Nankôre: Difference between revisions
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|pronunciation = nan.'ko:re | |pronunciation = nan.'ko:re | ||
|setting = [[wikipedia:Pacific Northwest|Pacific Northwest]] | |setting = [[wikipedia:Pacific Northwest|Pacific Northwest]] | ||
|states = | |states = Nanhoska Kôya /nan'hoʃka 'ko:ja/ | ||
|ethnicity = | |ethnicity = Nanhoska people | ||
|speakers = | |speakers = 2,324 | ||
|date = 2014 | |date = 2014 | ||
|familycolor = panlaffic | |familycolor = panlaffic | ||
|fam1 = Nahenic | |fam1 = Nahenic | ||
|fam2 = Nankoric | |fam2 = Shakhtabaric | ||
|fam3 = Nankoric | |||
|nation = Koya Island | |nation = Koya Island | ||
|script1 = Latn | |script1 = Latn | ||
| Line 67: | Line 68: | ||
| ʔ | | ʔ | ||
|- | |- | ||
| a,ā, â | | a,ā, â | ||
| a,ā,â | | a,ā,â | ||
| a, a: | | a, a: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Line 95: | Line 96: | ||
| s, s̺, ʃ | | s, s̺, ʃ | ||
|- | |- | ||
| š | | ś, š<ref>Found mostly in older linguistic texts before 1965. The character has largely fell into disuse afterwards.</ref> | ||
| sh | | sh | ||
| ʃ | | ʃ | ||
| Line 240: | Line 241: | ||
}} | }} | ||
If the noun is a core argument, then the [[Nankôre#The_Auxiliary|auxiliary ]] obligatorily marks for number. | If the noun is a core argument, then the [[Nankôre#The_Auxiliary|auxiliary ]] obligatorily marks for number. Plural number is indicated on the auxiliary by the affix ''-n-''. For plural Agents, it is infixed, and for plural Patients, it is suffixed. Additionally, if the auxiliary is marked with the Inverse prefix, the prefix redundantly encodes number by vowel length, eg ''ta-'' for the singular, and ''tā='' for the plural. Some examples are given below: | ||
Example of a HA singular Agent acting on a LA singular Patient: | Example of a HA singular Agent acting on a LA singular Patient: | ||
| Line 281: | Line 282: | ||
| translation = I heard that the dogs played with the girls recently. | | translation = I heard that the dogs played with the girls recently. | ||
}} | }} | ||
==== The Nominal Hierarchy ==== | ==== The Nominal Hierarchy ==== | ||
| Line 413: | Line 413: | ||
* -no: Diminutive suffix, e.g. ''kuras'' (woman), ''kurasno'' (girl) | * -no: Diminutive suffix, e.g. ''kuras'' (woman), ''kurasno'' (girl) | ||
* -CV(C) reduplication: Augmentive, e.g. ''kurasras'' (big woman); analogous to Minhast augmentation | * -CV(C) reduplication: Augmentive, e.g. ''kurasras'' (big woman); analogous to Minhast augmentation | ||
* - | * -rV-CV(C) infixation + reduplication: Augmentive-Deprecative: ''nahón'' -> ''nannarohono'', from ''na~na~ro-hón-ho'' (big/fat ugly man); similar to Minhast ''-ra-'' infixation and reduplication of first syllable, e.g. Minhast ''kas~ka~ra-slub'' "large dog, hunting hound" < ''kaslub'' "dog" | ||
==== Adjectival Suffixes ==== | ==== Adjectival Suffixes ==== | ||
Nankôre lacks a separate word class for adjectives. They may be expressed as attributive verbs, e.g. ''Aryak neshkak itá'', "Aryak is smart", ''Kanko shoykar sip'itá''', "Kanko (an indigenous vegetable) makes good" (for your health), or a suffix may be attached to the noun it modifies. These suffixes are called adjectival suffixes. Some of these suffixes are etymologically derived from an attributive verb, e.g. ''-kerek'' > '' | Nankôre lacks a separate word class for adjectives. They may be expressed as attributive verbs, e.g. ''Aryak neshkak itá'', "Aryak is smart", ''Kanko shoykar sip'itá''', "Kanko (an indigenous vegetable) makes good" (for your health), or a suffix may be attached to the noun it modifies. These suffixes are called adjectival suffixes. Some of these suffixes are etymologically derived from an attributive verb, e.g. ''karyak itá'' > ''-kerek'' >, as in ''Kurasnokerek '' "the girl is red" (i.e. the girl is blushing). Others appear to be derived from separate roots, c.f. "''Aryak-arku''", ("clever Aryak") vs ''"Aryak neshkak itá"'' ("Aryak is clever"). Theoretically an unlimited number of suffixes may be appended to the noun, but in practice the number of adjectival suffixes seldom exceeds three. The suffixes may appear in any order, so long as the meaning is comprehensible. Scope ordering determines the position of the suffixes relative to each other, with those of wider scope appearing towards the end, as in the following example: | ||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Kenenkorpitasnune iná'. | |||
| IPA = /kɛnɛnkorpɪtaʃ'nunɛ ɪ'naʔ/ | |||
| morphemes = kenenkor-pita-snu-ne iná | |||
| gloss = bed-plush-red-soft-very COP | |||
| translation = It is a very soft, red and plush bed. | |||
}} | |||
While the number of adjectival suffixes are considerable, they remain for the most part a closed class. Moreover, with a few exceptions, each adjectival suffix may be expressed by a corresponding stative verb. | While the number of adjectival suffixes are considerable, they remain for the most part a closed class. Moreover, with a few exceptions, each adjectival suffix may be expressed by a corresponding stative verb. | ||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Hosiari sikenenkorpitasnune iná torocak ta'itāhi. | |||
| IPA = /ho'ʃari sɪkɛnɛnkorpɪtaʃ'nunɛ ɪ'naʔ torot͡ʃak taʔɪt'a:hi/ | |||
| morphemes = hosiari si-kenenkor-pita-snu-ne iná ta-horoci=ak ta-itá'-hi | |||
| gloss = PROX.DEM CONN-bed-plush-red-soft-very COP INV-sleep=1S+3S INV-AUX-CAUS | |||
| translation = This very soft, red and plush bed makes me sleep (well). | |||
}} | |||
There are seven observed categories of adjectival suffixes: | There are seven observed categories of adjectival suffixes: | ||
| Line 430: | Line 447: | ||
# Other Attributes | # Other Attributes | ||
===Deictics=== | ===Demonstratives and Deictics=== | ||
===== Spatial ===== | ===== Spatial ===== | ||
| Line 438: | Line 455: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! '''Proximal ''' | ! '''Proximal ''' | ||
| | | hosiairi <br/> /ho'ʃjaɪɾi/ | ||
| =skoro | | =skoro | ||
| | | | ||
| Line 444: | Line 461: | ||
* now | * now | ||
| | | | ||
* ''nan=iskoro'' "this man here" | * ''hosiari sinán <br/>nan=iskoro'' "this man here" | ||
* ''oriyat=hepi'' "today" | * ''oriyat=hepi'' "today" | ||
| | | | ||
| Line 451: | Line 468: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! '''Medio-Proximal''' | ! '''Medio-Proximal''' | ||
| | | yaiyairi | ||
| =hori <br/> =ori | | =hori <br/> =ori | ||
| | | | ||
*that one by you | * that one by you | ||
* just awhile ago | * just awhile ago | ||
| | | | ||
* ''nan=hori'' "that man next to you" | * ''yaiyairi sinán<br/> nan=hori'' "that man next to you" | ||
| Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: <br/>''- | | | ||
* Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: <br/>''-eyyar-, -yyar-'' | |||
* Nahónda: ''iyáyalo'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! '''Distal''' | ! '''Distal''' | ||
| | | paipairi | ||
| =nko <br/> =kekori | | =nko <br/> =kekori | ||
| | | | ||
| Line 467: | Line 486: | ||
* yesterday, a few days ago | * yesterday, a few days ago | ||
| | | | ||
*''nan=inko'' "yonder man | *''paipairi sinán'' <br/>''nan=inko'' "yonder man" | ||
| Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: <br/>''- | | | ||
* Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: <br/>''-ppeyyar-'' | |||
* Nahónda: ''pʼáyalo | |||
|- | |- | ||
! '''Invisible''' | ! '''Invisible''' | ||
| | | rosiairi <br/> /ɾoʃ'jaɪɾi/ | ||
| | | | ||
=nanak | =nanak | ||
| | | | ||
*that one beyond the horizon, <br/>or occluded by a distant object | * that one beyond the horizon, <br/>or occluded by a distant object | ||
| | |||
* ''rosiairi sinán <br/> nan=nanak'' "that man <br/>(e.g. on the other side <br/> of the mountain)" | |||
| | | | ||
* | * Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: <br/>''-ruššar-'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
| Line 562: | Line 584: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Many | ! Many | ||
| | | eco | ||
| | | ecisi=<br/> eci=<br/>ec= | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Both | ! Both | ||
| Line 575: | Line 597: | ||
! Few | ! Few | ||
| cato | | cato | ||
| | | caci=<br/>cac= | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Another/Other | ! Another/Other | ||
| Line 635: | Line 657: | ||
{{Gloss | {{Gloss | ||
|phrase = | |phrase =Kā tahône, ra' tasip'itá'? | ||
| IPA = ka ta'ɦo:nɛ ɾaʔ | | IPA = ka: ta'ɦo:nɛ ɾaʔ taʃɪpʔ'ɪta | ||
| morphemes = | | morphemes = kā ta=hone, ra' ta-sip-Ø-itá-ʔ | ||
| gloss = 2S INV.SG=cry who INV-CAUS-HS-COP-LS | | gloss = 2S INV.SG=cry who INV-CAUS-HS-COP-LS | ||
| translation = Who is making you cry? | | translation = Who is making you cry? | ||
}} | }} | ||
The following two sentences are polarity questions, with no difference in meaning. The third sentence, containing both polarity markers ''=yo'' and sentence-final particle '' | The following two sentences are polarity questions, with no difference in meaning. The third sentence, containing both polarity markers ''=yo'' and sentence-final particle ''aní'', implies incredulity: | ||
{{Gloss | {{Gloss | ||
| Line 710: | Line 732: | ||
Among the Interrogative pronouns, ''ra' '' ranks the highest in animacy; nevertheless, Interrogative pronouns are lower than non-Interrogative nouns in the animacy hierarchy. | Among the Interrogative pronouns, ''ra' '' ranks the highest in animacy; nevertheless, Interrogative pronouns are lower than non-Interrogative nouns in the animacy hierarchy. | ||
''Yôri-'' is always prefixed to the noun it modifies and can never appear as an independent word. It can be prefixed to ''pôh'' and ''ra' '', i.e. ''yôripoh'' and ''yôra' '' | ''Yôri-'' is always prefixed to the noun it modifies and can never appear as an independent word. It can be prefixed to ''pôh'' and ''ra' '', i.e. ''yôripoh'' and ''yôra''<nowiki>'</nowiki> where it takes the meaning "which one", ''yôripoh'' for Noun Classes II and III, the sentient members of Class I, and ''yôra''<nowiki>'</nowiki> for the rest. | ||
<!-- | |||
=== Demonstratives === | |||
Attributive | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
! | |||
! Pronominal !! Attributive<ref>The attributive forms derive from the pronominal + ''si-'' connective. Note that the connective cliticizes to the demonstrative, not the noun head as expected.</ref> !! Adverbial <ref>The adverbial ''-e'' suffix derives from a putative ''*e='' (c.f. Minhast ''eyha'' "there is/are") that cliticized to the pronominal form.</ref> !! Minhast Cognates | |||
|- | |||
! Proximal | |||
|| hāpe || hapsi || hāpe, hape || sappu | |||
|- | |||
! Medioproximal | |||
|| nas || napsi || nāse, nase || naš | |||
|- | |||
! Distal | |||
|| yas || yapsi ||yāse, yase || wašia | |||
|- | |||
! Invisible | |||
|| ucce, ucca || ucci || ucce || suxta <!-- from *husta, c.f. Minhast suxta "thither", x(Minhast) vs h/0(Nan.), št(Min.) vs cc(Nan.) | |||
|} | |||
--> | |||
=== Pronouns === | === Pronouns === | ||
The | Nankôre pronouns distinguish animacy, number, and transitivity. The transitive forms are portmanteaus, which in combination with the presence or absence of the verb's inverse marker, encodes both the agent and patient. | ||
Animacy in Nankôre is arranged in the following hierarchy: | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
| Line 719: | Line 768: | ||
! Pronominal hierarchy | ! Pronominal hierarchy | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="text-align:center"|1st > 2nd > 3rd | | style="text-align:center"|1st > 2nd > 3rd > 4th | ||
|} | |} | ||
Plurality generally does not affect the animacy level across persons. However, if two 3rd person arguments have the same animacy and one of the arguments is plural, then the plural argument is assigned a higher animacy level. | Plurality generally does not affect the animacy level across persons. However, if two 3rd person arguments have the same animacy and one of the arguments is plural, then the plural argument is assigned a higher animacy level. | ||
The | The paradigm for the transitive pronouns are as follows: | ||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
|+ ''' | |+ '''Transitive Portmanteau Pronouns''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! colspan="5"| Singular | ||
! colspan="6"| Plural | |||
! | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Independent | ! | ||
! Clitic | ! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 4S !! 1P.INC || 1P.EXCL !! 2P !! 3P || 4P | ||
! Long Form | |- | ||
! | ! 1S | ||
! Clitic | | -- || ekká' || ekenko || enkár || -- || -- || kamme || enka ||nerá | ||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| ekká' <br/> kā <br/> ka || --|| kanko <br/> kā <br/> ka || korí || kanná || kanné || -- || kanenko || kâre | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| ekenko|| kanko <br/> kā <br/> ka || -- || enkará || enko || nenko || kanenko || -- || kankór | |||
|- | |||
! 4S | |||
| enkár || korí || enkará || -- || ánkare || nénkare || kánnare || eranka || -- | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="11"| Plural x Plural | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="5"| 1P.INCL | |||
| -- || -- || ánkame || ananka || ánnahi | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="5"| 1P.EXCL | |||
| -- || -- || nékkame || nenka || énnahi | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="5"| 2P | |||
| ánkame || nékkame || -- || nekákkame || nákkame | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="5"| 3P | |||
||ananka || nenka || nekákkame || -- || nékkahi | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="5"| 4P | |||
|| ánnahi || énnahi|| nákkame || nékkahi || -- | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
Transitive verbs take two NPs as core arguments. The case relations of the two arguments are determined by the position of the noun in the animacy hierarchy; the core argument that is higher in the animacy hierarchy is assigned the Agent role, and the other argument is assigned the Patient role. However, an inverse affix ''tā=/tāh=/ta=/t='' is prefixed to the primary verb, as well as a redundant ''ta-'' affix that is added to the auxiliary to alter the argument structure and promote the lower-animacy argument to Agent role. | |||
The intransitive forms consist of both independent and cliticized forms, as illustrated in the following table: | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|+ '''Intransitive Pronouns''' | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan ="2"| Person | |||
! colspan="2" | Singular | |||
! colspan="2" | Plural | |||
|- | |||
! Independent !! Clitic !! Long Form !! Clitic | |||
|- | |- | ||
! 1 | ! 1 | ||
| style="text-align:center"| | | style="text-align:center"| eyak || =yak <br/> =ak || aná || =na | ||
| = | |||
| = | |||
|- | |- | ||
! 2 | ! 2 | ||
| style="text-align:center"| | | style="text-align:center"| eká || =ka || kamme || =kamme | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| = | |||
|- | |- | ||
! 3 | ! 3 | ||
| style="text-align:center"| | | style="text-align:center"| enko || =ko <br/>=na || enká || =enká <br/> =nka <br/> =ka | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| = | |||
|- | |- | ||
! 4 | |||
| style="text-align:center"| erá || =ra || nami || =nami | |||
|} | |} | ||
If used as a core argument, the intransitive singular forms and the plural '''short''' forms may appear just before the clause-final auxiliary ''itá'',e.g. ''Nitori kā 'itá!'' (You are a fool); or the clitic form of the pronoun attaches to the main verb, e.g. ''Nitoriká 'itá!''. They may also be used to emphasize a noun, in which case the pronoun precedes the noun linked with the connective ''si='', as in ''tā si=naho'' (She/Her, the mother). | |||
As earlier stated, nouns in Nankôre are not inflected, and the same is true for pronouns. Moreover, oblique pronominal arguments cannot be inserted into the verb phrase, but instead must appear before it. If oblique arguments appear outside their clause, particularly in topic-comment structures, they must be joined to it with the connective clitic ''si=''. Context alone determines the semantic role of the oblique. To illustrate, the sentence ''Maska si=ohipna koykare ekán itá'' (anthill=CONN twig boy twist COP.PST), i.e. "The boy inserted the twig into the anthill", the oblique noun ''maska'' (anthill is marked with the clitic ''si='' to join it to the rest of the sentence. | |||
===Verbs=== | |||
The verb phrase in Nankôre requires at a minimum an initial verb, plus one of the clause-final auxiliaries, '' 'itá' '' for transitive clauses or intransitive clauses where the subject's theta-role is that of Agent, and '' 'iná'' ' for all other intransitive clauses. A sort of division of labor exists between these components; one set of clitics or affixes may attach to one of the components, and another set to the other component. | |||
{| class=" | The following set of markers cliticize to the first verb of the VP, which may be either the main verb, or a coverb. All preverbal clitics attach to the the initial verb: | ||
#Inverse | |||
|- | #Aspect | ||
! | |||
! | However, a set of bound morphemes, occurring as suffixes, attach exclusively to the main verb, regardless of whether the verb occurs initial position in the verb phrase or not: | ||
#Evidentials | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! Evidentials !! Meaning !! Example | |||
|- | |- | ||
| -kor || hearsay || Example | |||
|- | |- | ||
| Example || Example || Example | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| Example || Example || Example | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|} | |} | ||
Modal verbs, when they occur, follow the main verb, displaying leftward scope-ordering, e.g. ''Kôreak képorih iná'!'' "I am trying to speak!". | |||
Finally, the auxiliary '' 'iná'/'itá' '' hosts the following set of affixes: | |||
#Inverse | |||
#Tense | |||
#Number | |||
#Voice | |||
#Irrealis | |||
#Inverse | |||
#Tense | |||
#Number | |||
#Voice | |||
#Irrealis | |||
| Line 871: | Line 889: | ||
| translation = The dog was going up the mountain with the girl, I heard. | | translation = The dog was going up the mountain with the girl, I heard. | ||
}} | }} | ||
The verbal elements follow a relatively strict order. The required elements for a VP to be well-formed are the Main Verb and the Auxiliary. Adjuncts are unbound morphemes, and exhibit rather free order; however, they are barred from appearing between the Inverse Marker and any following verb, be it the Coverb or the Main Verb. If a Coverb appears between the Inverse Marker and Main Verb, an adjunct may appear between the Coverb and Main Verb. However, if the Inverse Marker is not followed by a Coverb, then an adjunct may not appear between the Inverse Marker and the Main Verb. Moreover, if Pseudo-Noun Incorporation (PNI) takes place, an adjunct may not intervene between the Main Verb and the Pseudo-incorporated noun (PIN). | The verbal elements follow a relatively strict order. The required elements for a VP to be well-formed are the Main Verb and the Auxiliary. Adjuncts are unbound morphemes, and exhibit rather free order; however, they are barred from appearing between the Inverse Marker and any following verb, be it the Coverb or the Main Verb. If a Coverb appears between the Inverse Marker and Main Verb, an adjunct may appear between the Coverb and Main Verb. However, if the Inverse Marker is not followed by a Coverb, then an adjunct may not appear between the Inverse Marker and the Main Verb. Moreover, if Pseudo-Noun Incorporation (PNI) takes place, an adjunct may not intervene between the Main Verb and the Pseudo-incorporated noun (PIN). | ||
Although Nankôre is not a polysynthetic language, templatic representations like those of its polysynthetic cousins | |||
Minhast and Nahónda, provide a useful visual tool to demonstrate the Nankôre verb phrase structure: | |||
=====Directional-Positional Coverbs===== | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
|+ '''Verb Conjugation Table''' | |||
Directional and positional coverbs have both a long and short form. The long form, also called the Independent Form, may serve as a bona fide standalone verb, or it may serve as a coverb provided that no clitics attach to it. Thus the coverb ''sanha'', in its long form, means "to go towards, to approach" as an independent verb, but its short form, ''san'', always indicates motion towards an entity; this sort of syntactic relation is usually handled by the Allative case in languages which indicate case marking on the noun. Clitics that otherwise attach to the main verb, such as the Inverse marker and and aspect markers, move to and attach to the first occurring coverb of the VP. Clitics attach only to the short form. Additionally, morphophonemic alternations may take place when the Inverse marker ''ta='' cliticizes to the coverb, such as in the Subessive ''cor-''. | |- | ||
! Position !! Type !! Subtype !! Realization | |||
|- | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ! -3 | ||
|+ style="font-weight:bold"| Goal Coverb Forms | | Inverse Marker 1 | ||
| style="background-color:black"| | |||
| ta= | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3"| -2 | |||
| rowspan="3"| Coverbs | |||
|- | |||
| Directionals/Positionals || | |||
|- | |||
| Modals || | |||
|- | |||
! 1 | |||
| Aspect | |||
| rowspan="3" style="background-color:black"|x | |||
| Examplexxx | |||
|- | |||
! 0 | |||
| Primary Verb | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! +1 | |||
| Quasi-Incorporated Noun | |||
| Examples | |||
|- | |||
! +2 | |||
| rowspan="4"| Auxiliary | |||
| Inverse Marker 2 | |||
| ta- | |||
|- | |||
! +3 | |||
| Inchoative | |||
|- | |||
! +4 | |||
| Causative | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! +5 | |||
| Irrealis | |||
| | |||
|} | |||
====Coverbs==== | |||
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coverb Coverbs] in Nankôre formal grammar are auxiliary verbs that serve to provide additional syntactic information to the main verb itself, or to the core arguments. Although several types of coverbs exist, the Directionals-Positionals coverbs are the most prominent. Directional and positional coverbs serve as a way of indicating case relations of the core arguments, somewhat like Applicatives in other languages, such as those of its distant cousin [[Minhast]]. In fact the older linguistic literature often refers to these coverbs as "Applicative Verbs". The Directionals-Positionals coverbs always precede all other modal verbs, which are scope-ordered. | |||
=====Directional-Positional Coverbs===== | |||
Directional and positional coverbs have both a long and short form. The long form, also called the Independent Form, may serve as a bona fide standalone verb, or it may serve as a coverb provided that no clitics attach to it. Thus the coverb ''sanha'', in its long form, means "to go towards, to approach" as an independent verb, but its short form, ''san'', always indicates motion towards an entity; this sort of syntactic relation is usually handled by the Allative case in languages which indicate case marking on the noun. Clitics that otherwise attach to the main verb, such as the Inverse marker and and aspect markers, move to and attach to the first occurring coverb of the VP. Clitics attach only to the short form. Additionally, morphophonemic alternations may take place when the Inverse marker ''ta='' cliticizes to the coverb, such as in the Subessive ''cor-''. | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|+ style="font-weight:bold"| Goal Coverb Forms | |||
|- | |- | ||
! !! Long !! Short !! Coverb + Inverse | ! !! Long !! Short !! Coverb + Inverse | ||
| Line 989: | Line 1,051: | ||
|} | |} | ||
==== | ====Aspect==== | ||
The verb, in contrast to the auxiliary, encodes aspect with clitics that attach to the end of the word. If a coverb appears, the aspect marker will cliticize to the coverb, otherwise it will cliticize to the main verb. Nankôre possesses several aspect markers, as illustrated in the following table: | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|- | |- | ||
! !! Aspect Marker!! Meaning | ! !! Aspect Marker!! Meaning | ||
| Line 1,075: | Line 1,111: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style=""| Emphatic-Factual | ! style=""| Emphatic-Factual | ||
| -mas | | -mas <br/> -masne | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style=""| Hearsay | ! style=""| Hearsay | ||
| Line 1,093: | Line 1,129: | ||
|} | |} | ||
==== | =====Modals===== | ||
Modal verbs follow the main verb. Modals include a wide range of expressions, such as ability, potentiality, similitude, desire, inclination, etc. | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|- | |||
! !! Modal!! Meaning !! Nahenic Cognates | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Potential | |||
| makán|| be able to, can | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Necessitive | |||
| nehái|| need to | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Desiderative | |||
| tasmi|| want to | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Conative | |||
| si <br/> s=|| to try to, attempt | |||
| Cognate with Minhast ''sunep-'' (to push) | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Inceptive | |||
| yári|| begin to | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Resumptive | |||
| kenóy|| again | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
Examples of usage of the modal verbs follow: | |||
{{Gloss | {{Gloss | ||
|phrase = | |phrase = Ekenko tuas sitá', yankór<ref>From reconstructed P-Nahenic *''wa=man=kor'' (CONN=SEQ=and.yet).</ref> seskoro sioykar ináka. | ||
| IPA = | | IPA = Ekenko tuaʃ 'ʃi'taʔ yan'koɾ 'ʃɛʃkoɾo 'ʃoɪkaɾ ɪ'naka | ||
| morphemes = | | morphemes = ekenko tuas s-itá' yankór se=skoro sioykar iná-ka. | ||
| gloss = | | gloss = 1S.3S wash.out CON-AUX.TRN however reed=DEM.PROX good be-NEG. | ||
| translation = | | translation = I'm trying to wash (the stain) out, but this reed brush isn't good. | ||
}} | }} | ||
====The Auxiliary ==== | |||
{{Gloss | In terms of morphological complexity, the auxiliary hosts more affixes and clitics than the main verb; in addition to redundantly marking the Inverse voice, it also encodes tense, number, irrealis, inchoativity, and causation through a complex series of affixation. | ||
The auxiliary serves two purposes: | |||
* To links noun phrases to their predicates: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Nan konkekma yoriká ináhi? | |||
| IPA = /nan kon'kekma 'yo:riká ɪn'ahi/ | |||
| morphemes = nan konkekma, yôri-ká ∅-iná-ʔ-hi | |||
| gloss = human snake which-2S DIR-PRS.COP.STAT-S-IRR | |||
| translation = Are you man or snake? | |||
}} | |||
* To serve as a host for tense, number, animacy, and voice markers to the verb phrase. | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Kanro kacekák hôsipnitá'. | |phrase = Kanro kacekák hôsipnitá'. | ||
| IPA = /'kanro ka't͡ʃekák ho:sipnɪ'taʔ/ | | IPA = /'kanro ka't͡ʃekák ho:sipnɪ'taʔ/ | ||
| Line 1,165: | Line 1,245: | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | itá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | itá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | itá'ita' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yistá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yistá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yistá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | sip'itá' (pis'itá') | | style="width:64.01pt; " | sip'itá' (pis'itá') | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | sip' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | sip'itá'ita (pis'itá'ita') | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | nitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nitá'ita' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá'ita' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnitá' (pisnitá') | | style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnitá' (pisnitá') | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnitá'ita' (pisnitá'ita') | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | | colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | ||
| Line 1,196: | Line 1,276: | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’itá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’itá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’itá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | castá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | castá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | castá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | taspitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | taspitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | taspitá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tānitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tānitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tānitá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnitá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Hodiernal Past ‡ | ! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Hodiernal Past ‡ | ||
| Line 1,229: | Line 1,309: | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'itá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'itá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hô' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'itá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsitá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipnitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipnitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipnitá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'intá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'intá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hô' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'intá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsintá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsintá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsintá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipnintá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipnintá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipnintá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | | colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | ||
| Line 1,260: | Line 1,340: | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô'itá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô'itá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô'itá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | costá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | costá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | costá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhópsintá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhópsintá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhópsintá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô'intá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô'intá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô'intá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | cosnitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | cosnitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | cosnitá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhópsintá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhópsintá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhópsintá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Past | ! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Past | ||
| Line 1,293: | Line 1,373: | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | nitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nitá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnitá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | nintá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nintá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nintá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnintá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnintá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnintá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | | colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | ||
| Line 1,324: | Line 1,404: | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’nitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’nitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’nitá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tasipnitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tasipnitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tasipnitá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tānintá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tānintá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tānintá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | casnintá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casnintá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casnintá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnintá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnintá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnintá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Medio-Distal Past | ! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Medio-Distal Past | ||
| Line 1,357: | Line 1,437: | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hitá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yistá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yistá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yistá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hispitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hispitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hisiptá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hintá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hintá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hintá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisintá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisintá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisintá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipnitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipnitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipnitá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | | colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | ||
| Line 1,388: | Line 1,468: | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tahitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tahitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tahitá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | castá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | castá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | castá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tasiphitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tasiphitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tasiphitá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhintá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhintá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhintá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | casintá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casintá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casinta'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsiphintá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsiphintá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsiphintá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Distal Past | ! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Distal Past | ||
| Line 1,421: | Line 1,501: | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | pitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pitá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsitá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | pisiptá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pisiptá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipta'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | pintá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pintá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pintá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsintá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsintá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsintá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipnitá | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipnitá | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipnitá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | | colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | ||
| Line 1,452: | Line 1,532: | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’pitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’pitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’pitá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | caspitá | | style="width:64.01pt; " | caspitá | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casipnitá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsintá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsintá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsintá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | casipnitá | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casipnitá | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casipnitá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitá' | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Medio-Proximal Future | ! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Medio-Proximal Future | ||
| Line 1,485: | Line 1,565: | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | nitáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nitáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nitahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | nisiptáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nisiptáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nisiptahá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | nintáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nintáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nintahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitahá | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitahá | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | nisipnitáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nisipnitáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nisipnitahá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | | colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | ||
| Line 1,516: | Line 1,596: | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’nitáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’nitáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tantahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tasipnitáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tasipnitáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tasipnitahá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tānintáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tānintáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tānintahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | casnintáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casnintáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casnintáha'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnitáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnitáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnintahá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Immediate Future | ! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Immediate Future | ||
| Line 1,549: | Line 1,629: | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hitáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hitáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hitahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yistáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yistáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yistahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipitáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipitáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hisiptahá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hintáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hintáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hintahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hispintáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hispintáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipnitahá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | | colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | ||
| Line 1,580: | Line 1,660: | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tahitáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tahitáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tahitahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | castáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | castáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | castáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | castáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tahisipitáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tahisipitáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tahisiptahá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhintáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhintáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhintahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | cahsintáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | cahsintáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | cahsintahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhispintáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhispintáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhisipnitahá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="12" style="width:64.01pt; " | Distal Future | ! rowspan="12" style="width:64.01pt; " | Distal Future | ||
| Line 1,613: | Line 1,693: | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | pitáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pitáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pitahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsitáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsitáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsitahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | pisiptáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pisiptáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pisiptahá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | pintáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pintáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pintahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsiptáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsiptáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsiptahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipnitáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipnitáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipnitahá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | | colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | ||
| Line 1,644: | Line 1,724: | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’pitáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’pitáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | taptahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | capsitáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | capsitáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | capsitaháh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | capsitaháh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tapsiptáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tapsiptáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tapsiptahá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāpintáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāpintáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāpintahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | capsintáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | capsintáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | capsintahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitáh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitahá'ita | ||
|} | |} | ||
| Line 1,764: | Line 1,844: | ||
|} | |} | ||
===== Intransitive-Stative Paradigm===== | ===== Intransitive-Stative Paradigm===== | ||
Intransitive verb structures involve pairing a semantically stative or non-agentive verb with the auiliary ''iná''', a root cognate with the Minhast intransitive verbal ending ''-an''. | |||
The intransitive paradigm of the auxiliary is listed in the table below: | The intransitive paradigm of the auxiliary is listed in the table below: | ||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible" | ||
| Line 1,861: | Line 1,942: | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipninnináh | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipninnináh | ||
|} | |} | ||
===== Nominalization ===== | |||
Nankôre has a rich set of clitics and suffixes that serve as nominalizers. They are, in order of frequency: | |||
* ''-pe'': Clausal relativizer, cognate with Minhast ''=naft'' | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Nan issiah pinninnináh'''pe''' pirút taporé ta'itá'. | |||
| IPA = | |||
| morphemes = nan issiah pinninnináh-pe pirút ta-poré ta-'itá' | |||
| gloss = man come COP.FUT-NMLZ sasquatch INV-vanquish INV-COP | |||
| translation = The (next) man who comes here shall defeat the Sasquatch. | |||
}} | |||
* ''-hi''<ref>Not to be confused for Irrealis ''-hi'', which suffixes to the ''itá'/iná' '' auxiliaries.</ref><ref>Cognate with Minhast gerundial ''-x-''</ref>: attaches directly to a verb root to derive participles | |||
* ''-hici'': Derives instruments from verb roots, a compound of ''-hi-'' and a submorpheme ''-ci'', possibly derived from ''kaci'' "path" | |||
* ''-rē''<ref>Cognate with Minhast ''redad'' "man/male/person</ref> : Derives occupation | |||
* ''-ssiak'' <ref> Derived from ''siriak'', "appointed time". Cognate with Minhast ''saħrap'' "today"</ref> Derives temporal adverbs from verbs, e.g. ''petissiak'' "time of/for standing", as well as creating adverbial clauses when attached to ''itá '' or ''iná '', e.g. | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Ak saraka nitássiak, sissioyenki kai pohráp niná' | |||
| IPA = | |||
| morphemes = ak saraka n-itá-ssiak, si=sioyenki kai pohráp n-iná' | |||
| gloss = 1S see PST-AUX.TRN CONN=heart down fall PST-INTR | |||
| translation = When I saw him, I became crestfallen. | |||
}} | |||
The adverbial clause and its matrix may be inverted, e.g.: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Sioyenki kai pohráp ninássiak', siak saraka nitá. | |||
| IPA = | |||
| morphemes = sioyenki kai pohráp n-iná'-ssiak' si=ak saraka n-itá. | |||
| gloss = heart down fall PST-INTR CONN=1S see PST-AUX.TRN CONN= | |||
| translation = I became crestfallen, having seen him. | |||
}} | |||
The Connective ''si='' obligatorily surfaces to link the adverbial clause with its matrix, regardless of the position of the two clauses. | |||
====Derivation ==== | ====Derivation ==== | ||
Nankôre has a set of verbalizing prefixes that when attached to nominal roots, often body parts, create verbs. These prefixes are most likely the remnants of Proto-Nahenic noun incorporation, based on comparisons with Nankôre's distant relatives, Minhast and Nahónda; similar or even identical fossilized affixes have been found in these languages that likewise attach to nominal roots for body parts to derive verbs | Nankôre has a set of verbalizing prefixes that when attached to nominal roots, often body parts, create verbs. These prefixes are most likely the remnants of Proto-Nahenic noun incorporation, based on comparisons with Nankôre's distant relatives, Minhast and Nahónda; similar or even identical fossilized affixes have been found in these languages that likewise attach to nominal roots for body parts to derive verbs.<ref> C.f. Minhast ''kirim'' (from ''k-erum'', literally "make sound with the mouth) and Nahónda ''teloma'' (from ''t-loma''). Both are cognates of Nankôre's ''kôre'' "speech". </ref> <!--Note that Minhast /k/ maps to Nahónda /t/). ''kirim'' is the Minhast cognate of Nankôre ''kôre''. --> | ||
| Line 1,886: | Line 2,004: | ||
! Striking | ! Striking | ||
| ya- | | ya- | ||
| | | sipa "hand" | ||
| ya- | | ya-spa | ||
| to punch | | to punch | ||
| Minhast, Horse Speaker dialect: ''wi-šnu'' "to strike, hit" (Minhast ''išna'' "fist", "knuckles") | | Minhast, Horse Speaker dialect: ''wi-šnu'' "to strike, hit" (Minhast ''išna'' "fist", "knuckles") | ||
| Line 1,896: | Line 2,014: | ||
| ha-nake | | ha-nake | ||
| to scoot along the floor with one's foot; to kick around | | to scoot along the floor with one's foot; to kick around | ||
| Nahónda: ''ho-shishpa'' "to give" ''shishp'' = hand; c.f. Minhast ''sespir'' = hand, Nankôre '' | | Nahónda: ''ho-shishpa'' "to give" ''shishp'' = hand; c.f. Minhast ''sespir'' = hand, Nankôre ''sipa'' = hand | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Stability | ! Stability | ||
| Line 1,917: | Line 2,035: | ||
=== Numbers === | === Numbers === | ||
The Nankôre number system is dozenal, i.e. base-12. The numbers thirteen through twenty-three are modified compounds consisting of the unit numbers '' | The Nankôre number system is dozenal, i.e. base-12. The numbers thirteen through twenty-three are modified compounds consisting of the unit numbers ''siori'' (1) through ''siktas'' (11) compounded to ''sin'' (12). The number twenty-four ''hanosin'' can be analyzed as ''han-o-sin'', where the affix ''-o-'' signifies "multiplied by", so ''hanosin'' literally means "two times twelve". The multiplicative pattern continues until the number 144, which is called ''nakpa''. The number 100 (''nenanosin >> nena ān-o-sin'') is literally "four (and) eight times twelve". The ordinals for the numbers 1-7 are the cardinal numbers suffixed by ''-ak'' or ''-ok''. Numbers 8-11 are the cardinal numbers suffixed with the ending ''-u''. The ordinal for the number 12 is again suffixed with ''-ok'', and the higher numbers with ''-nok''. If the ''-nok'' affix is preceded by a consonant followed by ''-i-'', the ''-i-'' may be dropped, provided that this does not form the impermissible consonant cluster -CCC- sequence. | ||
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {|class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
| Line 1,925: | Line 2,043: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! one | ! one | ||
| | | siôri | ||
| | | sioriak | ||
|- | |- | ||
! two | ! two | ||
| Line 1,941: | Line 2,059: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! five | ! five | ||
| | | sisiak | ||
| catak | | catak | ||
|- | |- | ||
! six | ! six | ||
| | | sirisio | ||
| | | siirsiok | ||
|- | |- | ||
! seven | ! seven | ||
| | | kerisio | ||
| | | kirsiok | ||
|- | |- | ||
! eight | ! eight | ||
| Line 1,961: | Line 2,079: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! ten | ! ten | ||
| | | kase /'kaʃɛ/ | ||
| kasku | | kasku | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Line 1,973: | Line 2,091: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! thirteen | ! thirteen | ||
| | | siorsin | ||
| | | siorsinok | ||
|- | |- | ||
! fourteen | ! fourteen | ||
| Line 2,036: | Line 2,154: | ||
==== Connective ''si='' ==== | ==== Connective ''si='' ==== | ||
Throughout all the Nahenic languages, connectives are used to bind dependents to their heads. Minhast has ''min'', Neina the cognate ''mɯn'', and Nahónda ''na'', to join two or more noun phrases into one cohesive unit. Minhast has one additional connective, ''wa='', which joins non-verbal adjuncts, which may be a single word or an entire NP and/or adverbial phrase. | |||
Nankóre's connective ''si='' has no known cognates, and unlike its sister languages, ''si='' is not restricted to joining NPs or complex, non-verbal phrases. While the dependency relation in a ''si='' construction may be discernible, often the directionality is ambiguous and thus context must be used to disambiguate, or other morphosyntactic devices, such as the co-occurrence of the inverse marker ''ta' '' in possessive phrases. | |||
<!-- | |||
Interestingly, some NP phrases where one would expect a connective to appear are absent. A notable example is ''Hôkun Pe' '', literally "long house", rather than the expected ''hokun si-Pe' '', which is uncommon. The expected form is ''Pe' hokun iná' '', lit. "The house (that) is long". | |||
--> | |||
====Other Particles==== | ====Other Particles==== | ||
| Line 2,044: | Line 2,169: | ||
! Cognates | ! Cognates | ||
|- | |- | ||
! ira | ! ea<br/>ira | ||
| yes | | yes | ||
| Upper Minhast ''ēlā'' | | Upper Minhast ''ēlā'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! ecá' | ! ecá'<br/> icá' | ||
| no | | no | ||
| Common Minhast ''hatā' | | Common Minhast ''hatā' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! na | ! na | ||
| and | | and <br/> so, therefore | ||
| Nahónda ''máma'' "also", Common Minhast ''=mā'' "and then" | | Nahónda ''máma'' "also", Common Minhast ''=mā'' "and then" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Line 2,093: | Line 2,218: | ||
{{Gloss | {{Gloss | ||
|phrase = Makse, rihat kakno itá | |phrase = Makse, rihat kakno itá | ||
|IPA = /'makʃɛ̯ ɾi'hat 'kakno ɪt'aʔ/ | |IPA = /'makʃɛ̯ ɾi'hat 'kakno ɪt'aʔ/ | ||
| morphemes = makse rihat kak=no ∅-∅-itá-ʔ | | morphemes = makse rihat kak=no ∅-∅-itá-ʔ | ||
| gloss = mouse.LA falcon.HA seize=SEM DIR-HS-COP-LS | | gloss = mouse.LA falcon.HA seize=SEM DIR-HS-COP-LS | ||
| translation = It was the mouse the falcon seized in one fell swoop. | | translation = It was the mouse the falcon seized in one fell swoop. | ||
}} | }} | ||
As in many SOV languages, modifiers precede their heads: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Sirkos sirohpa | |||
|IPA = /'ʃirkos ʃiroɦpa/ | |||
| morphemes = sirkos si=rohpa | |||
| gloss = foreigner fine.cloth | |||
| translation = This fine foreign cloth | |||
}} | |||
====The Noun Phrase==== | |||
=====Possession===== | |||
Possession is indicated by joining the possessor to the possessum with the connective ''si='', followed either by the verb ''ras'' to indicate inalienable possession e.g. ''Koykare si=naho ras'', "The boy's mother", or ''ocité'' for alienable possession, e.g. ''Koykare si=maska ocité''. If the possessor is lower in the animacy heirarcy, the inverse marker ''ta'/tah'' is prefixed to the verb, as in the improbable ''Maska si=koykare tah-ocité'', "The anthill's boy". | |||
====The Verb Phrase==== | |||
The verb phrase is made up of the [[Nankôre#The_Verb_Complex|verb complex]], and its predicate. The verb complex must end with the appropriate form of the auxiliary ''itá''. ''Itá'' was originally a auxiliary but later on accreted voice, tense, and the pleonastic ''ta-'' Inverse marker. The main verb precedes the auxiliary and may be separated from it by a de-focused noun or by one or more adjuncts. De-focused nouns appear immediately after the main verb, and adjuncts cannot be inserted between the two (see "Quasi-Incorporation" below). Coverbs appear before the main verb. The primary ''ta-'' Inverse marker cliticizes to the first verb of the verb complex, which may be either a coverb, or the main verb. | |||
=====Quasi-Noun Incorporation===== | |||
Nankôre canonical word order is SOV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub>, but under certain circumstances, the O-argument may occur between V<sub>1</sub> and V<sub>2</sub>, i.e. SV<sub>1</sub>OV<sub>2</sub>. The O-argument becomes backgrounded, thereby assuming a peripheral role; as a result, the clause is effectively detransitivized. As a result, the Inverse marker ''ta-'' cannot occur in these derived intransitive clauses; it must be omitted for the clause to remain grammatical. This operation is called ''quasi-noun incorporation'', and occurs cross-linguistically in unrelated languages, e.g. Dutch and Hungarian. A feature of Nankôre psuedo-incorporation is that adjuncts, which typically can occur in most positions of a clause, including clause-finally, cannot occur between V<sub>1</sub> and the relocated O-argument. | |||
Quasi-incorporation may eventually evolve into full noun incorporation, as in the case of Nankôre's distant relatives, Minhast and Nahónda. Both exhibit full noun incorporation. Like Minhast and Nahónda, Nankôre adds the incorporated noun after the verb root, e.g. Minhast ''Ušnirumpakekaru'' << ''ušn-ruppumak-ek-ar-u'' (hit-face-3S.ABS+1S.ERG-PST.PFCT-TRANS) "I hit him in the face, I face-hit him", Nahónda ''klomenatsoyetolayo''<< ''kloma-natsoye-Ø-t-ola-yo'' (speak-wisdom-3S.PT-1S.AGT-PST-AGT) "I gave him counsel, I wisdom-speak to him. Most languages that exhibit noun incorporation attach the incorporated noun ''before'' the verb root; placement of the incorporated noun after the root is rare among incorporating languages. The process by which Nankôre performs pseudo-incorporation, namely by placing the O-argument ''between'' the primary verb and auxiliary verbs, may explain why Minhast and Nahónda place their incorporated nouns after the verb. Proto-Nahenic may have also placed a quasi-incorporated noun after the primary verb but before the auxiliary verb, an order which the descendant languages preserved. | |||
Quasi-Noun Incorporation serves discourse functions similar to full noun incorporation found in its Minhast and Nahónda relatives, backgrounding the incorporated NP, decreasing valency, and providing additional specificity to the semantics of the main verb. The following example of compares and contrasts the default SOV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub> word order, with that of a SV<sub>1</sub>OV<sub>2</sub>: | |||
*Default SOV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub> Order | *Default SOV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub> Order | ||
| Line 2,115: | Line 2,265: | ||
{{Gloss | {{Gloss | ||
|phrase = Makse yôreno rihat 'itá' | |phrase = Makse yôreno rihat 'itá' | ||
|IPA = /'makʃɛ̯ 'yo:reno ɾi'hat | |IPA = /'makʃɛ̯ 'yo:reno ɾi'hat ʔɪt'aʔ/ | ||
| morphemes = makse yôre=no rihat ∅-itá-ʔ | | morphemes = makse yôre=no rihat ∅-itá-ʔ | ||
| gloss = mouse.LA bite=SEM falcon DIR-COP-LS | | gloss = mouse.LA bite=SEM falcon DIR-COP-LS | ||
| Line 2,122: | Line 2,272: | ||
Quasi-noun incorporation, like the full noun incorporation found in Nankôre's relatives, Minhast and Nahónda, lowers valency, transforming transitive clauses to intransitive clauses. '''The use of the Inverse marker is no longer needed''', as the incorporated noun has been reduced to an adjunct. As such, the incorporated noun no longer occupies a core position. Decreasing the clause's valency reduces the saliency of the incorporated noun. | Quasi-noun incorporation, like the full noun incorporation found in Nankôre's relatives, Minhast and Nahónda, lowers valency, transforming transitive clauses to intransitive clauses. '''The use of the Inverse marker is no longer needed''', as the incorporated noun has been reduced to an adjunct. As such, the incorporated noun no longer occupies a core position. Decreasing the clause's valency reduces the saliency of the incorporated noun. | ||
====Comparatives and Superlatives==== | ====Comparatives and Superlatives==== | ||
| Line 2,165: | Line 2,290: | ||
==Example texts== | ==Example texts== | ||
=== The Tower of Babel === | |||
# Now the whole earth had one language and the same words. | |||
# And as people migrated from the east, they found a plain in the land of Shinar and settled there. | |||
# And they said to one another, "Come, let us make bricks, and burn them thoroughly." And they had brick for stone, and bitumen for mortar. | |||
# Then they said, "Come, let us build ourselves a city and a tower with its top in the heavens, and let us make a name for ourselves, lest we be dispersed over the face of the whole earth." | |||
# And the Lord came down to see the city and the tower, which the children of man had built. | |||
# And the Lord said, "Behold, they are one people, and they have all one language, and this is only the beginning of what they will do. And nothing that they propose to do will now be impossible for them. | |||
# Come, let us go down and there confuse their language, so that they may not understand one another's speech." | |||
# So the Lord dispersed them from there over the face of all the earth, and they left off building the city. | |||
# Therefore its name was called Babel, because there the Lord confused the language of all the earth. And from there the Lord dispersed them over the face of all the earth. | |||
<br/> | |||
# Saska nammanuyyi nan siôri si-kôre maskoy pintá', kor-kôre nihe pinninnináh.<br/>Now in.those.days mankind one CONN-speech have AUX.TRN+DIST.PST+HP.LS, word-word resemble AUX.INTR+DIST.PST.PL | |||
# Iape nanni hóttari pinninnináh, coy siori pintá', Sinar rima pintá', itáp pinninnináh. <br/> So horde approach.setting.sun AUX.INTR+DIST.PST.PL, forest.clearing see AUX.TRN+DIST.PST+HP.LS, Sinar call AUX.TRN+DIST.PST+HP.LS, sit.down AUX.INTR+DIST.PST.PL | |||
== Table of Abbreviations == | == Table of Abbreviations == | ||