Carpathian verbs: Difference between revisions

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| ''-e''
| ''-e''
| ''-ei''
| ''-ei''
| ''-e''
| ''-i''
| ''-(j)ē''
| ''-(j)ē''
| ''-(j)ai''
| ''-(j)ai''
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==Conjugation==
==Conjugation==
The following conjugations of verbs exist in the present tense: athematic, simple thematic ("e"-stem verbs) and suffixed ("ī"-stem, "ē"-stem, and "ā"-stem verbs, as well as derived "jā"-stem, "ej"-verbs, "au"-stem, "nō"-stem among others). The future tense is formed using the ''si-'' suffix attached to the infinitive stem. The aorist tense has "ā"- and "ē"-stems. With a few exceptions, all verb endings were at some point of Carpathian history influenced by the ending of the present tense.
The following conjugations of verbs exist in the present tense: athematic, simple thematic ("e"-stem verbs) and suffixed ("ī"-stem, "ē"-stem, and "ā"-stem verbs, as well as derived "jā"-stem, "ej"-verbs, "au"-stem, "nō"-stem among others). The future tense is formed using the ''si-'' suffix attached to the infinitive stem. The aorist tense has "ā"- and "ē"-stems. With a few exceptions, all verb endings were at some point of Carpathian history influenced by the ending of the present tense.  
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+[[w:Present tense|Present]]
|+[[w:Present tense|Present]]
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|''stèrhe''
|''stèrhe''
|''tùrie''
|''tùrie''
|''gidā́''
|''gidā́he''
|''zirhḗje''
|''zirhḗje''
|-
|-
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|''stèrhe''
|''stèrhe''
|''turḗ''
|''turḗ''
|''gidā́s''
|''gidā́se''
|''zirhḗje''
|''zirhḗ''
|-
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]
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|''turēwā́''
|''turēwā́''
|''gidāsawā́''
|''gidāsawā́''
|''zirhējawā́''
|''zirhēwā́''
|-
|-
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]
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|''turētā́''
|''turētā́''
|''gidāsatā́''
|''gidāsatā́''
|''zirhējatā́''
|''zirhētā́''
|-
|-
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]
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|''turētìs''
|''turētìs''
|''gidāsatìs''
|''gidāsatìs''
|''zirhējatìs''
|''zirhētìs''
|-
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]
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|''turēmè''
|''turēmè''
|''gidāsamè''
|''gidāsamè''
|''zirhējamè''
|''zirhēmè''
|-
|-
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]
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|''turētè''
|''turētè''
|''gidāsatè''
|''gidāsatè''
|''zirhējatè''
|''zirhētè''
|-
|-
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]
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|''zirhējañ''
|''zirhējañ''
|}
|}
The verb ''gidā́tei'' “to wait” has sigmatic aorist, while all other verbs from the example above have root aorist. The difference is the addition of the suffix ''-s'' with the lengthening of the previous vowel: ''kurtéi'' “to build”, ''degetéi'' “to burn” — ''kūr̃'''š'''anta'' “I built it”, ''dē'''š'''anta'' “I burnt it” (sigmatic aorist); but ''tirimtéi'' “to shiver” — ''tirìmun'' “I shivered” (root aorist).
The verb ''gidā́tei'' “to wait” has sigmatic aorist, while all other verbs from the example above have root aorist. The difference is the addition of the suffix ''-s'' with the lengthening of the previous vowel: ''kurtéi'' “to build”, ''degetéi'' “to burn” — ''kúr'''š'''anta'' “I built it”, ''dē'''š'''anta'' “I burnt it” (sigmatic aorist); but ''tirimtéi'' “to shiver” — ''tirìmun'' “I shivered” (root aorist).


Some irregular "e"-stem verbs have zero-grade ablaut in their root, usually those belonging to PIE bhárati-verbs: ''b'''è'''rōsa'' “I’m picking it up” — ''b'''i'''rā́hansa'' “I picked it up”, but ''g'''i'''dā́hū'' “I’m waiting” — ''g'''i'''dā́sun'' “I waited”.
Some irregular "e"-stem verbs have zero-grade ablaut in their root, usually those belonging to PIE bhárati-verbs: ''b'''è'''rōsa'' “I’m picking it up” — ''b'''i'''rā́hansa'' “I picked it up”, but ''g'''i'''dā́hū'' “I’m waiting” — ''g'''i'''dā́sun'' “I waited”.
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![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]
|''skéitun''
|''skéitun''
|''stirhaũn''
|''stirhán''
|''turiáun''
|''turián''
|''gidiáun''
|''gidián''
|''zirhḗjaun''
|''zirhḗjan''
|-
|-
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]
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|''zirhḗsianti''
|''zirhḗsianti''
|}
|}
The future tense in  Carpathian still retains its connection to the [[w:Desiderative mood|desiderative]] aspect, from which it originated. In fact, it is more accurate to translate Carpathian verbs in future tense with a phrase “wanting to do something”, for example: ''skeisiū'' “I’d like to read” or “I want to read”, which implies the speaker’s own volition or intent to do it. Otherwise, optative form is preferred: ''skitiēn'' “I am to read”.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+[[w:Optative mood|Optative]]
|+[[w:Optative mood|Optative]]
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|}
|}
*Imperative has no first person forms. When necessary, optative forms are used.
*Imperative has no first person forms. When necessary, optative forms are used.
===Inactive verbs===
The category of inactive verbs convey the meaning of emotion and prolonged state belong to this class. There are two classes: autocausative and impersonal verbs. The common examples of [[w:Autocausative verb|autocausative]] verbs are ''supāteisin'' “to sleep”, ''dōmāteisin'' “to suppose”, ''wōjāteisin'' “to believe” and ''tinkāteisin'' “to suit, to be appropriate”. These verbs mark the subject with the dative instead of the nominative. The [[w:Impersonal verb|impersonal]] verbs are almost all denominative and take no arguments, the examples being ''snigetei'' “to snow”, ''zarētei'' “to dawn”, ''lītei''. Their conjugation is different from the active verbs in that the autocausative verbs only take object markers and impersonal verbs do not take any personal markers. The tenses are exactly the same, except the inactive verbs lack the imperative and have a separate subjunctive form, derived from the indicative of the PIE perfective verbs. Here is the example of the conjugation of some inactive verbs (the autocausative example is in the first person singular):
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="3" | Impersonal
! Autocausative
|-
! ''e''-stem verbs
! ''ē''-stem verbs
! ''j''-stem verbs
! ''ā''-stem verbs
|-
!''snigetéi'' “to snow”
!''zarḗtei'' “to dawn”
!''lī́tei'' “to rain”
!''supā́teisin'' “to sleep”
|-
! Present
|''sniñgi''
|''zarḗ''
|''lī́ji''
|''supéimisin''
|-
! Aorist
|''snìgā''
|''zàriā''
|''lìjā''
|''supā́misin''
|-
! Imperfect
|''snìgḗ''
|''zàriḗ''
|''lìjḗ''
|''supḗmisin''
|-
! Perfect
|''snìga''
|''zària''
|''lìja''
|''supā́jamisin''
|-
! Future
|''snìgis''
|''zarḗs''
|''lī́s''
|''supā́smisin''
|-
! Optative
|''snìgai''
|''zàriai''
|''lī́jai''
|''supā́jaimisin''
|-
! Subjunctive
|''snìge''
|''zàre''
|''lìje''
|''sùpemisin''
|-
|}
===Object markers===
One, two, three or, rarely, four grammatical persons can be indicated in a single Carpathian verb. The performer of an action is called the [[w:Subject (grammar)|subject]], and affected persons are [[w:Object (grammar)|objects]] (indirect or direct). The category of number (singular or plural) is also indicated. The [[w:Adjunct (grammar)|adjunct]] is not indicated.
Below is the table of object markers, used by both active and inactive verbs:
{| class="wikitable"
|+Direct Objects
|-
! rowspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|1st]]
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]
! colspan=4 | [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]
|-
! <small>animate proximate</small>
! <small>animate obviate</small>
! <small>inanimate proximate</small>
! <small>inanimate obviate</small>
|-
! [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]
| ''-mi''
| ''-ti''
| ''-(j)i''
| ''-ni''
| ''-sa''
| ''-ta''
|-
! [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]
| ''-nū''
| ''-wū''
| ''-(j)ī''
| ''-nai''
| ''-sai''
| ''-tai''
|-
! [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]
| ''-nas''
| ''-was''
| ''-is''
| ''-nan''
| ''-sā''
| ''-tā''
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Indirect Objects
|-
! rowspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|1st]]
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]
! colspan=4 | [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]
|-
! <small>animate proximate</small>
! <small>animate obviate</small>
! <small>inanimate proximate</small>
! <small>inanimate obviate</small>
|-
! [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]
| ''mei-''
| ''tei-''
| ''ei-''
| ''nai-''
| ''sai-''
| ''tai-''
|-
! [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]
| ''nō-''
| ''wō-''
| ''ī-''
| ''nan-''
| ''san-''
| ''tan-''
|-
! [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]
| ''in-''
| ''us-''
| ''īn-''
| ''nei-''
| ''sei-''
| ''tei-''
|-
|}
Inactive verbs only use direct object markers, while active verbs can use both: '''''ei'''dṓdan'''ta''''' “I gave it to him/her”. The first person subject endings change their quality, for example: ''turi'''ū'''-'' “I hold” and ''turēj'''u'''n-'' “I held” become ''turi'''ō'''sa'' “I’m holding it” and ''turēj'''a'''nsa'' “I held it”.
==Aspectual and deictic affixes==
Carpathian verbs form [[w:Lexical aspect|lexical aspect]] using various affixes, which make up systematic groups, based on the similarity in meaning. Essentially, there are three distinct groups of aspect affixes:
*Suffixes, which make imperfective ([[w:Continuous and progressive aspects|progressive]]) or [[w:Frequentative|frequentative]] verbs from simple perfective verbs: ''nestei'' “to carry” — ''nasītei'' “to be carrying”, ''nasiōtei'' “to carry often”.
*A suffix, which makes [[w:Inchoative aspect|inchoative]] verbs, from imperfective verbs: ''stahētei'' “to be standing” — “stanautei” “to step”.
*Prefixes, added to imperfective verbs to make perfective, [[w:Iterative aspect|iterative]] verbs: ''peistei'' “to write” — ''kirtātei'' “to write” — ''nōkirtātei'' “to write down”, ''pakirtātei'' “to write several times (iterative)”.
Carpathian also has a special class of motion verbs (e.g. ''bēgetei'' “run”, ''eitei'' “go”, ''nestei'' “carry”, ''westei'' “lead” etc), which are usually used with various prefixes to define the direction or duration of motion, thus creating two aspectual groups: one, expressing determinate action (motion towards or away from a place), and the other, expressing indeterminate action (motion back and forth or without a specified goal). These two groups form verb pairs, one perfective and one imperfective. for example the ''pernestei per hapān'' “to carry through a river (once)” — ''pernasītei'' “to be carrying through something (in general, more than once)”.
Unlike prefixes, which do not change the way a verb is conjugated, suffixed verbs form a separate conjugation class, which is characterised by the retention of a thematic vowel. Below is a table of all aspectual suffixes in Carpathian:
{| class="wikitable"
! Suffix
! 3sg Present
! Infinitive
! Examples
! Function
! Notes
|-
| ''-na''
| ''-ne''
| ''-natei''
| ''kun'''na'''tei'' “to throw”<br>''lim'''na'''tei “to get stuck”
| [[w:Inchoative aspect|Inchoative]], [[w:Momentane|momentaneous]]
| The plosive consonant, preceding this suffix, assimilates to "m" or "n".
|-
| ''-j''
| ''-je''
| ''-tei''
| ''mautei'' “to wash”<br/>''nautei'' “to yearn”
| Transitive imperfective Not productive.
| The infinitive stem ends in a long vowel, or a diphthong (usually only in dialects), while the present stem ends in a short vowel and "j".
|-
| ''-j''
| ''-ie''
| ''-tei''
| ''siltei'' “to send”<br/>''nautei'' “to yearn”
| [[w:Dynamic verb|fientive]] verbs.
| Sigmatic aorist. Palatalised final root consonant in the present.
|-
| ''-ēj''
| ''-ēje''
| ''-ētei''
| ''hauj'''ē'''tei'' “to be aware”<br/>''leg'''ē'''tei'' “to lie (be situated)”<br/>''bil'''ē'''tei'' “to be white”<br/>''dih'''ē'''tei'' “to think”
| [[w:Stative verb|Stative]] verbs, often continuous.
| Sigmatic aorist. [[w:Deadjectival verb|Deadjectival]] inactive verbs have zero-grade throughout their conjugation.
|-
| ''-ā''
| ''-āhe''
| ''-ātei''
| ''kēj'''ā'''tei'' “to observe”<br/>''taup'''ā'''tei'' “to stamp”<br/>''harb'''ā'''tei'' “to work”
| [[w:Denominal verb|Denominative]], [[w:Frequentative|frequentative]], [[w:Intensive word form|intensive]].
| Sigmatic or root aorist. The vowel "ā" is present throughout the conjugation.
|-
| ''-ō''
| ''-ōhe''
| ''-ōtei''
| ''wan'''ō'''tei'' “to become violet”<br/>
| [[w:Deadjectival verb|deadjectival]] inchoative verbs.
| Prothetic "-aw-" in aorist and imperfect, "h" in present and optative. The vowel "ō" is present throughout the conjugation.
|-
| ''-au''
| ''-auje''
| ''-autei''
| ''ōg'''au'''tei'' “to gather berries”<br/>''mīl'''au'''tei'' “to endear”
| [[w:Denominal verb|Denominative]] progressive verbs.
| The diphthong "-au-" becomes "-awā-" in the aorist.
|-
| ''-ī''
| ''-ī''
| ''-ītei''
| ''pars'''ī'''tei'' “to ask”<br/>''kail'''ī'''tei'' “to cure”<br/>''parg'''ī'''tei'' “to fry”
| [[w:Causative|Causative]].
| The vowel "-ī-" becomes "-ei", when final.
|-
| ''-jē''
| ''-iei''
| ''-ētei''
| ''milk'''ē'''tei'' “to be silent”<br/>''mud'''ē'''tei'' “to be weak”<br/>''girb'''ē'''tei'' “to have a need for something”
| Inactive imperfective denominal verbs.
| The vowel "-e-" becomes "-ei-", when final.
|-
|}
Other affixes, that are no longer productive, are the present nasal infix: ''legetei'' “to lie down” — ''li'''n'''gū'' “I lie down”; the "nau"-suffix: ''slūnautei'' “to be famous”, ''kurnautei'' “to prepare”.
Carpathian prefixes:
{| class="wikitable"
! Prefix
! Examples
! Approximate<br>meaning
! Notes
|-
| ''ar-''
| ''arkaltei'' “to break apart”
| “dis-”, “un-”.
|
|-
| ''at-''
| ''addōtei'' “to give back”
| “from”, “back”.
| Has a form ''ati-'' before consonants, assimilates to the next plosive.
|-
| ''ap-''
| ''apeitei'' “to walk around”
| “around”.
| Western Carpathian has ''ep-'' instead. Has a form ''api-'' before consonants.
|-
| ''da-''
| ''dajeitei'' “to go to”
| “towards”, “till”.
|
|-
| ''au-''
| ''aweitei'' “to walk between”
| “between”, “at”.
| Has a form ''aw-'' before vowels.
|-
| ''in-''
| ''ineitei'' “to enter”
| “in”, “into”.
|
|-
| ''is-''
| ''ineitei'' “to enter”
| “out of”.
| Western Carpathian has ''iš-'' instead.
|-
| ''ni-''
| ''nijeitei'' “to descend”
| “down”, “below”.
|
|-
| ''nō-''
| ''nōjeitei'' “to walk upwards”
| “up”, “over”.
|
|-
| ''pō-''
| ''pōmintei'' “to recall”, ''pōjeitei'' “to come later”
| “later”.
| Some Western dialects have ''pā-'' instead.
|-
| ''pa-''
| ''pamintei'' “to remember”, ''panestei'' “to carry away”
| “at”, “away”. Forms iterative, frequentative and semelfactive verbs.
| Has a form ''paj-'' before vowels
|-
| ''per-''
| ''perdōtei'' “to pass over”, ''pereitei'' “to cross”
| “over”, “re-”, “through”.
| Has a form ''pere-'' before a consonant cluster.
|-
| ''par-''
| ''pareitei'' “to walk along”
| “along”, “completely”.
| Has a form ''para-'' before a consonant cluster.
|-
| ''perei-''
| ''perijeitei'' “to approach”
| “by”, “next to”.
| Has a form ''perij-'' before vowels.
|-
| ''pirt-''
| ''pirtistātei'' “to contrast”
| “against”.
| Has a form ''pirti-'' before consonants.
|-
| ''ō-''
| ''ōjeitei'' “to almost reach”, ''ōsiausteisin'' “to be like a joke”
| “Afterwards”, “up to”. Forms collective abstract nouns.
| Has the form ''ōj-'' before vowels.
|-
| ''sam-''
| ''sameitei'' “to walk together”
| “together”.
| Has a form ''sama-'' before a consonant cluster.
|-
| ''su-''
| ''sumētei'' “to dare”
| “good”.
|
|-
| ''sun-''
| ''suntartei'' “to talk with someone”
| “with”, “alongside”.
|
|-
| ''uz-''
| ''uzimtei'' “to obtain”
| “at”, “onto”, “in return for”.
| Western Carpathian has ''už-'' instead. Becomes ''us-'' before voiceless consonants.
|-
| ''zō-''
| ''zōjeitei'' “to walk from behind”
| “behind”, “after”.
| Western Carpathian has ''žō-'' instead. Becomes ''zōj-'' before vowels
|-
|}
==Periphrastic formations==
==Periphrastic formations==
The original Proto-Indo-European subjunctive had fell out of use already by the Proto-Carpathian period, instead being replaced by the preterit form of ''būtei'' and the supine or the infinitive of the main verb, for example: ''būnta skeistei'' “I would be reading that”; ''būsta skeistun'' “(that) you read that” The subjunctive forms of the verb ''būtei'' (subject endings only) are as follows:
The original Proto-Indo-European [[w:Subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] had fell out of use already by the Proto-Carpathian period, instead being replaced by the preterit form of ''būtei'' and the supine or the infinitive of the main verb, for example: ''būnta skeistei'' “I would be reading that”; ''būsta skeistun'' “(that) you read that” The subjunctive forms of the verb ''būtei'' (subject endings only) are as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+[[w:Subjunctive mood|Subjunctive]]
|+[[w:Subjunctive mood|Subjunctive]]
Line 709: Line 1,051:
|}
|}
In some dialects of both Western and Eastern Carpathian the auxiliary verb merged with the main verb into a new synthetic form, for example: ''skeistumbū́'' “he/she would read”. Despite being widespread, this form is not in the standard written language itself.
In some dialects of both Western and Eastern Carpathian the auxiliary verb merged with the main verb into a new synthetic form, for example: ''skeistumbū́'' “he/she would read”. Despite being widespread, this form is not in the standard written language itself.
In addition to synthetic future-desiderative, there are also several '''analytic future''' constructions with a modal verb and an infinitive or supine, which, unlike the former synthetic form, express necessity or obligation, for example: ''eimi skeistei'' “I’m going to read”, ''immi dētun'' “I must have it done”. In order to denote simple futurity of an action, present tense may be used: ''tā pa skeisteta kunīgān'' “later he/she will read a book”.
Carpathian verbs express [[w:Irrealis mood#Potential|potentiality]] of an action by means of the verb ''leistei'' “to let” and the infinitive of the main verb, for example: ''leide eitei'' “he/she will probably go”, ''lais eitei'' “he/she might have gone”. If used with supine instead, the latter phrase gains a permissive meaning: ''laidinti eitun'' “they are allowed to go”.
==Participles==
Carpathian retains a rich system of participles. Unlike the neighbouring Slavic languages, Carpathian has no distinct categories of adjectival and adverbial participles, but in the way the two categories behave morphologically. Adjectival participles decline as adjectives, while adverbial participles are not declined. Participles are an important part of speech. All of them have their own function, but not all are used equally often. Unlike verbs, participles can both active and passive.
One of the main functions of active participles is to describe a characteristic of a noun related to some ongoing, past or future action in which the said noun is the agent: ''paustīs perelektunīs'' “migrating birds”, ''wadījas nepatairānas'' “inexperienced driver”. Only imperfective, perfective and future participles can fulfill this function. Another function of active participles is to describe an action performed by the sentence subject before the main action: ''Akunan '''atihwerwā''', meriā dangānas pagiledēsā''. – “'''Having opened''' the window, the girl looked at the clouds”.
Just as adjectives, participles decline for gender, case and number of the noun they modify, except for the dative absolute construction. Participles can be conjugated for person in the same way as inactive verbs by taking pronominal suffixes. The table below represents all possible participle forms of the verb ''skeistei'' “to read”, the pronominal forms having the third person singular suffix ''-is''.
:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;
|-
! colspan=2 rowspan=3 |
! colspan=4| Simple
! colspan=4| Pronominal
|-
! <small>masculine</small>
! <small>neuter</small>
! <small>feminine</small>
! <small>common</small>
! <small>masculine</small>
! <small>neuter</small>
! <small>feminine</small>
! <small>common</small>
|-
! colspan=8| Active
|-
! rowspan=3| Imperfective
! <small>sg</small>
| skitañs || skitañ || skiteñtī || skiteñtis || skitañsis || skitànis || skiteñtihis || skiteñtisis
|-
! <small>du</small>
| skitañte || colspan=3| skitañtī || skitañtejī || colspan=3| skitañtīhī
|-
! <small>pl</small>
| skitañtis || skitán || colspan=2| skiteñtīs || skitañtisis || skitáinis || colspan=2| skiteñtīhis
|-
! rowspan=3| Aorist
! <small>sg</small>
| skaitàwas || skaitàwan || skaitàwī || skaitàwis || skaitàwasis || skaitàwanis || skaitàwihis || skaitàwisis
|-
! <small>du</small>
| skaĩtawe || colspan=3| skaĩtawī || skaĩtawejis || colspan=3| skaĩtawīhis
|-
! <small>pl</small>
| skaĩtawis || skaitawā̃ || colspan=2| skaĩtawīs || skaĩtawisis || skaitawànis || colspan=2| skaĩtawīsis
|-
! rowspan=3| Perfect
! <small>sg</small>
| skitùs || skituñ || skitwī́ || skitwìs || skitùsis || skitùnis || skitwìhis || skitwìsis
|-
! <small>du</small>
| colspan=4| skitàwī || colspan=4| skitàwīhis
|-
! <small>pl</small>
| colspan=2| skitū́s || colspan=2| skitwī́s || colspan=2| skitū́sis || colspan=2| skitwī́sis
|-
! rowspan=3| Desiderative
! <small>sg</small>
| skitasiañs || skitasiañ || skitasiañtī || skitasiñtis || skitasiañsis || skitasiànis || skitasiañtihis || skitasiñtisis
|-
! <small>du</small>
| skitasiañte || colspan=3| skitasiñtī || skitasiañtejī || colspan=3| skitasiñtīhī
|-
! <small>pl</small>
| skitasiañtis || skitasián || colspan=2| skitasiñtīs || skitasiañtisis || skitasiáinis || colspan=2| skitasiñtīhis
|-
! rowspan=3| Resultative
! <small>sg</small>
| skillùs || skilluñ || skillī́ || skillìs || skillùsis || skillùnis || skillìhis || skillìsis
|-
! <small>du</small>
| colspan=4| skitèlī || colspan=4| skitèlīhis
|-
! <small>pl</small>
| colspan=2| skillū́s || colspan=2| skillī́s || colspan=2| skillū́sis || colspan=2| skillī́sis
|-
|}
Passive participles mainly denote actions that have impact upon nouns they describe: ''skaunas kuramas'' “a house that is being built”, ''haiskas histas'' – “a question that has been asked”.
In a similar way to adjectives, some participles have three degrees of comparison: ''laubīmas'' “liked” — ''laubīmesas'' “more liked” — ''laubīmimmas'' “most liked”.


[[Category:Carpathian]]
[[Category:Carpathian]]

Latest revision as of 17:04, 15 March 2023

Carpathian verbs reflect a complex system of morphology, more complicated than the nominals, with verbs categorized according to their conjugation class. Each finite verb is conjugated for person, number, tense, aspect, and mood, the last three usually being combined into a single category, called TAM. In addition to finite verbs, non-finite forms such as participles, infinitive and supine are also extensively used. Transitive verbs agree with two or more of its arguments, which is called polypersonal agreement, while intransitive verbs only agree with one argument — its subject. An extreme example of the agreement complexity can be seen in the following sentence: ei-ta-dōdah-ā-mi “He/she made me give it to them” ("to.them-that-made.give-he/she-me").

Most Carpathian verbs have three or four distinct basic stems, i.e. the stems of the imperfective, the aorist, the perfect and the infinitive. All forms of the verb were based on those stems: “sit” — sēdē- (infinitive and aorist), sēdi- (imperfective) and sōd- (perfect); “remain” — lik- (infinitive), leik- (present), likā- (aorist) laik- (perfect).

Personal Endings

Carpathian has two different categories of verbs, based on their present tense personal endings: athematic and thematic, the latter category being much larger and still productive, consisting of every class of verbs but one. The subject endings of the two categories (for the M-type accent paradigm) are:

Athematic Thematic Athematic Thematic Athematic Thematic Athematic Thematic
Present Aorist Perfect Optative
Singular 1st -mi -ū -ùn -ùn -ai -a -(j)ēn -(j)ain
2nd -si -ei -s -is -tai -ta -(j)ēs -(j)ais
3rd -ti -e -∅/-a -e -ei -i -(j)ē -(j)ai
Dual 1st -wā́ -(e)wā́ -awā́ -(a)wā́ -wā́ -wā́ -(j)ḗwā -(j)aĩwā
2nd -tā́ -(e)tā́ -atā́ -(a)tā́ -tā́ -tā́ -(j)ḗtā -(j)aĩtā
3rd -tìs -(e)tìs -atìs -(a)tìs -tìs -tìs -(j)ḗtis -(j)aĩtis
Plural 1st -mès -(e)mùn/-mà -amè -(a)mè -mè -mè -(j)ḗmes -(j)aĩma
2nd -tè -(e)tè -atè -(a)tè -tè -tè -(j)ḗte -(j)aĩte
3rd -eñti -añti -iñ -añ -ínti -ín -(j)énti -ajín
  • In Western Carpathian the 1st plural present and optative thematic ending is -mun and -aimun, while in Eastern Carpathian it is -ma and -aima.

Conjugation

The following conjugations of verbs exist in the present tense: athematic, simple thematic ("e"-stem verbs) and suffixed ("ī"-stem, "ē"-stem, and "ā"-stem verbs, as well as derived "jā"-stem, "ej"-verbs, "au"-stem, "nō"-stem among others). The future tense is formed using the si- suffix attached to the infinitive stem. The aorist tense has "ā"- and "ē"-stems. With a few exceptions, all verb endings were at some point of Carpathian history influenced by the ending of the present tense.

Present
Athematic verbs e-stem verbs ē/ī-stem verbs ā-stem verbs suffixed (ēj-stem)
skeistéi “to read” stèrhetei “to extend” turḗtei “to hold” gidā́tei “to wait” zirhḗtei “to ripen, to age”
Singular 1st sg skeĩmi stèrhū turiū́ gidā́hū zirhḗjū
2nd sg skeĩsi stèrhei turiéi gidā́hei zirhḗjei
3rd sg skeĩsti stèrhe tùrie gidā́he zirhḗje
Dual 1st du skeitwā́ sterhewā́ turiewā́ gidewā́ zirhējewā́
2nd du skeistā́ sterhetā́ turietā́ gidetā́ zirhējetā́
3rd du skeistìs sterhetìs turietìs gidetìs zirhējetìs
Plural 1st pl skeimès sterhemà turiemà gidemà zirhējemà
2nd pl skeistè sterhetè turietè gidetè zirhējetè
3rd pl skeiteñti sterhañti turiañti gidañti zirhējañti

The verb stèrhetei “to extend” has tone-3 in Eastern Carpathian, because sonorant clusters with /h/ are treated as a single segment. This is not the case in Western Carpathian, where this verb has tone-2 on the root instead: ster̃hetei. In present tense the root vowel of the e-stem verbs often undergoes ablaut: lìktei “to remain” — leĩkū “I remain”.

Aorist
Athematic verbs e-stem verbs ē-stem verbs ā-stem verbs suffixed (ēj-stem)
skeistéi “to read” stèrhetei “to extend” turḗtei “to hold” gidā́tei “to wait” zirhḗtei “to ripen, to age”
Singular 1st sg skeĩtun stèrhun turḗjun gidā́sun zirhḗjun
2nd sg skeĩs stèrhis turḗjis gidā́sis zirhḗjis
3rd sg skeĩ stèrhe turḗ gidā́se zirhḗ
Dual 1st du skeitawā́ sterhawā́ turēwā́ gidāsawā́ zirhēwā́
2nd du skeitatā́ sterhatā́ turētā́ gidāsatā́ zirhētā́
3rd du skeitatìs sterhatìs turētìs gidāsatìs zirhētìs
Plural 1st pl skeitamè sterhamè turēmè gidāsamè zirhēmè
2nd pl skeitatè sterhatè turētè gidāsatè zirhētè
3rd pl skeitiñ sterhañ turējañ gidāsañ zirhējañ

The verb gidā́tei “to wait” has sigmatic aorist, while all other verbs from the example above have root aorist. The difference is the addition of the suffix -s with the lengthening of the previous vowel: kurtéi “to build”, degetéi “to burn” — kúršanta “I built it”, dēšanta “I burnt it” (sigmatic aorist); but tirimtéi “to shiver” — tirìmun “I shivered” (root aorist).

Some irregular "e"-stem verbs have zero-grade ablaut in their root, usually those belonging to PIE bhárati-verbs: bèrōsa “I’m picking it up” — birā́hansa “I picked it up”, but gidā́hū “I’m waiting” — gidā́sun “I waited”.

Imperfect
Athematic verbs e-stem verbs ē-stem verbs ā-stem verbs suffixed (ēj-stem)
skeistéi “to read” stèrhetei “to extend” turḗtei “to hold” gidā́tei “to wait” zirhḗtei “to ripen, to age”
Singular 1st sg skéitun stirhán turián gidián zirhḗjan
2nd sg skéis stirhē̃s turiḗs gidā́s zirhḗjēs
3rd sg skéi stirhē̃ turiḗ gidā́ zirhḗjē
Dual 1st du skitē̃wā stirhē̃wā turḗwā gidā́wā zirhējḗwā
2nd du skitē̃tā stirhē̃tā turḗtā gidā́tā zirhējḗtā
3rd du skitē̃tis stirhē̃tis turḗtis gidā́tis zirhējḗtis
Plural 1st pl skitē̃me stirhē̃me turiḗme gidā́me zirhējḗme
2nd pl skitē̃te stirhē̃te turiḗte gidā́te zirhējḗte
3rd pl skiteñ stirheñ turējeñ gidāseñ zirhējeñ

The imperfect forms are often substituted with an analytic construction: "bē" + infinitive — bē skeistei “he/she was reading”. The imperfect forms of athematic and "e"-stem verbs have zero-ablaut in their roots: skitēwā “we two were reading” but skeitwā “we two are reading”.

Perfect
Athematic verbs e-stem verbs ē-stem verbs ā-stem verbs suffixed (ēj-stem)
skeistéi “to read” stèrhetei “to extend” turḗtei “to hold” gidā́tei “to wait” zirhḗtei “to ripen, to age”
Singular 1st sg skaĩtai stàrha turḗja gidā́ha zirhḗja
2nd sg skaĩstai stàrta turḗta gidā́ta zirhḗta
3rd sg skaĩtei stàrhe turḗje gidā́he zirhḗje
Dual 1st du skaitwā́ stárwā turḗwā gidā́wā zirhḗwā
2nd du skaistā́ stártā turḗtā gidā́tā zirhḗtā
3rd du skaistìs stártis turḗtis gidā́tis zirhḗtis
Plural 1st pl skaimè stárme turḗme gidā́me zirhḗme
2nd pl skaistè stárte turḗte gidā́te zirhḗte
3rd pl skaitínti starhin turḗjin gidā́hin zirhḗjin

In perfect the root vowel of athematic and e-stem thematic verbs undergoes qualitative ablaut: leikū “I remain” — laika “I have remained/I am preserved”; pasadḗdemi “I’m putting it down” — pasadṓdai “I’ve put it down”.

Future
Athematic verbs e-stem verbs ē-stem verbs ā-stem verbs suffixed (ēj-stem)
skeistéi “to read” stèrhetei “to extend” turḗtei “to hold” gidā́tei “to wait” zirhḗtei “to ripen, to age”
Singular 1st sg skeĩsiū stèrhesiū turḗsiū gidā́siū zirhḗsiū
2nd sg skeĩsiei stèrhesiei turḗsiei gidā́siei zirhḗsiei
3rd sg skeĩs stèrhis turḗs gidā́s zirhḗs
Dual 1st du skeĩsiwā stèrhesiwā turḗsiwā gidā́siwā zirhḗsiwā
2nd du skeĩsitā stèrhesitā turḗsitā gidā́sitā zirhḗsitā
3rd du skeĩsitis stèrhesitis turḗsitis gidā́sitis zirhḗsitis
Plural 1st pl skeĩsima stèrhesima turḗsima gidā́sima zirhḗsima
2nd pl skeĩsite stèrhesite turḗsite gidā́site zirhḗsite
3rd pl skeĩsianti stèrhesianti turḗsianti gidā́sianti zirhḗsianti

The future tense in Carpathian still retains its connection to the desiderative aspect, from which it originated. In fact, it is more accurate to translate Carpathian verbs in future tense with a phrase “wanting to do something”, for example: skeisiū “I’d like to read” or “I want to read”, which implies the speaker’s own volition or intent to do it. Otherwise, optative form is preferred: skitiēn “I am to read”.

Optative
Athematic verbs e-stem verbs ē-stem verbs ā-stem verbs suffixed (ēj-stem)
skeistéi “to read” stèrhetei “to extend” turḗtei “to hold” gidā́tei “to wait” zirhḗtei “to ripen, to age”
Singular 1st sg skìtiēn stèrhain tùriain gidā́hain zirhḗjain
2nd sg skìtiēs stèrhais tùriais gidā́hais zirhḗjais
3rd sg skìtiēs stèrhai tùriai gidā́hai zirhḗjai
Dual 1st du skitiḗwā sterhaĩwā turiaĩwā gidahaĩwā zirhḗjaiwā
2nd du skitiḗtā sterhaĩtā turiaĩtā gidahaĩtā zirhḗjaitā
3rd du skitiḗtis sterhaĩtis turiaĩtis gidahaĩtis zirhḗjaitis
Plural 1st pl skitiḗmes sterhaĩma turiaĩma gidahaĩma zirhḗjaima
2nd pl skitiḗte stèrhaĩte turiaĩte gidahaĩte zirhḗjaite
3rd pl skitiénti sterhajín turējín gidāhín zirhḗjin

In Carpathian the optative forms are used as imperative. The original imperative is used only for direct orders or commands and may be perceived as informal or rude. The Eastern dialects generally preserve a separate imperative better, than the Western ones, some of which lost it completely.

Imperative
Athematic verbs e-stem verbs ē-stem verbs ā-stem verbs suffixed (ēj-stem)
skeistéi “to read” stèrhetei “to extend” turḗtei “to hold” gidā́tei “to wait” zirhḗtei “to ripen, to age”
Singular 2nd sg skitiè stèrhi tùri gidā́hi zirhḗ
3rd sg skeĩstu stèrhie tùrie gidā́he zirhḗ
Dual 2nd du skistā́ sterhetā́ turitā́ giditā́ zirhḗjetā
3rd du skistìs sterhetìs turitìs giditìs zirhḗjetis
Plural 2nd pl skistè sterhetè turitè giditè zirhḗjete
3rd pl skiténtu sterhañtu turiañtu gidañtu zirhḗjantu
  • Imperative has no first person forms. When necessary, optative forms are used.

Inactive verbs

The category of inactive verbs convey the meaning of emotion and prolonged state belong to this class. There are two classes: autocausative and impersonal verbs. The common examples of autocausative verbs are supāteisin “to sleep”, dōmāteisin “to suppose”, wōjāteisin “to believe” and tinkāteisin “to suit, to be appropriate”. These verbs mark the subject with the dative instead of the nominative. The impersonal verbs are almost all denominative and take no arguments, the examples being snigetei “to snow”, zarētei “to dawn”, lītei. Their conjugation is different from the active verbs in that the autocausative verbs only take object markers and impersonal verbs do not take any personal markers. The tenses are exactly the same, except the inactive verbs lack the imperative and have a separate subjunctive form, derived from the indicative of the PIE perfective verbs. Here is the example of the conjugation of some inactive verbs (the autocausative example is in the first person singular):

Impersonal Autocausative
e-stem verbs ē-stem verbs j-stem verbs ā-stem verbs
snigetéi “to snow” zarḗtei “to dawn” lī́tei “to rain” supā́teisin “to sleep”
Present sniñgi zarḗ lī́ji supéimisin
Aorist snìgā zàriā lìjā supā́misin
Imperfect snìgḗ zàriḗ lìjḗ supḗmisin
Perfect snìga zària lìja supā́jamisin
Future snìgis zarḗs lī́s supā́smisin
Optative snìgai zàriai lī́jai supā́jaimisin
Subjunctive snìge zàre lìje sùpemisin

Object markers

One, two, three or, rarely, four grammatical persons can be indicated in a single Carpathian verb. The performer of an action is called the subject, and affected persons are objects (indirect or direct). The category of number (singular or plural) is also indicated. The adjunct is not indicated.

Below is the table of object markers, used by both active and inactive verbs:

Direct Objects
1st 2nd 3rd
animate proximate animate obviate inanimate proximate inanimate obviate
Singular -mi -ti -(j)i -ni -sa -ta
Dual -nū -wū -(j)ī -nai -sai -tai
Plural -nas -was -is -nan -sā -tā
Indirect Objects
1st 2nd 3rd
animate proximate animate obviate inanimate proximate inanimate obviate
Singular mei- tei- ei- nai- sai- tai-
Dual nō- wō- ī- nan- san- tan-
Plural in- us- īn- nei- sei- tei-

Inactive verbs only use direct object markers, while active verbs can use both: eidṓdanta “I gave it to him/her”. The first person subject endings change their quality, for example: turiū- “I hold” and turējun- “I held” become turiōsa “I’m holding it” and turējansa “I held it”.

Aspectual and deictic affixes

Carpathian verbs form lexical aspect using various affixes, which make up systematic groups, based on the similarity in meaning. Essentially, there are three distinct groups of aspect affixes:

  • Suffixes, which make imperfective (progressive) or frequentative verbs from simple perfective verbs: nestei “to carry” — nasītei “to be carrying”, nasiōtei “to carry often”.
  • A suffix, which makes inchoative verbs, from imperfective verbs: stahētei “to be standing” — “stanautei” “to step”.
  • Prefixes, added to imperfective verbs to make perfective, iterative verbs: peistei “to write” — kirtātei “to write” — nōkirtātei “to write down”, pakirtātei “to write several times (iterative)”.

Carpathian also has a special class of motion verbs (e.g. bēgetei “run”, eitei “go”, nestei “carry”, westei “lead” etc), which are usually used with various prefixes to define the direction or duration of motion, thus creating two aspectual groups: one, expressing determinate action (motion towards or away from a place), and the other, expressing indeterminate action (motion back and forth or without a specified goal). These two groups form verb pairs, one perfective and one imperfective. for example the pernestei per hapān “to carry through a river (once)” — pernasītei “to be carrying through something (in general, more than once)”.

Unlike prefixes, which do not change the way a verb is conjugated, suffixed verbs form a separate conjugation class, which is characterised by the retention of a thematic vowel. Below is a table of all aspectual suffixes in Carpathian:

Suffix 3sg Present Infinitive Examples Function Notes
-na -ne -natei kunnatei “to throw”
limnatei “to get stuck” 		Inchoative, momentaneous The plosive consonant, preceding this suffix, assimilates to "m" or "n".
-j -je -tei mautei “to wash”
nautei “to yearn” 		Transitive imperfective Not productive. The infinitive stem ends in a long vowel, or a diphthong (usually only in dialects), while the present stem ends in a short vowel and "j".
-j -ie -tei siltei “to send”
nautei “to yearn” 		fientive verbs. Sigmatic aorist. Palatalised final root consonant in the present.
-ēj -ēje -ētei haujētei “to be aware”
legētei “to lie (be situated)”
bilētei “to be white”
dihētei “to think” 		Stative verbs, often continuous. Sigmatic aorist. Deadjectival inactive verbs have zero-grade throughout their conjugation.
-ā -āhe -ātei kējātei “to observe”
taupātei “to stamp”
harbātei “to work” 		Denominative, frequentative, intensive. Sigmatic or root aorist. The vowel "ā" is present throughout the conjugation.
-ō -ōhe -ōtei wanōtei “to become violet”
 deadjectival inchoative verbs. Prothetic "-aw-" in aorist and imperfect, "h" in present and optative. The vowel "ō" is present throughout the conjugation.
-au -auje -autei ōgautei “to gather berries”
mīlautei “to endear” 		Denominative progressive verbs. The diphthong "-au-" becomes "-awā-" in the aorist.
-ī -ī -ītei parsītei “to ask”
kailītei “to cure”
pargītei “to fry” 		Causative. The vowel "-ī-" becomes "-ei", when final.
-jē -iei -ētei milkētei “to be silent”
mudētei “to be weak”
girbētei “to have a need for something” 		Inactive imperfective denominal verbs. The vowel "-e-" becomes "-ei-", when final.

Other affixes, that are no longer productive, are the present nasal infix: legetei “to lie down” — lingū “I lie down”; the "nau"-suffix: slūnautei “to be famous”, kurnautei “to prepare”.

Carpathian prefixes:

Prefix Examples Approximate
meaning 		Notes
ar- arkaltei “to break apart” “dis-”, “un-”.
at- addōtei “to give back” “from”, “back”. Has a form ati- before consonants, assimilates to the next plosive.
ap- apeitei “to walk around” “around”. Western Carpathian has ep- instead. Has a form api- before consonants.
da- dajeitei “to go to” “towards”, “till”.
au- aweitei “to walk between” “between”, “at”. Has a form aw- before vowels.
in- ineitei “to enter” “in”, “into”.
is- ineitei “to enter” “out of”. Western Carpathian has iš- instead.
ni- nijeitei “to descend” “down”, “below”.
nō- nōjeitei “to walk upwards” “up”, “over”.
pō- pōmintei “to recall”, pōjeitei “to come later” “later”. Some Western dialects have pā- instead.
pa- pamintei “to remember”, panestei “to carry away” “at”, “away”. Forms iterative, frequentative and semelfactive verbs. Has a form paj- before vowels
per- perdōtei “to pass over”, pereitei “to cross” “over”, “re-”, “through”. Has a form pere- before a consonant cluster.
par- pareitei “to walk along” “along”, “completely”. Has a form para- before a consonant cluster.
perei- perijeitei “to approach” “by”, “next to”. Has a form perij- before vowels.
pirt- pirtistātei “to contrast” “against”. Has a form pirti- before consonants.
ō- ōjeitei “to almost reach”, ōsiausteisin “to be like a joke” “Afterwards”, “up to”. Forms collective abstract nouns. Has the form ōj- before vowels.
sam- sameitei “to walk together” “together”. Has a form sama- before a consonant cluster.
su- sumētei “to dare” “good”.
sun- suntartei “to talk with someone” “with”, “alongside”.
uz- uzimtei “to obtain” “at”, “onto”, “in return for”. Western Carpathian has už- instead. Becomes us- before voiceless consonants.
zō- zōjeitei “to walk from behind” “behind”, “after”. Western Carpathian has žō- instead. Becomes zōj- before vowels

Periphrastic formations

The original Proto-Indo-European subjunctive had fell out of use already by the Proto-Carpathian period, instead being replaced by the preterit form of būtei and the supine or the infinitive of the main verb, for example: būnta skeistei “I would be reading that”; būsta skeistun “(that) you read that” The subjunctive forms of the verb būtei (subject endings only) are as follows:

Subjunctive
Singular 1st bū́n
2nd bū́s
3rd bū́
Dual 1st bū́wā
2nd bū́tā
3rd bū́tis
Plural 1st bū́me
2nd bū́te
3rd bū́wen

In some dialects of both Western and Eastern Carpathian the auxiliary verb merged with the main verb into a new synthetic form, for example: skeistumbū́ “he/she would read”. Despite being widespread, this form is not in the standard written language itself.

In addition to synthetic future-desiderative, there are also several analytic future constructions with a modal verb and an infinitive or supine, which, unlike the former synthetic form, express necessity or obligation, for example: eimi skeistei “I’m going to read”, immi dētun “I must have it done”. In order to denote simple futurity of an action, present tense may be used: tā pa skeisteta kunīgān “later he/she will read a book”.

Carpathian verbs express potentiality of an action by means of the verb leistei “to let” and the infinitive of the main verb, for example: leide eitei “he/she will probably go”, lais eitei “he/she might have gone”. If used with supine instead, the latter phrase gains a permissive meaning: laidinti eitun “they are allowed to go”.

Participles

Carpathian retains a rich system of participles. Unlike the neighbouring Slavic languages, Carpathian has no distinct categories of adjectival and adverbial participles, but in the way the two categories behave morphologically. Adjectival participles decline as adjectives, while adverbial participles are not declined. Participles are an important part of speech. All of them have their own function, but not all are used equally often. Unlike verbs, participles can both active and passive.

One of the main functions of active participles is to describe a characteristic of a noun related to some ongoing, past or future action in which the said noun is the agent: paustīs perelektunīs “migrating birds”, wadījas nepatairānas “inexperienced driver”. Only imperfective, perfective and future participles can fulfill this function. Another function of active participles is to describe an action performed by the sentence subject before the main action: Akunan atihwerwā, meriā dangānas pagiledēsā. – “Having opened the window, the girl looked at the clouds”.

Just as adjectives, participles decline for gender, case and number of the noun they modify, except for the dative absolute construction. Participles can be conjugated for person in the same way as inactive verbs by taking pronominal suffixes. The table below represents all possible participle forms of the verb skeistei “to read”, the pronominal forms having the third person singular suffix -is.

Simple Pronominal
masculine neuter feminine common masculine neuter feminine common
Active
Imperfective sg skitañs skitañ skiteñtī skiteñtis skitañsis skitànis skiteñtihis skiteñtisis
du skitañte skitañtī skitañtejī skitañtīhī
pl skitañtis skitán skiteñtīs skitañtisis skitáinis skiteñtīhis
Aorist sg skaitàwas skaitàwan skaitàwī skaitàwis skaitàwasis skaitàwanis skaitàwihis skaitàwisis
du skaĩtawe skaĩtawī skaĩtawejis skaĩtawīhis
pl skaĩtawis skaitawā̃ skaĩtawīs skaĩtawisis skaitawànis skaĩtawīsis
Perfect sg skitùs skituñ skitwī́ skitwìs skitùsis skitùnis skitwìhis skitwìsis
du skitàwī skitàwīhis
pl skitū́s skitwī́s skitū́sis skitwī́sis
Desiderative sg skitasiañs skitasiañ skitasiañtī skitasiñtis skitasiañsis skitasiànis skitasiañtihis skitasiñtisis
du skitasiañte skitasiñtī skitasiañtejī skitasiñtīhī
pl skitasiañtis skitasián skitasiñtīs skitasiañtisis skitasiáinis skitasiñtīhis
Resultative sg skillùs skilluñ skillī́ skillìs skillùsis skillùnis skillìhis skillìsis
du skitèlī skitèlīhis
pl skillū́s skillī́s skillū́sis skillī́sis

Passive participles mainly denote actions that have impact upon nouns they describe: skaunas kuramas “a house that is being built”, haiskas histas – “a question that has been asked”.

In a similar way to adjectives, some participles have three degrees of comparison: laubīmas “liked” — laubīmesas “more liked” — laubīmimmas “most liked”.

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