Aryan: Difference between revisions
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:{| | :{| | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="5" | <span style="color:blue">* | | colspan="5" | <span style="color:blue">*aestad</span> dʰgʰā́m | ||
|- | |- | ||
| *tad || *dʰgʰā́m | | *aes-tad || *dʰgʰā́m | ||
|- | |- | ||
| <small>DEITIC</small>.<small>3PERSON</small>.<small>SINGULAR</small>.<small>NOMINATIVE</small> || soil(adjective).<small>SINGULAR</small>.<small>NOMINATIVE</small> | | <small>MASCULINE</small>.<small>3PERSON</small>-<small>DEITIC</small>.<small>3PERSON</small>.<small>SINGULAR</small>.<small>NOMINATIVE</small> || soil(adjective).<small>SINGULAR</small>.<small>NOMINATIVE</small> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| " | | "this" || "person" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" | ''<span style="color:blue"> | | colspan="4" | ''<span style="color:blue">this</span> person'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
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**pʰirás > pʰā́r = *dʰgʰūmás > *gʰā́mar, *gʰā́man | **pʰirás > pʰā́r = *dʰgʰūmás > *gʰā́mar, *gʰā́man | ||
**pʰerós > *phṓr dʰ | **pʰerós > *phṓr dʰ | ||
aes, eah<sub>0</sub>, ad, sa [animated distal], tad [inanimated distal], aestad, eātad, atad | |||
===Lesson 2=== | ===Lesson 2=== | ||
German<br> | German:<br> | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter !! Plural | ! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter !! Plural | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Nominative || -er{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}} -∅{{ref|3|3}},-e{{ref|4|4}} || -e{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|4|4}}, -ie{{ref|2|2}}, -∅{{ref|3|3}} || -es{{ref|1|1}}, -as{{ref|2|2}}, -∅{{ref|3|3}}, -e{{ref|4|4}} || -e{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|3|3}}, -ie{{ref|2|2}}, -en{{ref|4|4}} | | Nominative || -er{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}} -∅{{ref|3|3}},-e{{ref|4|4}} || -e{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|4|4}}{{ref|5|5}}, -ie{{ref|2|2}}, -∅{{ref|3|3}} || -es{{ref|1|1}}, -as{{ref|2|2}}, -∅{{ref|3|3}}, -e{{ref|4|4}} || -e{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|3|3}}{{ref|6|6}}, -ie{{ref|2|2}}, -en{{ref|4|4}}{{ref|5|5}}, -er{{ref|7|7}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | Genitive || -es{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}{{ref|6|6}}{{ref|7|7}}, -en{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|4|4}} || -er{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}, -en{{ref|4|4}} || -es{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}, -en{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|4|4}} || -er{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}, -en{{ref|4|4}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Dative || -em{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}, -en{{ref|4|4}} || -er{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}, -en{{ref|4|4}} || -em{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}, -en | | Dative || -em{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}, -en{{ref|4|4}}, -e{{ref|6|6}}{{ref|7|7}} || -er{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}, -en{{ref|4|4}} || -em{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}, -en{{ref|4|4}} || -en{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}{{ref|4|4}}{{ref|6|6}}{{ref|7|7}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | Accusative || -en{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}{{ref|4|4}} || -e{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|3|3}}{{ref|4|4}}, -ie{{ref|2|2}} || -es{{ref|1|1}}<ref>3</ref>, -as{{ref|2|2}}, -e{{ref|4|4}} || -e{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|3|3}}, -ie{{ref|2|2}}, -en{{ref|4|4}} | ||
|} | |} | ||
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{{note|2|2}} Declension of definite articles; | {{note|2|2}} Declension of definite articles; | ||
{{note|3|3}} Declension of indefinite articles; | {{note|3|3}} Declension of indefinite articles; | ||
{{note|4|4}} Declension of adjectives with articles. | {{note|4|4}} Declension of adjectives with articles; | ||
{{note|5|5}} Declension of regular feminine nouns; | |||
{{note|6|6}} Declension of regular masculine nouns; | |||
{{note|7|7}} Declension of regular neuter nouns. | |||
Russian:<br> | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter !! Plural | |||
|- | |||
| Nominative || -от{{ref|1|1}}, -ый{{ref|2|2}}, -ин{{ref|3|3}}, -∅/-ь{{ref|7|7}} || -а/-я{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|4|4}}{{ref|5|5}}, -ая{{ref|2|2}}, -ина{{ref|3|3}} || -о{{ref|1|1}}, -ое{{ref|2|2}}, -ино{{ref|3|3}} || -и/ы{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|4|4}}{{ref|5|5}}{{ref|7|7}}, -ые{{ref|2|2}}, -ины{{ref|3|3}} | |||
|- | |||
| Genitive || -ого{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}, -иного{{ref|3|3}}, -а/-я{{ref|7|7}} || -ой{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}, -иной{{ref|3|3}}, -и/ы{{ref|4|4}}{{ref|5|5}}{{ref|6|6}} || -ого{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}, -иного{{ref|3|3}} || -их{{ref|1|1}}, -ых{{ref|2|2}}, -иных{{ref|3|3}}, -∅/-ь{{ref|4|4}}{{ref|5|5}}, -ов/-ей{{ref|6|6}}{{ref|7|7}} | |||
|- | |||
| Dative || -ому{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}, -иному{{ref|3|3}}, -у/-ю{{ref|7|7}} || -ой{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}, -иной{{ref|3|3}}, -е{{ref|4|4}}{{ref|5|5}} || -ому{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}, -иному{{ref|3|3}} || -им{{ref|1|1}}, -ым{{ref|2|2}}, -иным{{ref|3|3}}, -ам/-ям{{ref|4|4}}{{ref|5|5}}{{ref|6|6}}{{ref|7|7}} | |||
|- | |||
| Accusative.A || -ого{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}, -иного{{ref|3|3}}, -а/-я{{ref|7|7}} || -ту{{ref|1|1}}, -ую{{ref|2|2}}, -ину{{ref|3|3}}, -у{{ref|4|4}}{{ref|5|5}}{{ref|6|6}} || -о{{ref|1|1}}, -ое{{ref|2|2}}, -ино{{ref|3|3}} || -их{{ref|1|1}}, -ых{{ref|2|2}}, -иных{{ref|3|3}}, -∅/ь{{ref|4|4}}{{ref|5|5}}{{ref|6|6}}, -ов/-ей{{ref|7|7}} | |||
|- | |||
| Accusative.I || -от{{ref|1|1}}, -ый{{ref|2|2}}, -ин{{ref|3|3}}, -∅/-ь{{ref|7|7}} || -ту{{ref|1|1}}, -ую{{ref|2|2}}, -ину{{ref|3|3}}, -у{{ref|4|4}}{{ref|5|5}}{{ref|6|6}} || -о{{ref|1|1}}, -ое{{ref|2|2}}, -ино{{ref|3|3}} || -и/-ы{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|7|7}}, -ые{{ref|2|2}}, -ины{{ref|3|3}}, -∅/-ь{{ref|4|4}}{{ref|5|5}}{{ref|6|6}} | |||
|- | |||
| Instrumental || -им{{ref|1|1}}, -ым{{ref|2|2}}, -иным{{ref|3|3}}, -ом/-ем{{ref|7|7}} || -ой/-ою//-ей{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|4|4}}{{ref|5|5}}{{ref|6|6}}, -иной/-иною{{ref|3|3}}, -ю{{ref|6|6}} || -им{{ref|1|1}}, -ым{{ref|2|2}}, -иным{{ref|3|3}} || -ими{{ref|1|1}}, -ыми{{ref|2|2}}, -иными{{ref|3|3}}, -ами/-ями{{ref|4|4}}{{ref|5|5}}{{ref|6|6}}{{ref|7|7}} | |||
|- | |||
| Prepositional || -ом{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}, -ином{{ref|3|3}}, -е{{ref|7|7}} || -ой{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}, -иной{{ref|3|3}}, -е{{ref|4|4}}{{ref|5|5}}{{ref|6|6}} || -ом{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}, -ином{{ref|3|3}} || -их{{ref|1|1}}, -ых{{ref|2|2}}, -иных{{ref|3|3}}, -ах/-ях{{ref|4|4}}{{ref|5|5}}{{ref|6|6}}{{ref|7|7}} | |||
|} | |||
{{note|1|1}} Declension of correlatives; | |||
{{note|2|2}} Declension of non-possessive adjectives; | |||
{{note|3|3}} Declension of possessive adjectives; | |||
{{note|4|4}} Declension of animated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and vowel; | |||
{{note|5|5}} Declension of animated feminine nouns ending in a hard consonant and vowel or inanimated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and vowel; | |||
{{note|6|6}} Declension of inanimated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and no vowel; | |||
{{note|7|7}} Declension of animated masculine nouns ending in no vowel; | |||
{{note|8|8}} ... | |||
diese schöne Kone | |||
эта красивая жена | |||
ista pulchra uxor | |||
*eātad kaláh0 gʷaînah0 | |||
==Syntax== | ==Syntax== |
Latest revision as of 17:51, 30 October 2024
This article is a construction site. This project is currently undergoing significant construction and/or revamp. By all means, take a look around, thank you. |
Aryan (Pre-Expansion: *Airáh0, pronounced /ai̯ˈrəʔ/; Post-Expansion: *Āryā́, pronounced /aːˈri̯aː/) is an ab interiori language of Proto-Indo-Anatolian.
Aryan | |
---|---|
*airáh0 | |
Pronunciation | [ai̯ˈrəʔ] |
Created by | Veno |
Date | 8000-6000 BP |
Setting | Caucasus Mountains |
Native speakers | - (2024) |
Pangaean Code
| |
Early form | Transitional Dialect
|
Introduction
[...]
The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek).
Transitional Tables
From the Codes to Aryan
Aryan | |
---|---|
p | *phth / *ph / *phkh; *phkʷh |
t | *thkh; *thkʷh / *th / *thph |
k | *khph / *kh; *kʷ / *khth |
b | *bd / *b / *bg; *bgʷ |
d | *dg; *dgʷ / *d / *db |
g | *gb / *g, *gʷ / gd |
pʼ | *pʼtʼ / *pʼ; *p / *pʼkʼ; *pʼkʷʼ |
tʼ | *tʼkʷʼ / *tʼ, t / *tʼpʼ |
kʼ | kʼpʼ / *kʼ; *k; *kʷʼ / kʼtʼ |
ɓ | *bhdh / *bh / *bhgh; *bhgʷh |
ɗ | *dhgh; *dhgʷh / *dh / *dhbh |
ɠ | *ghbh / *gh; *gʷh / *ghdh |
From Aryan to Indo-Anatolian Languages
Sanskrit | Avestan | O.C.S. | Lithuanian | Albanian | Armenian | Hittite | Tocharian | Greek | Latin | Goidelic | Gothic | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
>*p | p; pʰ | p; f | p | p | p | h; w | p; pp | p | p / pt | p | ∅ | f; β |
>*t | x x | |||||||||||
>*k | x x | |||||||||||
>*ḱ | x x |
p pt p ∅ f; b [β] [C 6] f; v, f[C 2]
thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...
PIE | Indo-Iranian | Balto-Slavic | Alb. | Arm. | Anatol. | Toch. | Greek | Italic | Celtic | Germanic | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sanskrit | Avestan | O.C.S. | Lith. | Hitt. | Latin | Old Irish | Gothic | English | |||||||
normal | C+[j] [C 1] | normal | -C- [C 2] [C 1] | ||||||||||||
*p | p; ph [pʰ] [C 3] | p; f [C 4] | p | h; w [C 5] |
p, pp | p | pt | p | ∅ | f; b [β] [C 6] |
f; v, f[C 2] | ||||
*t | t; th [t̪ʰ] [C 3] | t; θ[C 4] | t | tʿ [tʰ] | t, tt; z [ts] [C 7] |
t; c [c] [C 7] |
t | s; tt/ss[C 5] | t | t | th [θ] | þ [θ]; d [ð]; [C 6] |
th; d; [C 6] | ||
*ḱ | ś [ɕ] | s | š [ʃ] | th [θ]; k[C 8] |
s | k, kk | k; ś [ɕ][C 8] |
k | c [k] | c [k] | ch [x] | h; g [ɣ] [C 6] |
h; ∅;[C 2] y [C 6] | ||
*k | k; c [t͡ɕ]; [C 7] kh [kʰ] [C 3] |
k; c [tʃ]; [C 7] x[C 4] |
k; č [tʃ]; [C 7] c [ts][C 9] |
k | k; q [c][C 9] |
kʿ [kʰ] | |||||||||
*kʷ | k; s; [C 7] q [c][C 9] |
ku, kku | p; t; [C 7] k[C 10] |
qu [kʷ]; c [k] [C 11] |
ƕ [ʍ]; gw, w [C 6] |
wh; w [C 6] | |||||||||
*b | b; bh [C 3] | b; β [C 12] | b | p | b | pt | b | b [b] | -[β]- | p | |||||
*d | d; dh [C 3] | d; δ [C 12] | d | d; dh [ð][C 2] |
t | ts; ś [ɕ] [C 7] |
d | z [zd] > [z] | d | d [d] | -[ð]- | t | |||
*ǵ | j [d͡ʑ]; h [ɦ] [C 3] |
z | ž [ʒ] | dh [ð]; g[C 8] |
c [ts] | k | k; ś [ɕ][C 8] |
g | g | g [ɡ] | -[ɣ]- | k | c / k; ch[C 9] | ||
*g | g; j [d͡ʑ]; [C 7] gh; [C 3] h [ɦ] [C 3] |
g; j [dʒ]; [C 7] γ [C 12] |
g; ž [ʒ]; [C 7] dz[C 9] |
g | g | k | |||||||||
*gʷ | g; z; [C 7] gj [ɟ][C 9] |
ku | b; d; [C 7] g[C 10] |
u [w > v]; gu [ɡʷ] [C 13] |
b [b] | -[β]- | q [kʷ] | qu | |||||||
*pʰ | bh [bʱ] | b; β [C 12] | b | b; w[C 2] |
p | ph [pʰ] | pt | f;[C 14] b |
b [b]; b [β];[C 2] f [C 15] |
b; v / f[C 16] | |||||
*tʰ | dh [dʱ] | d; δ [C 12] | d | t | t; c [c] [C 7] |
th [tʰ] | tt/ss | f;[C 14] d; b [C 17] |
d [d] | -[ð]- | d; d [ð];[C 2] þ [C 15] |
d | |||
*ǵʰ | h [ɦ] | z | ž [ʒ] | dh [ð]; d[C 8] |
j [dz]; z[C 2] |
k | k; ś [ɕ] [C 7] |
kh [kʰ] | h; h / g[C 8] |
g [ɡ] | -[ɣ]- | g; g [ɣ];[C 2] g [x] [C 15] |
g; y / w[C 16] | ||
*gʰ | gh [ɡʱ]; h [ɦ] [C 7] |
g; j [dʒ]; [C 7] γ [C 12] |
g; ž [ʒ]; [C 7] dz[C 9] |
g | g | g; ǰ [dʒ] [C 7] | |||||||||
*gʷʰ | g; z; [C 7] gj [ɟ][C 9] |
ku | ph [pʰ]; th [tʰ]; [C 7] kh [kʰ][C 10] |
f;[C 14] g / u [w];[C 2] gu [ɡʷ] [C 13] |
g; b;[C 14] w;[C 2] gw [C 13] |
g; b;[C 14] w[C 2] | |||||||||
*s | s | h [h, x] | s | sh [ʃ]; gj [ɟ];[C 18] h[C 2] |
h; ∅[C 2] |
š [s] | s; ṣ [ʂ] |
h;[C 14] s;[C 19][C 15]/ ∅;[C 2] [¯] [C 20] |
i | s; r[C 2] |
s ʃ | -[h]- | s; z [C 6] |
s; r [C 6] | |
ṣ [ʂ][C 21] | š [ʃ][C 21] | x [x][C 21] | š [ʃ][C 21] | ||||||||||||
*m | m | in | m | m [m] | -[w̃]- | m | |||||||||
*-m [C 15] | m | ˛ [˜] | n | ∅ | n | n | -- | m [˜] | n | ∅ | |||||
*n | n | n; ˛ [˜] [C 15] |
n | n; ñ [ɲ] |
n | in | n | ||||||||
*l | r (dial. l) | r | l | l; ll [ɫ][C 2] |
l / ɫ [ɫ > ɣ] |
l | il | l | |||||||
*r | r/l[C 22] | r | r [ɾ]; rr [r][C 2] |
r | ir | r | |||||||||
*y | y [j] | j [j] | gj [ɟ]; ∅ |
∅ | y [j] | z [zd] > [z] / h; ∅ [C 2] |
?i | i [j]; ∅ [C 2] |
∅ | j | y | ||||
*w | v [ʋ] | v [w] | v | v [ʋ] | v | g / w | w | w > h / ∅ | i | u [w > v] | f | -∅- | w | ||
PIE | Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Alb. | Arm. | Hitt. | Toch. | Greek | Greek+/j/ | Latin | Old Irish | Gothic | English |
Notes for table 1:
- ^ a b A capital C stands for consonant in this table
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Between vowels
- ^ a b c d e f g h Before an original h₂.
- ^ a b c Before a consonant or original laryngeal.
- ^ a b After a vowel.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Following an unstressed vowel (Verner's law).
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Before a (PIE) front vowel (*i, *e).
- ^ a b c d e f Before a sonorant.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.
- ^ a b c Before or after a (PIE) u
- ^ Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel (*u, *o).
- ^ a b c d e f In Younger Avestan, after a vowel.
- ^ a b c After n.
- ^ a b c d e f At the beginning of a word
- ^ a b c d e f At the end of a word.
- ^ a b Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)
- ^ After u, r or before r, l.
- ^ Before a stressed vowel
- ^ Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)
- ^ Before or after a resonant (r, l, m, n).
- ^ a b c d After r, u, k, i (Ruki sound law).
- ^ rare
Consonant clusters
Proto-Indo-European also had numerous consonant clusters, such as *st, *ḱs. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):
PIE | Indo-Iranian | Balto-Slavic | Alb. | Arm. | Anatol. | Toch. | Greek | Italic | Celtic | Germanic | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Hitt. | Latin | Old Irish | Gothic | English | ||||||
normal | C+[j] | |||||||||||||
*sr | sr | r | str | sr | rr [r] | (a)r | š(ša)r ʃʃr | rh | n/a | fr-, -br- | sr | str | str | |
*tw | tv | θβ | tv | tv | t | kʿ [kʰ] | ttu, ddu | s-, -ss- | n/a | p? | t | þw | thw | |
*dʰw | dhv | ðβ | dv | dv | d | ? | tu, du | f | d | dw | dw | |||
*dw | dv | (e)rk | tu, du | b | tw | tw | ||||||||
*tl | sl | kl, sl | tl | kl | tl | |||||||||
*dl | ll | |||||||||||||
*dn | nn, ṇṇ | |||||||||||||
*ḱw | śv | sp | sv | šv | s | sk, š | n/a | qu [kʷ] | cu [kʷ] | Template:Transl [xʷ] | wh | |||
*ǵʰw | hv | zv | žv | z | ||||||||||
*ǵw | jv | q [kʷ] | qu [kw] | |||||||||||
*sw | sv | xuu [xʷ] | sv | sv | v, d[CC 1] | kʿ [kʰ] | normal dev. | h | n/a | su [sw] | s | sw | sw | |
*sp | sp | sp [CC 2] | sp | f | sp [CC 2] / pʿ [pʰ] |
normal dev. | sp [CC 2] | ? | sp | f | sp [CC 3] | |||
*sbʰ | spʰ | |||||||||||||
*sd | d; ḷ[CC 4] > ḍ, ḍḍ | zd | zd | zd | st | d | -t- [d] | st | st | |||||
*sdʰ | dh; ḷh[CC 4] > ḍh, ḍḍh | zd | zd | zd | sth | -t- [d] | zd | d | ||||||
*st | st; ṣṭ[CC 4] | st [CC 2] | st | sht [ʃt] | st [CC 2] | normal dev. | st [CC 2] | s; tt/ss[CC 5] | st | st [CC 3] | ||||
*sḱ | ch [t͡ɕʰ]; cch[CC 5] | s? | sk | š? | h | ?? č`; c`[CC 5] | normal dev. | sk; [CC 2] kh [kʰ];[CC 6] skh [skʰ] [CC 7] |
sc [sk] | sc [sk] | sk [CC 3] | sh [ʃ] | ||
*sk | sk, {śc, ch}[CC 8] | sk, sč [CC 2] | normal dev. | ? | sk [CC 2] | normal dev. | ||||||||
*skʷ | norm. | squ [skʷ] | sq [CC 3] | |||||||||||
*t+t [tst] | tt; tth [CC 9] | st; sθ?[CC 10] | st | s | s? | zt, zzašt, zzazz [tst] | ss? | st | ss | ss / st | ||||
*sǵ | jj | |||||||||||||
*sgʰ | jj[CC 8] | |||||||||||||
*dt | tt | st | st | st | s | ss | ss [s] | |||||||
*ddʰ | ddʰ | zd | d | t | ||||||||||
*dʰt | ddʰ | zd, st | st | st | ||||||||||
*pt | pt | ft | t? | pt | t | pt | pt | cht [xt] | ft [CC 3] | |||||
*ḱt | ṣṭ [ʂʈ] | št [ʃt] | st | št [ʃt] | kt | ct [kt] | ht [CC 3] | ght [t] [CC 3] | ||||||
*kt | kt | xt | t? | kt | ||||||||||
*kʷt | pt | ct [kt] | ||||||||||||
*ps | ps | ps | ps | s, ss | fs | ps | ||||||||
*ts | ts | |||||||||||||
*ḱs | kṣ | š | sh [ʃ] | ks | x [ks] | hs | x [ks] | |||||||
*ks | kṣ[CC 4] | xš[CC 4] | (ks) | |||||||||||
*kʷs | kʷs | ps | x [ks] | |||||||||||
*gs | kṣ | |||||||||||||
*gʷs | kṣ | |||||||||||||
*ǵʰs | kṣ | ž | ks | |||||||||||
*gʰs | kṣ | |||||||||||||
*gʷʰs | kṣ | ps | ||||||||||||
*tḱ | kṣ | š | k | kt | s | |||||||||
*tk | kṣ | xš | kt | |||||||||||
*dʰǵʰ | kṣ | z | ž | tk | tk/k | khth | ||||||||
*dʰgʰ | kṣ | tk | ||||||||||||
*dʰgʷʰ | kṣ | γž | kts | phth | s | |||||||||
PIE | Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Alb. | Arm. | Hitt. | Toch. | Greek | Greek+/j/ | Latin | Old Irish | Gothic | English |
-->
Orthography
Trad. PIE | Laryng. PIE | Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Arm. | Alb. | Toch. | Hitt. | Greek | Latin[V 1] | Proto-Celtic | Gothic[V 2] | Old English[V 1] | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
normal | umlauted[V 3] | ||||||||||||||
*e | *e, *h₁e | a | e | je, ie, e, i; ja[V 4] | ä | e, ʔe, i | e | i; aí [ɛ][V 5] | e; eo[V 6] | i; ie[V 6] | |||||
*a | (*a[V 7]), *h₂e | o | a | a | ha, a | ā | ha, a | a | a | æ; a;[V 8] ea[V 6] | e; ie[V 6] | ||||
*o | *h₃e | o, a | a | a, e | a | o | |||||||||
*o | a; ā[V 9] | ||||||||||||||
*ə[V 10] | *h₁[V 10] | i | i, ∅ | ∅ | a, ∅ | ā | ∅ | e | a | a, ∅ | |||||
*h₂[V 10] | ḫ | a | |||||||||||||
*h₃[V 10] | ∅ | o | |||||||||||||
*- | *h₁-[V 11] | ∅ | e (a?) | ∅ | a, ∅ | e (o) | ∅ | ||||||||
*h₂-[V 11] | a | ḫa | a | ||||||||||||
*h₃-[V 11] | a, ha | o | |||||||||||||
*ē | *ē, *eh₁ | ā | ě | ė | i | o, ua | a/e?; ā?[V 12] | ē, e, i | ē | ī | ē | ǣ | |||
*ā | (*ā[V 7]), *eh₂ | a | o [oː] | a | a/o? | a, ah | ā > ē[V 13] | ā | ā | ō | ē | ||||
*ō | *ō, *eh₃ | uo | u | e | a/ā?; ū?[V 12] | a, ā | ō | ā; ū[V 12] | |||||||
*i | *i | i | ь | i | i | i; e[V 14] | ä | i, ī | i | i; aí [ɛ][V 5] | i | ||||
*ī | *ih₁ | ī | i | y [iː] | i | i | ī | ī | ei [iː] | ī | |||||
*ih₂ | i or (j)a?[V 15] |
yā | ī or (j)ā?[V 15] | ||||||||||||
*ih₃ | ī or (j)ō?[V 15] | ||||||||||||||
*ei | *ei, *h₁ei | ai > ē | ai > ōi, āi > aē[V 9] |
ei; ie[V 16] | i | e | ē | ei | ī | ē | |||||
*oi | *oi, *h₃ei | ě | ai; ie[V 16] | e | e, ai | ē, ai | oi | ū | oi | ái | ā | ǣ | |||
*ai | (*ai[V 7]), *h₂ei | ai | ae | ai | |||||||||||
*ēi | *ēi | āi > ai; ā[V 12] | āi; ā(i)[V 12] | i | i | ē | ēi | ī? | ei [iː] | ī | |||||
*ōi | *ōi (*oei) | y; u[V 12] | ai; ui[V 12] | e, ai | ai | ōi | ō | u[V 12] | ái | ā | ǣ | ||||
*āi | *eh₂ei | ě | ai | āi > ēi[V 13] | ae | ||||||||||
*u | *u | u | ъ | u | u | u; y[V 17] | ä | u | u | u | u; o[V 18] | u; aú [ɔ][V 5] | u; o[V 19] | y | |
*ū | *uh₁ | ū | y | ū | y; i[V 12] | u | ū | ū | ȳ | ||||||
*uh₂ | u or (w)a?[V 15] |
wā | ū or (w)ā?[V 15] | ||||||||||||
*uh₃ | ū or (w)ō?[V 15] | ||||||||||||||
*eu | *eu, *h₁eu | au > ō | ə̄u; ao[V 9] | ju | iau | oy | e | u | eu | ū | ou | iu | ēo | īe | |
*ou | *ou,*h₃eu | u | au | a | o, au | ou | áu | ēa | |||||||
*au | (*au[V 7]), *h₂eu | aw | au | au | |||||||||||
*ēu | *ēu | āu > au | āu | u | iau | e | ū? | iu | ēo | ||||||
*ōu | *ōu | a | au | ō | áu | ēa | |||||||||
*m̥ | *m̥ | a | ę | im̃; um̃[V 20] | am | a | äm | a, un | a | em | em, am | um | um | ym | |
*m̥̅ | *mh₁ | ā | ìm; ùm[V 20] | ama | mā | mē | mā | ||||||||
*mh₂ | mā > mē[V 13] | ||||||||||||||
*mh₃ | mō | ||||||||||||||
*m̥m | *m̥m | am | ьm/ъm | im; um[V 20] | am | am | em | am | |||||||
*n̥ | *n̥ | a | ę | iñ; uñ[V 20] | an | än | an | a | en | en, an | un | un | yn | ||
*n̥̄ | *nh₁ | ā | ìn; ùn[V 20] | ana | nā | nē | nā | ||||||||
*nh₂ | nā > nē [V 13] | ||||||||||||||
*nh₃ | nō | ||||||||||||||
*n̥n | *n̥n | an | ьn/ъn | iñ; uñ[V 20] | an | an | en | an | |||||||
*l̥ | *l̥ | r̥ | ərə | lь/lъ | il̃; ul̃[V 20] | al | il, li; ul, lu | äl | al | la | ol | li;[V 21] al | ul | ul; ol[V 19] | yl |
*l̥̄ | *lh₁ | īr; ūr[V 22] | arə | ìl; ùl[V 20] | ala | al | lā | lē | lā | ||||||
*lh₂ | lā > lē[V 13] | ||||||||||||||
*lh₃ | lō | ||||||||||||||
*l̥l | *l̥l | ir; ur[V 22] | ar | ьl/ъl | il; ul[V 20] | al, la | al | el | al | ||||||
*r̥ | *r̥ | r̥ | ərə | rь/rъ | ir̃; ur̃[V 20] | ar | ir, ri; ur, ru | är | ar, ur | ra | or | ri;[V 21] ar | aúr [ɔr] | ur; or[V 19] | yr |
*r̥̄ | *rh₁ | īr; ūr[V 22] | arə | ìr; ùr[V 20] | ara | ra | rā | rē | rā | ||||||
*rh₂ | rā > rē[V 13] | ||||||||||||||
*rh₃ | rō | ||||||||||||||
*r̥r | *r̥r | ir; ur[V 22] | ar | ьr/ъr | ir; ur[V 20] | ar | ar | ar | ar | ||||||
Trad. PIE | Laryng. PIE | Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Arm. | Alb. | Toch. | Hitt. | Greek | Latin[V 1] | Proto-Celtic | Gothic[V 2] | normal | umlauted[V 3] |
Old English[V 1] |
Phonology
Sounds
Consonants
Aryan is reconstructed as having 41 consonants, with an assumption made that it would have maintained the 36 main consonants of the Pangaean Code in some form while adding a labialized series of velars. Later, sounds would be lost in Proto-Indo-European, et cetera.
Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Pharyngeal | Glottal | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | Voiceless | *m̥ | *n̥ | |||||
Voiced | *m | *n | ||||||
Plosive | Voiceless | *p | *t | *k | *kʷ | *ʔ | ||
Voiced | *b | *d | *g | *gʷ | ||||
Aspirated- | *ph | *th | *kh | *kʷh | ||||
Aspirated+ | *bh | *dh | *gh | *gʷh | ||||
Ejective | *p’ | *t’ | *k’ | *kʷ’ | ||||
Fricative | Voiceless | *s | *x | (*xʷ) | *ħ | *h | ||
Voiced | *z | *ɣ | (*ɣʷ) | *ʕ | *ɦ | |||
Vibrant | Voiceless | *r̥ | ||||||
Voiced | *r | |||||||
Lateral | Voiceless | *l̥ | ||||||
Voiced | *l | |||||||
Approximant | Voiceless | *j̊ | *ẘ | |||||
Voiced | *j | *w |
Vowels
Pitch Accent
Meta-Segmentals
X
X
X
Supra-Segmentals
X
X
X
Taxology
Desinencies
Affixes
Roots
Clitics
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Semantics
Phememes
Phones
Morphemes
Phonemes
Tagmemes
Semes
Taxemes
Sememes
Prosodemes
Glossemes
Noemes
Oidemes
Morphology
Lesson 1
German:
dieser Mensch dies-er Mensch DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person "this" "person" this person
Russian:
этот человек эт-от человек DEITIC-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person.NOMINATIVE "this" "person" this person
Latin:
iste homo iste homo DEITIC.PROXIMAL .NOMINATIVE person.NOMINATIVE "that" "person" that person
Greek:
οὗτος ἄνθρωπος οὗτ-ος ἄνθρωπ-ος DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE "this" "person" this person
Aryan:
*aestad dʰgʰā́m *aes-tad *dʰgʰā́m MASCULINE.3PERSON-DEITIC.3PERSON.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE soil(adjective).SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE "this" "person" this person
The above samples follow the term *tad instead of *sa, as the former is used to refer to third person in general. *sa *tad <
- h0e * eah0 *as *ats
- pʰirás > pʰā́r = *dʰgʰūmás > *gʰā́mar, *gʰā́man
- pʰerós > *phṓr dʰ
aes, eah0, ad, sa [animated distal], tad [inanimated distal], aestad, eātad, atad
Lesson 2
German:
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Nominative | -er[1][2] -∅[3],-e[4] | -e[1][4][5], -ie[2], -∅[3] | -es[1], -as[2], -∅[3], -e[4] | -e[1][3][6], -ie[2], -en[4][5], -er[7] |
Genitive | -es[2][3][6][7], -en[1][4] | -er[1][2][3], -en[4] | -es[2][3], -en[1][4] | -er[1][2][3], -en[4] |
Dative | -em[1][2][3], -en[4], -e[6][7] | -er[1][2][3], -en[4] | -em[1][2][3], -en[4] | -en[1][2][3][4][6][7] |
Accusative | -en[1][2][3][4] | -e[1][3][4], -ie[2] | -es[1][1], -as[2], -e[4] | -e[1][3], -ie[2], -en[4] |
^1 Declension of adjectives without articles; ^2 Declension of definite articles; ^3 Declension of indefinite articles; ^4 Declension of adjectives with articles; ^5 Declension of regular feminine nouns; ^6 Declension of regular masculine nouns; ^7 Declension of regular neuter nouns.
Russian:
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Nominative | -от[1], -ый[2], -ин[3], -∅/-ь[7] | -а/-я[1][4][5], -ая[2], -ина[3] | -о[1], -ое[2], -ино[3] | -и/ы[1][4][5][7], -ые[2], -ины[3] |
Genitive | -ого[1][2], -иного[3], -а/-я[7] | -ой[1][2], -иной[3], -и/ы[4][5][6] | -ого[1][2], -иного[3] | -их[1], -ых[2], -иных[3], -∅/-ь[4][5], -ов/-ей[6][7] |
Dative | -ому[1][2], -иному[3], -у/-ю[7] | -ой[1][2], -иной[3], -е[4][5] | -ому[1][2], -иному[3] | -им[1], -ым[2], -иным[3], -ам/-ям[4][5][6][7] |
Accusative.A | -ого[1][2], -иного[3], -а/-я[7] | -ту[1], -ую[2], -ину[3], -у[4][5][6] | -о[1], -ое[2], -ино[3] | -их[1], -ых[2], -иных[3], -∅/ь[4][5][6], -ов/-ей[7] |
Accusative.I | -от[1], -ый[2], -ин[3], -∅/-ь[7] | -ту[1], -ую[2], -ину[3], -у[4][5][6] | -о[1], -ое[2], -ино[3] | -и/-ы[1][7], -ые[2], -ины[3], -∅/-ь[4][5][6] |
Instrumental | -им[1], -ым[2], -иным[3], -ом/-ем[7] | -ой/-ою//-ей[1][2][4][5][6], -иной/-иною[3], -ю[6] | -им[1], -ым[2], -иным[3] | -ими[1], -ыми[2], -иными[3], -ами/-ями[4][5][6][7] |
Prepositional | -ом[1][2], -ином[3], -е[7] | -ой[1][2], -иной[3], -е[4][5][6] | -ом[1][2], -ином[3] | -их[1], -ых[2], -иных[3], -ах/-ях[4][5][6][7] |
^1 Declension of correlatives; ^2 Declension of non-possessive adjectives; ^3 Declension of possessive adjectives; ^4 Declension of animated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and vowel; ^5 Declension of animated feminine nouns ending in a hard consonant and vowel or inanimated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and vowel; ^6 Declension of inanimated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and no vowel; ^7 Declension of animated masculine nouns ending in no vowel; ^8 ...
diese schöne Kone
эта красивая жена
ista pulchra uxor
- eātad kaláh0 gʷaînah0
Syntax
Prosody
Sample text
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- ^ 3