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|fam1              = East Taktapṣaikhulu <small>''(areal)''</small>
|fam1              = East Taktapṣaikhulu <small>''(areal)''</small>
|ancestor          = Pre-Dundulanyä
|ancestor          = Pre-Dundulanyä
|creator          = [[User:Lili21|Lili21]]
|creator          = User:Lili21
|stand1            = Modern Standard Dundulanyä
|stand1            = Modern Standard Dundulanyä
|script1          = Dundulanyä abugida
|script1          = Dundulanyä abugida
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}}
}}


'''Dundulanyä''' {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ]}}, natively known as ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa''<ref>Literally "Dundulanyä our-language", with a 1PL possessive; the stylistic variant ''dundulanyä ḫamfarān'' (lit. "Dundulanyä their-language") is sometimes found in neutral contexts.</ref> {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ ħɐmɸɐɸɐ]}}, is the most spoken language on the planet [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] (Dun.: ''Lelḫajāṃrya''). It is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics, which makes it the main lingua franca across the two southern hemisphere continents, Lusaṃrīte - where it originated - and Jūhma.
'''Dundulanyä''' {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ]}}, natively known as ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa''<ref>Literally "Dundulanyä our-language", with a 1PL possessive; the stylistic variant ''dundulanyä ḫamfarān'' (lit. "Dundulanyä their-language") is sometimes found in neutral contexts.</ref> {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ ħɐmɸɐɸɐ]}}, is the most spoken language on the planet [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] (Dun.: ''Lelḫajāṃrya''). It is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics, the pluricultural political entity which occupies the majority of the two southern hemisphere continents, Lusaṃrīte - where the language itself originated - and Jūhma, where it is the main lingua franca.


Dundulanyä itself has a long history, being first attested about 2400 years before the present in the areas of Central Lusaṃrīte, where the Dundulanyä civilization first developed; through successive empires and religious proselytism, people and language spread across many areas of the continent - most notably Dundulanyä-ifying the north shore of the Inland Seas by the end of Classical Lusaṃrītene Antiquity. As the dominant civilization of Lusaṃrīte, the Dundulanyä spread their language to become the main lingua franca of trade and culture in most of the continent and in eastern Jūhma; the massive demographical changes brought by the epidemics that were the result of increased contact with the civilizations of the northern hemisphere effectively enabled the Dundulanyä culture to spread in areas where formerly other civilizations were dominant. By the modern and contemporary eras, a more standardized version of classical Dundulanyä remained the lingua franca among multiple peoples across Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma, and the situation remained more or less the same after the collapse of the Fifth Dundulanyä Empire and through the Three Leagues Period.
Dundulanyä itself has a long history, being first attested about 2600 years before the present in the areas of Central Lusaṃrīte, in the region of Taktapṣikha, where the Dundulanyä civilization first developed; through religious, cultural and political expansion, people and language spread across many areas of the continent, most notably Dundulanyä-ifying the north shore of the Inland Seas by the end of Classical Lusaṃrītene Antiquity. As the most advanced civilization on Lusaṃrīte, the Dundulanyä spread their language to become the main lingua franca of trade and culture in most of the continent and in eastern Jūhma; then, the massive demographical changes brought by the epidemics that were the result of increased contact with the Northern hemisphere civilizations effectively enabled the Dundulanyä culture to spread in areas where formerly other cultures had been dominant. By the modern and contemporary eras, a more standardized version of classical Dundulanyä remained the lingua franca among multiple peoples across Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma, and the situation remained more or less the same after the collapse of the Fifth Dundulanyä Empire and through the Three Leagues Period.


Today, Dundulanyä is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics (''laḫlurayäh dundulanyäɂi lileṣkorukṣarte śūsmurdibeṣarān''), the multicultural political entity that is dominant throughout Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma; the standard language is a heavily standardized version of the classical language, with many of the less regular forms having fallen out of use after one millennium of being essentially a L2 for the totality of its speakers; high style language and creative usage, however, still uses forms that have fallen out of use in the everyday language. Dundulanyä, along with any of the regional languages of the Confederation, is the main language for its 1,9 billion inhabitants, a number to which should be added a substantial amount of foreign users in virtually all other countries in Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma.
Today, Dundulanyä is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics (''laḫlurayäh dundulanyäɂi lileṣkorukṣarte śūsmurdibeṣarān''); the standard language is a heavily prescriptive and codified version of the classical language, with many of the less regular forms having fallen out of use after one millennium of being essentially a second language for the totality of its speakers; high style language and creative usage, however, still uses forms no longer used in the everyday language. Dundulanyä, coexisting in diglossia with hundreds of languages - its own daughter languages, creoles based on Dundulanyä, or completely unrelated ones - together known as the "vernaculars" or ''tūsahufāni'', is the main language for the 1,9 billion people living in the Confederation, a number to which should be added a substantial amount of foreign users in virtually all other countries in Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma.
 
Both the language and the setting are still under construction: see the [[Dundulanyä#External history|External history section on this page]] for more.


==Internal history==
==Internal history==
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# {{IPA|/ɖ/}} and {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} are generally represented by the stop realizations, however, in the contemporary spoken language, except when adjacent to another consonant they are most commonly realized as any of {{IPA|[ɽ(ʱ) ɭ(ʱ) ɻ(ʱ)]}} depending on the geographical origin of the speaker, realizations which are influenced by the historical development of Classical Dundulanyä {{IPA|/ɖ ɖʱ/}} in the modern vernaculars.
# {{IPA|/ɖ/}} and {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} are generally represented by the stop realizations, however, in the contemporary spoken language, except when adjacent to another consonant they are most commonly realized as any of {{IPA|[ɽ(ʱ) ɭ(ʱ) ɻ(ʱ)]}} depending on the geographical origin of the speaker, realizations which are influenced by the historical development of Classical Dundulanyä {{IPA|/ɖ ɖʱ/}} in the modern vernaculars.
# The '''q''' {{IPA|/ɢ/}} phoneme is represented here by its most accepted contemporary pronunciation, as there is some debate about its prevailing quality in Classical Dundulanyä. It is also the phoneme which realization varies the most throughout the Dundulanyä-speaking world, often having different realizations depending on the position in the word, or often merging with other phonemes - generally with one of {{IPA|/g/}}, {{IPA|/k/}} or {{IPA|/ʔ/}}.<br/>In the standard pronunciation (as well as in the entire North Shore, in and around the city of Līlah, and elsewhere in most of Northern and Western Lusaṃrīte), it is {{IPA|[ɢ]}} word-initially and syllable-initially, and a fricative (either uvular {{IPA|[χ]}}-{{IPA|[ʁ]}} or velar {{IPA|[x]}}-{{IPA|[ɣ]}}) in coda, voiceless before voiceless consonants and voiced otherwise.
# The '''q''' {{IPA|/ɢ/}} phoneme is represented here by its most accepted contemporary pronunciation, as there is some debate about its prevailing quality in Classical Dundulanyä. It is also the phoneme which realization varies the most throughout the Dundulanyä-speaking world, often having different realizations depending on the position in the word, or often merging with other phonemes - generally with one of {{IPA|/g/}}, {{IPA|/k/}} or {{IPA|/ʔ/}}.<br/>In the standard pronunciation (as well as in the entire North Shore, in and around the city of Līlah, and elsewhere in most of Northern and Western Lusaṃrīte), it is {{IPA|[ɢ]}} word-initially and syllable-initially, and a fricative (either uvular {{IPA|[χ]}}-{{IPA|[ʁ]}} or velar {{IPA|[x]}}-{{IPA|[ɣ]}}) in coda, voiceless before voiceless consonants and voiced otherwise.
Some maximalist analyses of contemporary Dundulanyä phonology include other phonemes beyond the standard set; however, the most common analysis, used throughout this and related articles, has the benefit of having a nearly 1:1 correspondence between phonemes and graphemes. For example, a few modern grammarians include a palato-labial series, corresponding to palatal + {{IPA|/ʋ/}} clusters in the analysis above, realized as {{IPA|[Cʷ]}} in many modern pronunciations (cf. {{IPA|[ɕʷɐ̹ŋɡɐ]}} for {{IPA|/ɕʋɐŋɡɐ/}} ''śvaṅga'' "money").


With the partial exception of {{IPA|/ħ/}}, words may only end in soft consonants and/or clusters of an approximant followed by a single soft stop or fricative. In the romanization, some apparent exceptions may be seen due to saṃdhi in words followed by clitics, such as in ''logh va'' "I don't go" {{IPA|[lɔɡʱʋɐ]}}.
With the partial exception of {{IPA|/ħ/}}, words may only end in soft consonants and/or clusters of an approximant followed by a single soft stop or fricative. In the romanization, some apparent exceptions may be seen due to saṃdhi in words followed by clitics, such as in ''logh va'' "I don't go" {{IPA|[lɔɡʱʋɐ]}}.
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* '''s''' or '''ś''' plus any voiced stop, or '''ṣ''' followed by any non-dental/retroflex voiced stop, disappear but synchronically lengthen the previous vowel;
* '''s''' or '''ś''' plus any voiced stop, or '''ṣ''' followed by any non-dental/retroflex voiced stop, disappear but synchronically lengthen the previous vowel;
* Coronal stops followed  by '''ṣ''' or '''ś''' result in a palatal affricate;
* Coronal stops followed  by '''ṣ''' or '''ś''' result in a palatal affricate;
** The sequences ''-ṅk(h) [ṣ/ś]-'' and ''-ṅg(h) [ṣ/ś]-'' likewise result in ''-ñc(h)-'' and ''-ñj(h)-'';
* All sibilants become '''r''' in front of '''q'''.
* All sibilants become '''r''' in front of '''q'''.


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|}


The majority of roots belongs to either the 0 class, or to classes II to IV. Other classes are much rarer, with V and especially VIII being the least common overall. Many class I roots have a sonorant such as '''l''', '''m''' or '''n''' (rarely other nasals), continuing formations parallel to class IV in reconstructed Pre-Dundulanyä. Class I roots may, due to their shape, be further simplified in the zero-grade; see ''haf-'', zero-grade ''iṣf-'' "to insert, fill" or ''rañj-'', zero-grade ''ṛj-'' "to name, identify"; some others have a short vowel in the zero-grade and a long vowel in the (identical) middle- and higher-grade forms, as with ''sākh-'' (zero-grade ''sakh-'', higher-grade ''sākh-'') "to prepare"<ref>More commonly used in the prefixed form ''ni-sākh-'' "to build, create, make".</ref>.
The majority of roots belongs to either the 0 class, or to classes II to IV. Other classes are much rarer, with V and especially VIII being the least common overall. Many class I roots have a sonorant such as '''l''', '''m''' or '''n''' (rarely other nasals), continuing formations parallel to class IV in reconstructed Pre-Dundulanyä.
 
Class I roots may, due to their shape, be further simplified in the zero-grade; see ''haf-'', zero-grade ''iṣf-'' "to insert, fill" or ''rañj-'', zero-grade ''ṛj-'' "to name, identify"; some others have a short vowel in the zero-grade and a long vowel in the (identical) middle- and higher-grade forms, as with ''sākh-'' (zero-grade ''sakh-'', higher-grade ''sākh-'') "to prepare"<ref>More commonly used in the prefixed form ''ni-sākh-'' "to build, create, make", but cf. set phrases such as ''vaidhopta sākha'' "to catalogue" - literally "to prepare a catalogue" - where however ''vaidhopta nisākha'' "to build a catalogue" is also found.</ref>. Due to regular saṃdhi, class I roots with ''ya'' or ''va'' have ''i'' or ''u'' respectively in the zero-grade, see e.g. ''yam-'' "to eat", zero-grade ''im-''.


Some class VI and VII roots may have consonant changes caused by saṃdhi; furthermore, there are a few irregular class II and III roots which have a long vowel in the zero grade form even if they are not of CV shape; see e.g. ''lobh-'' "to write" with the long zero grade ''lūbh-''. Class III roots with the ''-vo-'' sequence in the middle grade (citation form) reduce it to ''-ū-'' in any case in the zero grade, as in ''tvorg-'' "to fear" with the zero grade ''tūrg-''.
Some class VI and VII roots may have consonant changes caused by saṃdhi; furthermore, there are a few irregular class II and III roots which have a long vowel in the zero grade form even if they are not of CV shape; see e.g. ''lobh-'' "to write" with the long zero grade ''lūbh-''. Class III roots with the ''-vo-'' sequence in the middle grade (citation form) reduce it to ''-ū-'' in any case in the zero grade, as in ''tvorg-'' "to fear" with the zero grade ''tūrg-''.
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In the name of the language, ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa'', for example, ''dundulanyä'' is a bound form that however has the same form as the direct, due to the noun having a stem ending in a vowel. Some more examples of bound forms:
In the name of the language, ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa'', for example, ''dundulanyä'' is a bound form that however has the same form as the direct, due to the noun having a stem ending in a vowel. Some more examples of bound forms:


* ''imut naviṣyaɂe'' "the teacher's book", ''imut'' being the bound form of ''imute'' "teacher", and ''naviṣya'' "book" being marked with the 3SG possessive ''ɂe''.  
* ''līdad naviṣyaɂe'' "the teacher's book", ''līdad'' being the bound form of ''līdade'' "teacher", and ''naviṣya'' "book" being marked with the 3SG possessive ''ɂe''.  
* ''nūrī dvārmaɂe'' "the child's room", ''nūrī'' being the bound form of ''nūrya'' "child".
* ''nūrī dvārmaɂe'' "the child's room", ''nūrī'' being the bound form of ''nūrya'' "child".
* ''līv yude'' "3SG stands in the flat", where the positional verb ''yu-de-'' "to stand inside" requires its argument ''līve'' to be in the bound form ''līv''.
* ''līv yude'' "3SG stands in the flat", where the positional verb ''yu-de-'' "to stand inside" requires its argument ''līve'' to be in the bound form ''līv''.
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|+Non-ablauting consonant stem 1st declension
|+Non-ablauting consonant stem 1st declension
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''imut-''<br/>"teacher"
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śiv-''<br/>"image, representation, photo"
|-
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! <small>Direct</small>
! <small>Direct</small>
| '''imute''' || rowspan=2 | imutive || rowspan=2 | imuti
| '''śive''' || rowspan=2 | śivive || rowspan=2 | śivi
|-
|-
! <small>Vocative</small>
! <small>Vocative</small>
| imut
| śiv
|-
|-
! <small>Ergative</small>
! <small>Ergative</small>
| imutē || imutīyat || imutām
| śivē || śivīyat || śivām
|-
|-
! <small>Accusative</small>
! <small>Accusative</small>
| imutat || imutītha || imutaih
| śivat || śivītha || śivaih
|-
|-
! <small>Dative</small>
! <small>Dative</small>
| imutak || imutīma || imutumi
| śivak || śivīma || śivumi
|-
|-
! <small>Ablative</small>
! <small>Ablative</small>
| imutū || imuteṣu || imutenī
| śivū || śiveṣu || śivenī
|-
|-
! <small>Locative</small>
! <small>Locative</small>
| imutā || rowspan=2 | imutehe || imutän
| śivā || rowspan=2 | śivehe || śivän
|-
|-
! <small>Essive</small>
! <small>Essive</small>
| rowspan=2 | imutī || imutoṭu
| rowspan=2 | śivī || śivoṭu
|-
|-
! <small>Instrumental</small>
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| imutāl || imutenīka
| śivāl || śivenīka
|-
|-
! <small>Bound form</small>
! <small>Bound form</small>
| imut || imutiv || imutī
| śiv || śiviv || śivī
|}
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-break}}
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: ''naviṣyayäh hiyome ga padacyūse'''bu'''.'' "This is my favourite book." (lit.: "among books, this is my favourite")
: ''naviṣyayäh hiyome ga padacyūse'''bu'''.'' "This is my favourite book." (lit.: "among books, this is my favourite")
An explicit possessor is marked used the bound form (typically together with third person clitics, but not exclusively):
An explicit possessor is marked used the bound form (typically together with third person clitics, but not exclusively):
: ''imut nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "the teacher's bike"
: ''līdad nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "the teacher's bike"
: ''buneyev pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "the two older sisters' jobs"
: ''buneyev pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "the two older sisters' jobs"
: ''dundulanyä ḫamfa'''fa''''' "the Dundulanyä language" (lit.: "the language of us, the Dundulanyä")
: ''dundulanyä ḫamfa'''fa''''' "the Dundulanyä language" (lit.: "the language of us, the Dundulanyä")
Bound forms can also be marked with possessive clitics on their own:
Bound forms can also be marked with possessive clitics on their own:
: ''imut'''rān''' nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "their teacher's bike"
: ''līdad'''rān''' nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "their teacher's bike"
: ''buneyev'''bu''' pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "my two older sisters' jobs"
: ''buneyev'''bu''' pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "my two older sisters' jobs"


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The cislocative prefix marks an action towards the deictic center (generally the speaker), marked as divergent from the default state which is action from the deictic center: see e.g. ''loni'' (lon-i) "you go (walk)" vs. cislocative ''saloni'' (sa-lon-i) "you come (on foot)" for an example without a positional prefix; however it can also be used together with such prefix as in e.g. ''gāloni'' (gā-lon-i) "you walk in" vs. ''gāsloni'' (gā-s(a)-lon-i) "you come in (on foot)".
The cislocative prefix marks an action towards the deictic center (generally the speaker), marked as divergent from the default state which is action from the deictic center: see e.g. ''loni'' (lon-i) "you go (walk)" vs. cislocative ''saloni'' (sa-lon-i) "you come (on foot)" for an example without a positional prefix; however it can also be used together with such prefix as in e.g. ''gāloni'' (gā-lon-i) "you walk in" vs. ''gāsloni'' (gā-s(a)-lon-i) "you come in (on foot)".


The ablative motion marker (which forces zero-grade ablaut on the present stem), on the other hand, inverts the direction marked by the positional/directional prefix, which is allative by default (i.e. ''to'' a place), making it ablative (i.e. ''from'' a place): ''gāmeśūh'' (gā-meś-ū-h) "I look inside" vs. ''gāmiśyūh'' (gā-miś-y-ū-h) "I look from the inside". The ablative marker is, due to how positional and motion verbs work in Dundulanyä, most commonly used and useful with transitive verbs, e.g. ''kuṇḍombhūsa'' (kuḍ-dombh-ū-sa) "you two bring outside" vs. ''kuṇḍumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring from outside".
The ablative motion marker (which forces zero-grade ablaut on the present stem), on the other hand, inverts the direction marked by the positional/directional prefix, which is allative by default (i.e. ''to'' a place), making it ablative (i.e. ''from'' a place): ''gāmeśūh'' (gā-meś-ū-h) "I look inside" vs. ''gāmiśyūh'' (gā-miś-y-ū-h) "I look from the inside". The ablative marker is, due to how positional and motion verbs work in Dundulanyä, most commonly used and useful with transitive verbs, e.g. ''kuḍḍombhūsa'' (kuḍ-dombh-ū-sa) "you two bring outside" vs. ''kuḍḍumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring from outside".


The cislocative and the ablative marker can, in fact, be used together, in forms such as ''kujadumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-sa-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring [us] from outside", ''gāslunyi'' "you come (on foot) from the inside". See also the following sentences, using the ablative motion marker, and the distinctions implied by the presence or absence of the cislocative prefix:
The cislocative and the ablative marker can, in fact, be used together, in forms such as ''kujadumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-sa-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring [us] from outside", ''gāslunyi'' "you come (on foot) from the inside". See also the following sentences, using the ablative motion marker, and the distinctions implied by the presence or absence of the cislocative prefix:
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: ''lalāruṇai fanēyai kuka '''ga''' irāḍai.'' "Lalāruṇai<ref>Giant domestic lizards endemic to central Lusaṃrīte: in Dundulanyä culture and history they have a role similar to horses.</ref> and capybaras are animals."
: ''lalāruṇai fanēyai kuka '''ga''' irāḍai.'' "Lalāruṇai<ref>Giant domestic lizards endemic to central Lusaṃrīte: in Dundulanyä culture and history they have a role similar to horses.</ref> and capybaras are animals."
In any role outside of the direct knowledge indicative present, the copula is replaced by the (regular) verb ''jall-'':
In any role outside of the direct knowledge indicative present, the copula is replaced by the (regular) verb ''jall-'':
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jallī'''.'' "Kālomīye was a dancer."
: ''kālomīye nindade '''jallī'''.'' "Kālomīye was a/the guide."
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jalliṣya'''.'' "Kālomīye will be a dancer."
: ''kālomīye nindade '''jalliṣya'''.'' "Kālomīye will be a/the guide."
However, whenever temporal adverbs that imply a non-present tense are found, '''ga''' is used instead:
However, whenever temporal adverbs that imply a non-present tense are found, '''ga''' is used instead:
: ''prānilau kālomīye '''ga''' dariśah.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will be a dancer."
: ''prānilau nindade '''ga''' dariśah.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will be a/the guide."
The same particle '''ga''' doubles as an adpositive particle, joining nouns together in noun phrases:
The same particle '''ga''' doubles as an adpositive particle, joining nouns together in noun phrases:
: ''līlasuṃghāṇa '''ga''' marta'' "city of Līlasuṃghāṇa"
: ''līlasuṃghāṇa '''ga''' marta'' "city of Līlasuṃghāṇa"
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: ''hine saṃhāram '''idu''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is not Ṣurlāke."
: ''hine saṃhāram '''idu''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is not Ṣurlāke."
: ''kālomīye '''idu''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is not my sister."
: ''kālomīye '''idu''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is not my sister."
: ''prānilau kālomīye '''idu''' dariśah.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will not be a dancer."
: ''prānilau kālomīye '''idu''' nindade.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will not be a/the guide."
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jalliṣiga va'''.'' "Kālomīye will not be a dancer."
: ''kālomīye nindade '''jalliṣiga va'''.'' "Kālomīye will not be a/the guide."


First- and second-person pronouns have synthetic (fused) copular forms:
First- and second-person pronouns have synthetic (fused) copular forms:
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: ''āna lila '''umūm'''.'' "That person is good."
: ''āna lila '''umūm'''.'' "That person is good."
: ''hiyome '''idu cami'''.'' "This is not important."
: ''hiyome '''idu cami'''.'' "This is not important."
The word ''didya'' "more" is either a copular adjective on its own, or part of a copular adjective phrase, therefore not considered a form of the copula:
: ''śārepai '''didya'''.'' "The dogs are more/in a greater number/There are more dogs."
: ''maihasin '''didya lalla'''.'' "Your daughter is taller."
: ''p̃aiṣubin '''idu didya lalla'''.'' "Our son is not taller."


===Numerals (''dhujāvāmi'')===
===Numerals (''dhujāvāmi'')===
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* ''rañj-'' (to name, identify, mark) → ''rañjiḫe'' (name; noun)
* ''rañj-'' (to name, identify, mark) → ''rañjiḫe'' (name; noun)
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫḫe'' (heart)
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫḫe'' (heart)
* ''bhel-'' (to eat) → ''bheliḫe'' (meal)
* ''yam-'' (to eat) → ''yamiḫe'' (meal)


'''-ta''' has a similar meaning (or unpredictablity) as ''-(i)ḫ-e'', but often implies a sense of collectiveness, or an abstract state. Used with the middle-grade (''būcūya'') root.
'''-ta''' has a similar meaning (or unpredictablity) as ''-(i)ḫ-e'', but often implies a sense of collectiveness, or an abstract state. Used with the middle-grade (''būcūya'') root.
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* ''brom-'' (to blow, wipe) → ''brūmam'' (wind; gale)
* ''brom-'' (to blow, wipe) → ''brūmam'' (wind; gale)


'''-ar''' (ṛ-stem non ablauting, with lemma form in '''-ah''') with middle grade ablaut and '''-i-''' infixed before the last consonant forms agent (often occupational) nouns:
'''-ar''' (ṛ-stem non ablauting, with lemma form in '''-ah''') with middle grade ablaut and '''-i-''' infixed before the last consonant forms agent (often occupational) nouns. While rarer, it can also be used with roots with a single consonant after the vowel (see fourth example).
* ''helk-'' (to dye) → ''helikah'' (dyer)
* ''helk-'' (to dye) → ''helikah'' (dyer)
* ''darś-'' (to dance) → ''dariśah'' (dancer)
* ''darś-'' (to dance) → ''dariśah'' (dancer)
* ''nart-'' (to dream) → ''naritah'' (dreamer)
* ''nart-'' (to dream) → ''naritah'' (dreamer)
* ''tad-yāḍh-'' (to judge) → ''tadyaiḍhah'' (judge)


'''-oba''' with zero grade ablaut and '''-nū-''' before the last consonant sequence of the root also forms agent nouns. It is never used with class I, VI, VII and VIII roots.
'''-oba''' with zero grade ablaut and '''-nū-''' before the last consonant sequence of the root also forms agent nouns. It is never used with class I, VI, VII and VIII roots.
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* ''Mūmäfumbe'' → ''mūmäfaumbulu''
* ''Mūmäfumbe'' → ''mūmäfaumbulu''
* ''Lāltaṣveya'' → ''lāltaṣvājñulu'' (with regular saṃdhi from the underlying form *lāltaṣvaiyulu)
* ''Lāltaṣveya'' → ''lāltaṣvājñulu'' (with regular saṃdhi from the underlying form *lāltaṣvaiyulu)
In older stages of the language, vṛddhi derivations were also formed with the suffix '''-a'''; this remains as a fossilized suffix in certain words, cf. given names in ''-faula'' from ''fulah'' "hearth", or the majority of the names of the months of the Dundulanyä calendar, vṛddhi derivations from constellation names (e.g. ''gurūṣikhe'' → ''gurūṣaikha''; ''m̃ālasiṣama'' → ''m̃ālasaiṣama'').
In older stages of the language, vṛddhi derivations were also formed with the suffix '''-a'''; this remains as a fossilized suffix in certain words, cf. given names in ''-faula'' from ''fulah'' "hearth", or the majority of the names of the months of the Dundulanyä calendar, vṛddhi derivations from constellation names (e.g. ''gurūṣikhe'' → ''gurūṣaikha''; ''m̃ālasiṣama'' → ''m̃ālasaiṣama''). This fossilized suffix is also very common in miscellaneous words denoting products:
* ''kindu'' (an oily palm fruit) → ''kaindva'' (oil)
* ''mūḍa'' (a yucca-like plant) → ''mauḍa'' (fruit of the ''mūḍa'' plant, similar to breadfruit)
* ''mäḍhe'' (rubber tree) → ''mēḍha'' (rubber, natural rubber)


'''-(y)ek-e''', fronting velars to palatals if possible, (or '''-ik-e''' after palatals themselves), '''-īcen-e''', also palatalizing velars, and '''-iccha''' are productive diminutive suffixes. Of the three, ''-īcen-e'' often implies endearment, coziness, especially when contrasted to the other two or explicitely used after the same noun modified with one of the other two suffixes.
'''-(y)ek-e''', fronting velars to palatals if possible, (or '''-ik-e''' after palatals themselves), '''-īcen-e''', also palatalizing velars, and '''-iccha''' are productive diminutive suffixes. Of the three, ''-īcen-e'' often implies endearment, coziness, especially when contrasted to the other two or explicitely used after the same noun modified with one of the other two suffixes.
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Note that temporal complements may, in certain circumstances, act as if they were explicit topics, but not marked with ''ba''. In that case, the structure followed is, in fact, the same as for sentences with explicit topics, i.e. with the direct argument immediately preceding the verb.
Note that temporal complements may, in certain circumstances, act as if they were explicit topics, but not marked with ''ba''. In that case, the structure followed is, in fact, the same as for sentences with explicit topics, i.e. with the direct argument immediately preceding the verb.
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhūv räl himai kurūṣarthak udhiśūsililūva nindade nadajäthāḍūva.
| phrase = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhūv räl himai kurūṣarthak udhiśūsililūva nindade nañjäthiṣyūva.
| morphemes = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhu-:v räl himai kurūṣartha-k udhiśūs<ı>lil-∅-ū-a nindad-e nad-a-jäth-āḍ-∅-ū-a
| morphemes = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhu-:v räl himai kurūṣartha-k udhiśūs<ı>lil-∅-ū-a nindad-e nad-jäth-iṣy-∅-ū-a
| gloss = female's_older_sister.<small>BOUND.SG</small>. together_with. <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. next. "week".<small>LOC.SG</small>. parents-<small>BOUND.DU</small>. <small>BENEF</small>. canoe.<small>INSTR.SG</small>. Kurūṣartha-<small>DAT</small>. experience.<small>PERF-EXP-AG-3.IND</small>. guide-<small>DIR.SG.</small>. lead-<small>PERF_STEM_MARKER</small>-float_on_water-<small>FUTINT-EXP-AG-3.IND</small>.
| gloss = female's_older_sister.<small>BOUND.SG</small>. together_with. <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. next. "week".<small>LOC.SG</small>. parents-<small>BOUND.DU</small>. <small>BENEF</small>. canoe.<small>INSTR.SG</small>. Kurūṣartha-<small>DAT</small>. experience.<small>PERF-EXP-AG-3.IND</small>. guide-<small>DIR.SG.</small>. lead-float_on_water-<small>FUT-EXP-AG-3.IND</small>.
| translation = My older sister and I, next week, as for our parents' will, will be escorted by an experienced guide on our canoe trip to Kurūṣartha.
| translation = My older sister and I, next week, as for our parents' will, will be escorted by an experienced guide on our canoe trip to Kurūṣartha.
}}
}}
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|-
|-
! Contained liquids
! Contained liquids
| (uśuma) || ''√śom-'' <small>(III)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√pse-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√lon-'' <small>(III)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√so-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√klem-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | -
| (uśuma) || ''√śom-'' <small>(III)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√pse-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√lon-'' <small>(III)</small> || rowspan=4 | ''√so-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√klem-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | -
|-
|-
! Contained masses of homogeneous solids
! Contained masses of homogeneous solids
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|-
|-
! Contained masses of heterogeneous solids<br/>Mixed bundles
! Contained masses of heterogeneous solids<br/>Mixed bundles
| (utyuva) || ''√tyu-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√yup-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√ilm-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√so-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√klem-'' <small>(II)</small> || ''√śro-'' <small>(III)</small>
| (utyuva) || ''√tyu-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√yup-'' <small>(0)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√ilm-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√klem-'' <small>(II)</small> || ''√śro-'' <small>(III)</small>
|-
|-
! Sheets, paper sheets<br/>Slabs, rocks
! Sheets, paper sheets<br/>Slabs, rocks
| (ahāsa) || ''√hās-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''ta-√hās-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√ilm-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√so-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√yug-'' <small>(0)</small>
| (ahāsa) || ''√hās-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''ta-√hās-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√yug-'' <small>(0)</small>
|-
|-
! Large objects that cannot be carried<br/>Wild animals
! Large objects that cannot be carried<br/>Wild animals
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# '''okṣṇi lalēni''' or '''okṣṇīrä''' ('''k''') "growing night"; the sixth hour (6k.0.00) is ''tiḫa'' "midnight";
# '''okṣṇi lalēni''' or '''okṣṇīrä''' ('''k''') "growing night"; the sixth hour (6k.0.00) is ''tiḫa'' "midnight";
# '''lalēni''' ('''l''') "night"; the twelfth hour (10l.0.00) is ''hāreṇe'' (e-stem) "dawn".
# '''lalēni''' ('''l''') "night"; the twelfth hour (10l.0.00) is ''hāreṇe'' (e-stem) "dawn".
Other hours are simply named using ordinal numbers and the locative of the ''gūsa'', e.g. ''raṇibbā lumpyä'' "first in the morning", ''mīmṛdaunā hälinaika'' "second in the midday'', ''anuśamvīrän śulkesi'' "fifth in the late afternoon".
Other hours are simply named using ordinal numbers and the locative of the ''gūsa'', e.g. ''raṇibbā lumpyä'' "first in the morning", ''mīmṛdaunā hälinaika'' "second in the midday", ''anuśamvīrän śulkesi'' "fifth in the late afternoon".


Each ''garaṇa'' is divided into four timeframes called ''railai'' (singular ''raila'') - about 10.8 Earth minutes - further divided into 30 (26<sub>12</sub>) units known as ''nartī'' (singular ''narti'') - a little less than 22 Earth seconds each.<br/>
Each ''garaṇa'' is divided into four timeframes called ''railai'' (singular ''raila'') - about 10.8 Earth minutes - further divided into 30 (26<sub>12</sub>) units known as ''nartī'' (singular ''narti'') - a little less than 22 Earth seconds each.<br/>
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| phrase = didya kamīne – yaivū uśudam tati naigū va tati idatvaḫa geṇṭha hulinē niqirblī.
| phrase = didya kamīne – yaivū uśudam tati naigū va tati idatvaḫa geṇṭha hulinē niqirblī.
| morphemes = didya kamīne – yaiv-ū uśud-∅-∅-m tati nai-g-ū-∅ va tati id<a>tvaḫ-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a hulin-ē niqirbl-∅-∅-ī
| morphemes = didya kamīne – yaiv-ū uśud-∅-∅-m tati nai-g-ū-∅ va tati id<a>tvaḫ-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a hulin-ē niqirbl-∅-∅-ī
| gloss = all-<small>ABL</small>. understand.<small>PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND</small>. <small>QUOT</small>. say.<small>IMP-IRR-AG-3</small>. <small>NEG</small>. <small>QUOT</small>. offend.<small>PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND</small>. old-<small>EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND</small>. woman-<small>ERG.SG</small>. exclaim-<small>EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND</small>.
| gloss = more. now. all-<small>ABL</small>. understand.<small>PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND</small>. <small>QUOT</small>. say.<small>IMP-IRR-AG-3</small>. <small>NEG</small>. <small>QUOT</small>. offend.<small>PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND</small>. old-<small>EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND</small>. woman-<small>ERG.SG</small>. exclaim-<small>EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND</small>.
| translation = “Don’t tell me that you understood them this time,” exclaimed the woman crossly.
| translation = “Don’t tell me that you understood them this time,” exclaimed the woman crossly.
}}
}}
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