User:Chrysophylax/Skājamāl: Difference between revisions

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# z > s / _#
==Sound changes==
# merger of overlong into long vowels
#: ''*pūkō'' ( < *pūkô)
# d > þ / r_ / (represent /d/ as [þ] here for later word changes, cf. Go waurd, ON orð) but not after [l], [n], or [m]
#: ''*wurþą'' ( < wurdą)
# d > ð / V_V (show /d/ = [ð] intervocalically)
#: ''*nimiði'' ( < *nimidi)
# z > s <s>/ _#</s> [unconditionally]
#: ''*gaisas'' ( < *gaizaz)
# s > h / _#
# s > h / _#
#: ''*baisah'' ( < *baizaz) which later gives ''bērah''
# ō > ā
# ō > ā
#: ''markā'' < *markō
# vowels [+nasal] > vowels [-nasal] [+length]
# vowels [+nasal] > vowels [-nasal] [+length]
#: ''*breustā'' ( < *breustą)
# γ > j / #_V, V_V
# γ > j / #_V, V_V
#: ''skājah'' ( < *skōgaz)
#: ''*jaisīþi'' ( < **gaisīþi), ''skājah'' ( < *skōgaz)
# γ > v̄ / V_[+voiced +consonant]
# γ > v̄ / V_[+voiced +consonant]
# þ > h / _R
# þ > h / _R  
#: ''*mahlā'' ( < *maþlą) which later gives ''māl''
#: ''*mahlā'' ( < *maþlą) which later gives ''māl''
# ā > ē / [+dental +consonant +nasal]_#
# ā > ē / [+dental +consonant +nasal]_#
# Spontaneous haplogy ('''sic''').
# Spontaneous haplogy ('''sic''').
#: ''*nimði'' < ''*nimiði'' ( < *nimidi)
# f > hw / _V
# f > hw / _V
#: ''*hwehu'' ( < *fehu)
# mb > w̃ / V_V
#: ''law̃ah'' ( < *lambaz )
# þ > s [unconditionally]
# þ > s [unconditionally]
# nd > n / V_V
#: ''sat'' ( < *þat), ''wursā'' < ''*wurþā'' ( < *wurdą)
# ă ĕ ŏ > Ø / _#
# d > n / nV_V
# If a word by result of law 13 becomes monosyllabic, lengthen the stem vowel for compensation.
#: ''annā'' ( < *andô)
# If a word by result of law 13 terminates in -w, turn it into -u.
# ă ĕ ŏ > Ø / _# (unless monosyllabic) (Short vowel deletion rule)
# If a word by result of the short vowel deletion becomes monosyllabic, lengthen the stem vowel for compensation.
# If a word by result of the aforementioned rule terminates in -w, it becomes -u.
# ĭ ŭ > e o / _#
# ĭ ŭ > e o / _#
#: ''alo'' ( < *alu)
# s > h / _R
# s > h / _R
# j > Ø /#_V
# j > Ø /#_V
# h > Ø /V_C
#: allā < ''*jallā'' ( < *gallō)
# Compensatory vowel lengthening follows the above law.
#: '''exception''' j > ē / #_e for disyllabic words
#
#:: ēbā < ''*jebā'' ( < *gebā)
#
# h > Ø /V_C, with compensatory lenghtening of the preceding vowel
#
#: mālā  < ''*mahlā'' ( < *maþlą)
# s > z / V_V
#: ''*keuzanā'' ( < *keusaną)
# b > v / V_V
#: ''*averanā'' < ''*aberanā'' ( < *gaberaną), ''ēvā'' < ''*ēbā'' ( < *gebō )
# b > w / V_jV
#: ''*haujā'' < ''*habjā'' ( < *habjō)
# d > z / V_V
#: ''māzēr'' < ''*māðēr'' ( < *mōdēr)
# z > r / V_V (unless following or preceding syllable already has r)
#: ''*ekorana'' < ''*ekozana'' ( < *gekozanaz)
# h > Ø / #_V
#: ''*ailah'' < ''*hailah'' ( < *hailaz)
# Words of three or more syllables may occasionally experience V > Ø / _#
# Words of three or more syllables may occasionally experience V > Ø / _#
# ai ei eu > ē ī iu when stressed
#: ''ējum'' ( < *aigum, {{sc|pres act 1pl}} of *aiganą), ''rīzanā'' ( < *reidaną~rīdaną), ''kiuranā'' ( < *keusaną)
#: ''ērīs'' 'he/she/it frightens' ( < *gaisīþi) cf. ''avajs''  'he/she/it has' ( < *habaiþi)
# /wr/ -> [rʷː]
==Current status==
====1.====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
| colspan="8"| a-stems
|-
| colspan="3"| '''hwarhah''' ''m'' piglet
| colspan="2"| '''blātā''' ''n'' sacrifice
|-
! || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
|-
! Vocative
| hwarh
| hwarhāh
| colspan=2 rowspan=3| blātā
|-
! Nominative
| hwarhah
| hwarhāh
|-
! Accusative
| hwarhā
| hwarhann
|-
! Genitive
| hwarhah
| hwarhō
| blātah
| blātō
|-
! Dative
| hwarhaj
| hwarhamah
| blātaj
| blātamah
|-
! Instrumental
| hwarhā
| hwarhamah
| blātā
| blātamah
|-
|}
===ō===
These will probably merge to some extent with the a-stems of ''n'' gender.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
| colspan="3"| "ō-stems"
|-
| colspan="3"| '''ēvā''' ''f'' gift
|-
! || Singular || Plural
|-
! Vocative
| rowspan="2"|ēvā
| rowspan="3"|ēvāh
|-
! Nominative
|-
! Accusative
| ēvō
|-
! Genitive
| ēvāh
| ēvō
|-
! Dative
| ēvāj
| rowspan="2"|ēvāmah
|-
! Instrumental
| ēvā
|-
|}
====2.====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
| colspan="5"| "i-stems"
|-
| colspan="3"| '''astih''' ''m'' guest
| colspan="2"| '''mare''' ''n'' sea
|-
! || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
|-
! Vocative
| astih
| astīh
| mare
| marī
|-
! Nominative
| astih
| astīh
| mare
| marī
|-
! Accusative
| astī
| astinn
| mare
| marī
|-
! Genitive
| astīh
| astjjō
| marīh
| marjō
|-
! Dative
| astī
| astimah
| mare
| marimah
|-
! Instrumental
| astī
| astimah
| mare
| marimah
|-
|}
====3.====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
| colspan="8"| u-stems
|-
| colspan="3"| '''attuh''' ''m'' hat
| colspan="2"| '''hweho''' ''n'' cattle
|-
! || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
|-
! Vocative
| atto
| attīh
| hweho
| hwehū
|-
! Nominative
| attuh
| attīh
| hweho
| hwehū
|-
! Accusative
| attū
| attunn
| hweho
| hwehū
|-
! Genitive
| attauh
| attjō
| hwehauh
| hwehjō
|-
! Dative
| attī
| attumah
| hwehī
| hwehumah
|-
! Instrumental
| attī
| attumah
| hwehī
| hwehumah
|-
|}
====4.====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
| colspan="8"| an-stems
|-
| colspan="3"| '''umā''' ''m'' soldier
| colspan="2"| '''aujā''' ''n'' eye
|-
! || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
|-
! Vocative
|umā
|umnīh
|aujā
|aujānā
|-
! Nominative
|umā
|umnīh
|aujā
|aujānā
|-
! Accusative
|umnū
|umnunn
|aujā
|aujānā
|-
! Genitive
|umnīh
|umnō
|auhnih
|aujanō
|-
! Dative
|umnī
|ummah
|auhnī
|aujamah
|-
! Instrumental
|umnī
|ummah
|auhnī
|aujamah
|-
|}
====5.====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
| colspan="8"| on-stems
|-
| colspan="3"| '''hwiwalsā''' ''f'' butterfly
|-
! || Singular || Plural
|-
! Vocative
|hwiwalsō
|hwiwalsānih
|-
! Nominative
|hwiwalsā
|hwiwalsānih
|-
! Accusative
|hwiwalsānū
|hwiwalsānunn
|-
! Genitive
|hwiwalsānih
|hwiwalsānō
|-
! Dative
|hwiwalsāne
|hwiwalsāmah
|-
! Instrumental
|hwiwalsāne
|hwiwalsāmah
|-
|}
====6.====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
| colspan="8"| īn-stems
|-
| colspan="3"| '''hrārī''' ''f'' wisdom
|-
! || Singular || Plural
|-
! Vocative
|hrārī
|hrārīnih
|-
! Nominative
|hrārī
|hrārīnih
|-
! Accusative
|hrārīnū
|hrārīnunn
|-
! Genitive
|hrārīnih
|hrārīnō
|-
! Dative
|hrārīne
|hrārīnāmah
|-
! Instrumental
|hrārīne
|hrārināmah
|-
|}
====7.====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
| colspan="8"| r-stems
|-
| colspan="3"| '''māzēr''' ''f'' mother
|-
! || Singular || Plural
|-
! Vocative
|māzer
|māzrih
|-
! Nominative
|māzēr
|māzrih
|-
! Accusative
|māzerū
|māzrunn
|-
! Genitive
|māzur
|māzrō
|-
! Dative
|māzre
|māzrumah
|-
! Instrumental
|māzre
|māzrumah
|-
|}
Alternative declension:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
| colspan="8"| r-stems
|-
| colspan="3"| '''māzēr''' ''f'' mother
|-
! || Singular || Plural
|-
! Vocative
|māzerī
|māzrīnih
|-
! Nominative
|māzērī
|māzrīnih
|-
! Accusative
|māzrīnū
|māzrīnunn
|-
! Genitive
|māzrīnih
|māzrīnō
|-
! Dative
|māzrīni
|māzrināmah
|-
! Instrumental
|māzrīne
|māzrīnāmah
|-
|}
====8. z-stems====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
| colspan="8"| z-stems
|-
| colspan="3"| '''lamhah''' ''n'' lamb
|-
! || Singular || Plural
|-
! Vocative
|lamhah
|lamhirā
|-
! Nominative
|lamhah
|lamhirā
|-
! Accusative
|lamhah
|lamhirā
|-
! Genitive
|lamhirih
|lamhirō
|-
! Dative
|lamhirī
|lamhirumah
|-
! Instrumental
|lamhirī
|lamhirumah
|-
|}
====ix====
<!--
{| class="wikitable"
! Ending(s)
! PG
! Skā
|-
| a-stem masculine accusative singular
| ą
| ā
|-
| a-stem masculine nominative singular
| az
| ah
|-
| i-stem masculine accusative singular
| į
| ī
|-
| i-stem nominative singular
| iz
| ih
|-
| u-stem accusative singular
| ų
| ū
|-
| u-stem nominative singular
| uz
| uh
|-
| 1st person singular present of verbs
| ō
| ā
|-
| ō-stem adjective accusative singular
| ǭ
| ō
|-
| ō-stem accusative plural
| ōz
| āh
|-
| 3rd person singular past of weak verbs
| ē
| ē
|-
| a-stem dative singular
| ai
| ē
|-
| short ja-stem neuter nominative singular
| ją
| jā
|-
| short ja-stem masculine nominative singular
| jaz
| jah
|-
| i-stem nominative plural
| īz
| īh
|-
| long ja-stem masculine nominative singular
| ijaz
| jjah
|-
| long ja-stem neuter nominative singular
| iją
| jjā
|-
| 3rd person singular past subjunctive
| ī
| ī
|-
| adverb suffix
| ô
| ā
|-
| genitive plural
| ǫ̂
| ō
|-
| ō-stem nominative plural
| ôz
| āh
|-
| u-stem genitive singular
| auz
| auh (ōh)
|-
| adverb suffix
| ê
| ē
|}
-->
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:500px;" 
<Caption>Early Skājamāl personal pronouns</caption>
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" | First person
! colspan="3" | Second person
|-
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *ek<br />*ik<sup>1</sup> || *wet<br />*wit<sup>1</sup> || *wīh<br />*wih<sup>1</sup> || *sū || *jut || *jūh
|-
! Accusative
| *mek<br />*mik<sup>1</sup> || *unn || *uss || *sek<br />*sik<sup>1</sup> || *innu || *ihwih
|-
! Genitive
| *mīnah || *unnerah || *usserah || *sīnah || *innūrah || *ihwerah
|-
! Dative/instrumental
| *mih || *unnih || *ussih || *sih || *innwih || *ihwih
|}
<small><sup>1</sup> – Unstressed variant</small>
====The Lord's Prayer====
<poem>
hwāzēr usserah, sū īre in himinamah
sījje sīna namā ēlagāh,
wirkijē sīna wiljā,
ekwemē sīna rīkijā,
hwa an ersē hwe an himinamah
ēf daebrauzā ussera himmē daē ussih
hworholēt usserāh skuldin ussih
hwe auk wīh hworlētam san skuldan ussih
nuh bring uss in kūtauh ak eablēzī uss
a uvilammē.
</poem>
====Waka, Wāran====
<poem>
#Waka Wāran!
#Ērambāt
#Māte hwijannū
#Hwinn sturkī
#Sterrī ak staut!
#Serh annjalausanū derkanū
#Serh gatā stēnō
#Tā annjā!
#Tā daurū!
</poem>
''"Awake Wodan! Pyre-tender! Meet the foe! Find strength! Stand fast and strike! Through endless dark, through gaps of stones. To the end! To death!"''


===Example sentences===
===Example sentences===
# ''sā hweū hwurhte sanā wulhwā fure avajs''
# ''sā hweū hwurhte sanā wulhwā hwure avajs''
#: þō fehū furhti þaną wulfą furi habaiþi.
#: þō fehū furhti þaną wulfą furi habaiþi.
#:: 'The cattle has fear of the wolf.'
#:: 'The cattle has fear of the wolf.'
# ''sa wulhwā sā hweū ēsīs''
# ''sa wulhwā sā hweū ērīs''
#: sa wulfaz þō fehū ?gaisīþi. ( PIE *'''gheis-''', cf. Goth. ''usgaisjan'')
#: sa wulfaz þō fehū ?gaisīþi. ( PIE *'''gheis-''', cf. Goth. ''usgaisjan'')
#:: 'The wolf terrorizes the cattle.'
#:: 'The wolf terrorizes the cattle.'
==Askājaskā naunā==
===sājanaunā===
The adjectives of Skájamál are quite peculiar from a sibling perspective - there is no “strong” or “weak” inflection - instead, adjectives are declined for definiteness by a complex process whose origins lie in the ancient addition of a prefix, ''*ja(i)-'', which is usually reflected as ''a-'' before most consonants and disappears before most vowels. However, sound changes and analogical processes make the resultant system quite tricky to navigate.
#preserved pre-consonantal a-
:'''hwēkwaḥ''' vs. '''ahwēkwaḥ''' (weak)
#iotation and loss
:'''ulsīnaḥ''' vs. '''iulsīnaḥ''' (golden);this results from an original *g being preserved as -j- intervocalically and lost initially.
#preserved lenition
:'''bitraḥ''' vs. '''avitraḥ''' (bitter)
#lenition and loss
:'''batistaḥ'''  vs. '''vatistaḥ''' (best)
===sansanaunā===
==Askājaskā wursā==
===ahwēkwā wursā===
habdō > awdō -> audō -> aujā 1sgpres, audō 1sgpast, aujau 1sgpressubj, audē 1sgpastsubj
#Innovatio I
:The past tense indicative {{sc|1pl}} marker has replaced the equivalent present indicative marker. So, basically a bunch of verbs look a bit like preterite-presents here.
::e.g. '''aujum''' 'we have' ( from an innovated < *'''habjum''', instead of the expected reflex of PGmc. *'''habjamaz''' which would be **aujamah)
#Innovatio II
:Loss of final -i in the ind. pres. ("weak")
:: '''avajs''' 'you have, he has' ( < *'''''habaiþ''''' <  PGmc. *'''habaiþi''' AND < *'''''habais''''' < PGmc. *'''habaisi''')
::
::{|class="wikitable"
|-
| -jō||-jā
|-
| -aisi||-ajs
|-
| -aiþi||-ajs
|-
| -jum||-jum
|-
| -aiþ||-ajs
|-
| -janþi||-jan
|-
|}
#Innovatio III
: The subclasses of w-Class III merge with the stative -ja- spreading into the factitive in the present, while the factitive -a- forms spread to the past. The past participle is formed with *''-adaz'', present with *''-(i)jandz''
#Innovatio IV
: The spread of -janā to the infinitive from the I and III class to the rest.
::'''wrissājanā''', '''salbājanā'''
====Class I====
=====s-class I=====
A lot of things happen here:
As for *brūkaną, it's moved into class 2b of the strong verbs but keeps weak participle: briūk-, brauk-, brukadaz -> briūk-, brauk, brukara
then, *būanā joins the third weak class as būjanā (būās, būrāze, būra)
====s-class II====
todo
====s-class III====
to a large extent, merged with Class III, with verbs showing alternation between -a- and -i- in the past.
====Class II====
{|class="wikitable"
!colspan="13"|šemplīas paradịmās: wansājanā (kalaš II - 'mažinatiš')
|-
|colspan="6"| ||present participle: wansānn past participle: wansāraḥ ||colspan="6"|
|-
! ||colspan="6"|indicative||colspan="6"|subjunctive
|-
|colspan="1"| ||colspan="3"|singular||colspan="3"|plural||colspan="3"|singular||colspan="3"|plural
|-
| ||first||second||third||first||second||third||first||second||third||first||second||third
|-
|present||wansā||'''wansās'''||'''wansās'''||wansām||'''wansās'''||wansān||wansō||'''wansā'''||'''wansā'''||wansām||'''wansā'''||wansān
|-
|past||wansārō||'''wansārē'''||'''wansārē'''||wansārzum||wansārzud||wansārzun||'''wansārzī'''||'''wansārzī'''||'''wansārzī'''||wansārzīm||wansārzīd||wansārzīn
|}
====Class III====
{|class="wikitable"
!colspan="13"|šemplīas paradịmās: aujanā (kalaš III - 'jèmetiš')
|-
|colspan="6"| ||present participle: aujann past participle: avarah ||colspan="6"|
|-
! ||colspan="6"|indicative||colspan="6"|subjunctive
|-
|colspan="1"| ||colspan="3"|singular||colspan="3"|plural||colspan="3"|singular||colspan="3"|plural
|-
| ||first||second||third||first||second||third||first||second||third||first||second||third
|-
|present||aujā||'''avajs'''||'''avajs'''||aujum||'''avajs'''||aujan||aujaū||'''aujai'''||'''aujai'''||aujaim||'''aujai'''||aujain
|-
|past||audō||'''audē'''||'''audē'''||audum||audud||audun||'''audērī'''||'''audērī'''||'''audērī'''||audērīm||audērīd||audērīn
|}
===astarkijā wursā===
====Class I====
-ī- -ē- -i- -i-
====Class II====
a) iu - au - u - u
b) iū - au - u - u < '''Innovatio!''' j- ex a)
====Class III====
====Class IV====
====Class V====
====Class VI====
====Class VII====
==Sandhi==
Pronomina often occur in second position (wackernagel), thus sometimes glued onto verb. E.g.
wansā ik → wansājk
wansās sū → wansāru
wansās sa → wansāra
===A man says to another man…===
This is in step 16 Skājamāl
<poem>
— O, Hweho!
— ''Hweho?''
— Hwehōh?!
— ''Ne, hweho!''
— Hahā, hweho!
</poem>
[http://vocaroo.com/i/s1k997IGgQz4 Listen to this dialogue read by D. Salo]

Latest revision as of 22:45, 2 October 2017

Sound changes

  1. merger of overlong into long vowels
    *pūkō ( < *pūkô)
  2. d > þ / r_ / (represent /d/ as [þ] here for later word changes, cf. Go waurd, ON orð) but not after [l], [n], or [m]
    *wurþą ( < wurdą)
  3. d > ð / V_V (show /d/ = [ð] intervocalically)
    *nimiði ( < *nimidi)
  4. z > s / _# [unconditionally]
    *gaisas ( < *gaizaz)
  5. s > h / _#
    *baisah ( < *baizaz) which later gives bērah
  6. ō > ā
    markā < *markō
  7. vowels [+nasal] > vowels [-nasal] [+length]
    *breustā ( < *breustą)
  8. γ > j / #_V, V_V
    *jaisīþi ( < **gaisīþi), skājah ( < *skōgaz)
  9. γ > v̄ / V_[+voiced +consonant]
  10. þ > h / _R
    *mahlā ( < *maþlą) which later gives māl
  11. ā > ē / [+dental +consonant +nasal]_#
  12. Spontaneous haplogy (sic).
    *nimði < *nimiði ( < *nimidi)
  13. f > hw / _V
    *hwehu ( < *fehu)
  14. mb > w̃ / V_V
    law̃ah ( < *lambaz )
  15. þ > s [unconditionally]
    sat ( < *þat), wursā < *wurþā ( < *wurdą)
  16. d > n / nV_V
    annā ( < *andô)
  17. ă ĕ ŏ > Ø / _# (unless monosyllabic) (Short vowel deletion rule)
  18. If a word by result of the short vowel deletion becomes monosyllabic, lengthen the stem vowel for compensation.
  19. If a word by result of the aforementioned rule terminates in -w, it becomes -u.
  20. ĭ ŭ > e o / _#
    alo ( < *alu)
  21. s > h / _R
  22. j > Ø /#_V
    allā < *jallā ( < *gallō)
    exception j > ē / #_e for disyllabic words
    ēbā < *jebā ( < *gebā)
  23. h > Ø /V_C, with compensatory lenghtening of the preceding vowel
    mālā < *mahlā ( < *maþlą)
  24. s > z / V_V
    *keuzanā ( < *keusaną)
  25. b > v / V_V
    *averanā < *aberanā ( < *gaberaną), ēvā < *ēbā ( < *gebō )
  26. b > w / V_jV
    *haujā < *habjā ( < *habjō)
  27. d > z / V_V
    māzēr < *māðēr ( < *mōdēr)
  28. z > r / V_V (unless following or preceding syllable already has r)
    *ekorana < *ekozana ( < *gekozanaz)
  29. h > Ø / #_V
    *ailah < *hailah ( < *hailaz)
  30. Words of three or more syllables may occasionally experience V > Ø / _#
  31. ai ei eu > ē ī iu when stressed
    ējum ( < *aigum, pres act 1pl of *aiganą), rīzanā ( < *reidaną~rīdaną), kiuranā ( < *keusaną)
    ērīs 'he/she/it frightens' ( < *gaisīþi) cf. avajs 'he/she/it has' ( < *habaiþi)
  32. /wr/ -> [rʷː]

Current status

1.

a-stems
hwarhah m piglet blātā n sacrifice
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Vocative hwarh hwarhāh blātā
Nominative hwarhah hwarhāh
Accusative hwarhā hwarhann
Genitive hwarhah hwarhō blātah blātō
Dative hwarhaj hwarhamah blātaj blātamah
Instrumental hwarhā hwarhamah blātā blātamah

ō

These will probably merge to some extent with the a-stems of n gender.

"ō-stems"
ēvā f gift
Singular Plural
Vocative ēvā ēvāh
Nominative
Accusative ēvō
Genitive ēvāh ēvō
Dative ēvāj ēvāmah
Instrumental ēvā

2.

"i-stems"
astih m guest mare n sea
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Vocative astih astīh mare marī
Nominative astih astīh mare marī
Accusative astī astinn mare marī
Genitive astīh astjjō marīh marjō
Dative astī astimah mare marimah
Instrumental astī astimah mare marimah

3.

u-stems
attuh m hat hweho n cattle
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Vocative atto attīh hweho hwehū
Nominative attuh attīh hweho hwehū
Accusative attū attunn hweho hwehū
Genitive attauh attjō hwehauh hwehjō
Dative attī attumah hwehī hwehumah
Instrumental attī attumah hwehī hwehumah

4.

an-stems
umā m soldier aujā n eye
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Vocative umā umnīh aujā aujānā
Nominative umā umnīh aujā aujānā
Accusative umnū umnunn aujā aujānā
Genitive umnīh umnō auhnih aujanō
Dative umnī ummah auhnī aujamah
Instrumental umnī ummah auhnī aujamah

5.

on-stems
hwiwalsā f butterfly
Singular Plural
Vocative hwiwalsō hwiwalsānih
Nominative hwiwalsā hwiwalsānih
Accusative hwiwalsānū hwiwalsānunn
Genitive hwiwalsānih hwiwalsānō
Dative hwiwalsāne hwiwalsāmah
Instrumental hwiwalsāne hwiwalsāmah

6.

īn-stems
hrārī f wisdom
Singular Plural
Vocative hrārī hrārīnih
Nominative hrārī hrārīnih
Accusative hrārīnū hrārīnunn
Genitive hrārīnih hrārīnō
Dative hrārīne hrārīnāmah
Instrumental hrārīne hrārināmah

7.

r-stems
māzēr f mother
Singular Plural
Vocative māzer māzrih
Nominative māzēr māzrih
Accusative māzerū māzrunn
Genitive māzur māzrō
Dative māzre māzrumah
Instrumental māzre māzrumah

Alternative declension:


r-stems
māzēr f mother
Singular Plural
Vocative māzerī māzrīnih
Nominative māzērī māzrīnih
Accusative māzrīnū māzrīnunn
Genitive māzrīnih māzrīnō
Dative māzrīni māzrināmah
Instrumental māzrīne māzrīnāmah

8. z-stems

z-stems
lamhah n lamb
Singular Plural
Vocative lamhah lamhirā
Nominative lamhah lamhirā
Accusative lamhah lamhirā
Genitive lamhirih lamhirō
Dative lamhirī lamhirumah
Instrumental lamhirī lamhirumah

ix

Early Skājamāl personal pronouns
First person Second person
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative *ek
*ik1		 *wet
*wit1		 *wīh
*wih1		 *sū *jut *jūh
Accusative *mek
*mik1		 *unn *uss *sek
*sik1		 *innu *ihwih
Genitive *mīnah *unnerah *usserah *sīnah *innūrah *ihwerah
Dative/instrumental *mih *unnih *ussih *sih *innwih *ihwih

1 – Unstressed variant

The Lord's Prayer

hwāzēr usserah, sū īre in himinamah
sījje sīna namā ēlagāh,
wirkijē sīna wiljā,
ekwemē sīna rīkijā,
hwa an ersē hwe an himinamah
ēf daebrauzā ussera himmē daē ussih
hworholēt usserāh skuldin ussih
hwe auk wīh hworlētam san skuldan ussih
nuh bring uss in kūtauh ak eablēzī uss
a uvilammē.

Waka, Wāran

  1. Waka Wāran!
  2. Ērambāt
  3. Māte hwijannū
  4. Hwinn sturkī
  5. Sterrī ak staut!
  6. Serh annjalausanū derkanū
  7. Serh gatā stēnō
  8. Tā annjā!
  9. Tā daurū!

"Awake Wodan! Pyre-tender! Meet the foe! Find strength! Stand fast and strike! Through endless dark, through gaps of stones. To the end! To death!"

Example sentences

  1. sā hweū hwurhte sanā wulhwā hwure avajs
    þō fehū furhti þaną wulfą furi habaiþi.
    'The cattle has fear of the wolf.'
  2. sa wulhwā sā hweū ērīs
    sa wulfaz þō fehū ?gaisīþi. ( PIE *gheis-, cf. Goth. usgaisjan)
    'The wolf terrorizes the cattle.'


Askājaskā naunā

sājanaunā

The adjectives of Skájamál are quite peculiar from a sibling perspective - there is no “strong” or “weak” inflection - instead, adjectives are declined for definiteness by a complex process whose origins lie in the ancient addition of a prefix, *ja(i)-, which is usually reflected as a- before most consonants and disappears before most vowels. However, sound changes and analogical processes make the resultant system quite tricky to navigate.

  1. preserved pre-consonantal a-
hwēkwaḥ vs. ahwēkwaḥ (weak)
  1. iotation and loss
ulsīnaḥ vs. iulsīnaḥ (golden);this results from an original *g being preserved as -j- intervocalically and lost initially.
  1. preserved lenition
bitraḥ vs. avitraḥ (bitter)
  1. lenition and loss
batistaḥ vs. vatistaḥ (best)

sansanaunā

Askājaskā wursā

ahwēkwā wursā

habdō > awdō -> audō -> aujā 1sgpres, audō 1sgpast, aujau 1sgpressubj, audē 1sgpastsubj

  1. Innovatio I
The past tense indicative 1pl marker has replaced the equivalent present indicative marker. So, basically a bunch of verbs look a bit like preterite-presents here.
e.g. aujum 'we have' ( from an innovated < *habjum, instead of the expected reflex of PGmc. *habjamaz which would be **aujamah)
  1. Innovatio II
Loss of final -i in the ind. pres. ("weak")
avajs 'you have, he has' ( < *habaiþ < PGmc. *habaiþi AND < *habais < PGmc. *habaisi)
-jō -jā
-aisi -ajs
-aiþi -ajs
-jum -jum
-aiþ -ajs
-janþi -jan
  1. Innovatio III
The subclasses of w-Class III merge with the stative -ja- spreading into the factitive in the present, while the factitive -a- forms spread to the past. The past participle is formed with *-adaz, present with *-(i)jandz
  1. Innovatio IV
The spread of -janā to the infinitive from the I and III class to the rest.
wrissājanā, salbājanā

Class I

s-class I

A lot of things happen here:

As for *brūkaną, it's moved into class 2b of the strong verbs but keeps weak participle: briūk-, brauk-, brukadaz -> briūk-, brauk, brukara

then, *būanā joins the third weak class as būjanā (būās, būrāze, būra)

s-class II

todo

s-class III

to a large extent, merged with Class III, with verbs showing alternation between -a- and -i- in the past.

Class II

šemplīas paradịmās: wansājanā (kalaš II - 'mažinatiš')
present participle: wansānn past participle: wansāraḥ
indicative subjunctive
singular plural singular plural
first second third first second third first second third first second third
present wansā wansās wansās wansām wansās wansān wansō wansā wansā wansām wansā wansān
past wansārō wansārē wansārē wansārzum wansārzud wansārzun wansārzī wansārzī wansārzī wansārzīm wansārzīd wansārzīn

Class III

šemplīas paradịmās: aujanā (kalaš III - 'jèmetiš')
present participle: aujann past participle: avarah
indicative subjunctive
singular plural singular plural
first second third first second third first second third first second third
present aujā avajs avajs aujum avajs aujan aujaū aujai aujai aujaim aujai aujain
past audō audē audē audum audud audun audērī audērī audērī audērīm audērīd audērīn

astarkijā wursā

Class I

-ī- -ē- -i- -i-

Class II

a) iu - au - u - u

b) iū - au - u - u < Innovatio! j- ex a)

Class III

Class IV

Class V

Class VI

Class VII

Sandhi

Pronomina often occur in second position (wackernagel), thus sometimes glued onto verb. E.g.

wansā ik → wansājk

wansās sū → wansāru

wansās sa → wansāra

A man says to another man…

This is in step 16 Skājamāl

— O, Hweho!
— Hweho?
— Hwehōh?!
— Ne, hweho!
— Hahā, hweho!

Listen to this dialogue read by D. Salo

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