SG path before 1PL.IN PRED steep. but triumph A triumph 1PL.IN, and triumph A must-1PL.IN
The path before us may be difficult/steep. But triumph we will, and triumph we must! (lit. "[It is] triumphing that we shall triumph")