Aryan

Aryan
*Airás
Models of indo-european migrations hypothesizing the proto-language to pertain to a range between 7000 to 4000 BC
Pronunciation	[əi̯ˈrəs]
Created by	Veno
Setting	Caucasus Mountains
Era	c.10,000–8,000 BC
Language family	Pangaean Code Aryan
Early form	Transitional Dialect
Writing system	Latin

Aryan (*Airás, pronounced /əi̯ˈrəs/), also referred to as Pre-Proto-Indo-European, is an ab interiori language depicting the transition from Paleolithic Codes to Proto-Indo-European (PIE). There are no historical records of its existence, or comparative data to support it; rather, it is an abductive experiment based on the hypothesis of Transitional Dialects.

In most of known History, indo-european speaking populations have been widespread in Eurasia, bearing fruits from civilizations such as those of the Roman Empire, the Hellenistic City-States, and the Rigvedic Tribes

As of the 21^st Century, half the world's population speaks 454 indo-european languages, with the Americas, Europe, Iran, Pakistan, and India being today the centers of native speakers due the Indo-European Migrations and European Colonialism. In Africa and Oceania [...]

In the hybrid model, Aryan must have been spoken somewhere near the Caucasus Mountains in compliance with the Armenian Hypothesis, which in its current form holds that the speakers of "Pre-Proto-Indo-European" pertained to the genepool of the Caucasian Hunter-Gatherers (CHG), who would eventually contribute to the formation of the Yamnaya Culture and the dispersion of "Core Proto-Indo-European" as detailed in the Kurgan Hypothesis. The age of the language is more controversial, being set between 12,000 and 10,000 years Before Present (BP), or the double of its daughter-language's, to coincide with the notion of Linguistic Modernity.

History

Development from Paleolithic Codes

The history of Aryan taken into account starts with the transition from Atomism to Double Articulation by the dialects of the Upper Paleolithic, mostly regarding the Pangaean Code as its ultimate source, next to the influence of the Diluvian and Hyperborean Codes. Although the actor responsible for this transition is a matter of debate even within the experiment, the loss of archaic features is assumed to coincide with the End of the Last Ice Age. At that time (12,000 BP), the loss of strict adherence to the primordial grammar might have allowed sound changes to take place, as seen below.

• Weak (plosive) stops become aspirated/murmured preceding a laryngeal consonant, as strong (ejective/implosive) stops gain plosive qualities in the same position.
  

Weak Voiceless Stop before laryngeal	Strong Voiceless Stop before laryngeal	Weak Voiced Stop before laryngeal	Strong Voiced Stop before laryngeal
/kH/→/kh/	/kʼH/→/k/	/gH/→/gɦ/	/ɠH/→/g/
/pH/→/ph/	/pʼH/→/p/	/bH/→/bɦ/	/ɓH/→/b/
/tH/→/th/	/tʼH/→/t/	/dH/→/dɦ/	/ɗH/→/d/

• The production of aspirated/murmured series contaminates the regular sounds, whose qualities of WEAK and STRONG are rearranged to accomodate Aspiration/Breathy Voice instead of Ejection/Implosion.
  

Weak Voiceless Stop	Weak Voiced Stop	Strong Voiceless Stop	Strong Voiced Stop
/k/→/k/	/g/→/g/	/kʼ/→/kh/	/ɠ/→/gɦ/
/p/→/p/	/b/→/b/	/pʼ/→/ph/	/ɓ/→/bɦ/
/t/→/t/	/d/→/d/	/tʼ/→/th/	/ɗ/→/dɦ/

• Relative articulated sounds when stops transform into Diluvian consonant clusters following former examples of aspiration/breathy voice.
  

Retracted before Laryngeal	Retracted	Advanced before Laryngeal	Advanced
/k̠H/→/khph/	/k̠/→/kp/	/k̟H/→/khth/	/k̟/→/kt/
/p̠H/→/phth/	/p̠/→/pt/	/p̟H/→/phkh/	/p̟/→/pk/
/t̠H/→/thkh/	/t̠/→/tk/	/t̟H/→/thph/	/t̟/→/tp/
/g̠H/→/gɦbɦ/	/g̠/→/gb/	/g̟H/→/gɦdɦ/	/g̟/→/gd/
/b̠H/→/bɦdɦ/	/b̠/→/bd/	/b̟H/→/bɦgɦ/	/b̟/→/bg/
/d̠H/→/dɦgɦ/	/d̠/→/dg/	/d̟H/→/dɦbɦ/	/d̟/→/db/
/k̠ʼH/→/kp/	/k̠ʼ/→/khph/	/k̟ʼH/→/kt/	/k̟ʼ/→/khth/
/p̠ʼH/→/pt/	/p̠ʼ/→/phth/	/p̟ʼH/→/pk/	/p̟ʼ/→/phkh/
/t̠ʼH/→/tk/	/t̠ʼ/→/thkh/	/t̟ʼH/→/tp/	/t̟ʼ/→/thph/
/ɠ̠H/→/gb/	/ɠ̠/→/gɦbɦ/	/ɠ̟H/→/gd/	/ɠ̟/→/gɦdɦ/
/ɓ̠H/→/bd/	/ɓ̠/→/bɦdɦ/	/ɓ̟H/→/bg/	/ɓ̟/→/bɦgɦ/
/ɗ̠H/→/dg/	/ɗ̠/→/dɦgɦ/	/ɗ̟H/→/db/	/ɗ̟/→/dɦbɦ/

• Sonorants, contrary to the stop series, remain conserved when onset; however, they collapse as voiced codas.
  

Voiceless Sonorant(I)	Voiced Sonorant(I)	Voiceless Sonorant(II)	Voiced Sonorant(II)
/j̥/→/j̥/~/j/	/j/→/j/	/w̥/→/w̥/~/w/	/w/→/w/
/n̥/→/n̥/~/n/	/n/→/n/	/m̥/→/m̥/~/m/	/m/→/m/
/l̥/→/l̥/~/l/	/l/→/l/	/r̥/→/r̥/~/r/	/r/→/r/

• The positive and negative forms of the sonorants still follow a Diluvian paradigm.
  

Retracted Voiceless Sonorant	Retracted Voiced Sonorant	Advanced Voiceless Sonorant	Advanced Voiced Sonorant
/j̠̊/→/j̥/~/j/	/j̠/→/j/	/j̟̊/→/j̥/~/j/	/j̟/→/j/
/n̠̊/→/kn/	/n̠/→/kn	/n̟̊/→/pn/	/n̊/→/pn/
/l̠̊/→/l̥/~/l/	/l̠/→/l/	/l̟̊/→/l̥/~/l/	/l̟/→/l/
/ẘ̠/→/w̥/~/w/	/w̠/→/w/	/ẘ̟/→/w̥/~/w/	/w̟/→/w/
/m̠̊/→/dm/	/m̠/→/dm/	/m̟̊/→/gm/	/m̟/→/gm/
/r̠̊/→/r̥/~/r/	/r̠/→/r/	/r̟̊/→/r̥/~/r/	/r̟/→/r/

• Within the turbulents, clicks are exchanged by plosive equivalents, and uvular laryngeals turn velar.
  

Labiodental Click	Dental Click	Alveolar Click
/ʘ̪/→/dʷ/	/ǀ/→/dʲ/	/ǁ/→/t͡ɬ/

Voiceless Uvular Laryngeal	Voiced Uvular Laryngeal
/χ/→/x/	/ʁ/→/ɣ/

• Complex and long vowels are reduced to their basic and short versions.
  

Front	Central	Back
/i/→/i/	/ɨ/→/i/	/u/→/u/
/y/→/u/	/ʉ/→/u/	/ɯ/→/i/
/e/→/e/	/ɪ/→/e/	/o/→/o/
/ø/→/o/	/ʊ/→/o/	/ɤ/→/e/
/e̞/→/i/	/ə/→/ə/	/o̞/→/u/
/ɛ/→/e/	/ɐ/→/a/	/ɔ/→/o/
/æ/→/e/	/a/→/a/	/ɒ/→/o/

Special cases
HVHC > HVC
CHVHC > CVC
CHVH > CVH
/ʕɨ̀ː/→/əi̯/
/V̰/→/Vː/~/aV/
/V̤/ > /Vː/~/Va/

In Morphology, Aryan introduced a series of innovations by mixing and developing peculiarities from different Paleolithic Codes. The Hyperborean nominative -s for example was probably borrowed via another caucasian substrate, which completely assumed the role of epenthetic root (next to Aryan *-ar) in the construction "ROOT₁ ROOT₂". Primordial [ˈn̠ʕih ˈə] "old" would therefore yield *knīás "old" (=*knih₁ *ás) [PIE *sénos "old"]. Furthermore, this development culminated into the Indo-European Ablaut. That is: when the accent falls into the epenthetic root, the first root suffers a phonetic change influenced by the interaction between laryngeals and vowels, which fuse into diphthongs or long vowels. This effect is considered a reflex of Umlaut in the Pangaean Code, where guttural fricatives can alternate between their vocalic equivalents and even modify the qualities of the nucleus.

Stress in first root	Stress in second root
HV́C-R	VVC-Ŕ
CV́C-R	C∅C-Ŕ
CV́H-R	CVV-Ŕ

Codex	Aryan	PIE
ˈhuhd-ə "water"	*h1úd-ar "water"	*wód-r̥ "water"
ˈhuhd ˈə "water-like"	*wid-rás "aquatic"	*ud-rós "aquatic"
ˈɗ̟ɦɨho-ə "foot"	*díoph-as "foot"	*pód-s "foot"
ˈɗ̟ɦɨho ˈə "foot-like"	*pd-yás "pedestrian"	*ped-yós "on foot"
ˈkhuħ-ə "sound"	*kʰúh2-as "sound"	*ḱléw-os "fame"
ˈkhuħ ˈə "sound-like"	*kʰaw-ás "sound-maker"	*ḱlu-ós "famous"

Development into Indo-European Languages

Correspondences:

• gʰedʰ "to join" < *gʰdʰ- "to gather" < g̟
• gʰabʰ ~ gʰeh₁bʰ- "to seize" < *pʰkʰ- "to take" < p̟

In a root with a cluster, if there is no consonant as coda except:

-a laryngeal, the laryngeal is erased and the second element of the cluster becomes the coda.

*gʰedʰ- (PIE) < ((*gʰed-)) < *gʰdʰih₁- (Aryan) < g̟ʕih (Codex)

-a liquid, the liquid is incorporated and the first element of the cluster becomes the coda.

*(s)pregʰ- ~ *sper- (PIE) < ((*bregʰ-)) < *gbair- (Aryan) < ɠ̠ʕihr (Codex)

exception: roots with longs vowels [dʰuh2- < pʰtʰūh1- (**pʰūt)]

h1egóM < aikṓm < aku ˈᴇːʔ > *ēh0 (Aryan) > *ih2 (PIE) uˈħihurk̟ʼ-a > *h₂úrkʰtʰa > *h₂ŕ̥tḱoes

• i and *u disappear before sonorants

mur, mrás > mer as PIE only accepts thorn clusters...

The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek).

mobile roots: -*r "quality" -*m "result" -*dʰ "fixation"

NOTE: PIE neuter particle *-om derives from Aryan *(_)-am, which forms result nouns

origin of PIE declensions:

(_)-as Hysterokinetic:

• kʰúh2as > (*ḱléwos) > *ḱléwos
• kʰuh2ásyas > (*ḱlewésyos) > *ḱléwesos

(∅)-ás Hysterokinetic:

• pdás > *pád∅s (*pods) > *pṓds
• pdasyás > *padás∅s (*pedés) > *pedés
• (á)-as Acrostatic:
• pkáih1as > (*ǵʰéyos) > *ǵʰéyos
• pkáih1asyas > (*ǵʰéyosyos) > *ǵʰéyosyo
• (a)-ás Acrostatic:
• pkaisás > (*ǵʰoysós) > *ǵʰoysós
• pkaisásyas > (*ǵʰoysésyos) > *ǵʰoysósyo

ptár > ph2tḗr ptsaryás > ptryás (pətrés)> ph2trés

What marks a Transitional Dialect:

• the presence of mobile roots

p̠hṵh "fume" > *pʰtʰawimás (*pʰtʰūh₁-*más) "smoke" > *dʰuh₂mós (*dʰewh₂-*mós)

• Hu, *u, *uH, *HuH > *we, *u, *ew, *we

Inheritances: huhg̠ > *h1ugp > *wegʷ ɦuhd > *h4ud > *sweyd

• ud > *úd

p̟ʼhuh > *pkuh > *ǵʰew pʼhuh > *puh > *plew Borrowings:

• h2ekʷ

-

• Hū, *ū, *ūH, *HūH> h2ew, ew, ewh2, h2ew

Inheritances: p̠hṵh > *pʰtʰawi > *dʰewh2 krhṳh > *GRuia > *krewh2 Borrowings: -phu- [Diluvian] > *po > *peh3 -

• Ho, o, oH, HoH > *h3e, e, *eh3, *Hew

Inheritances: kʼhohr > *kohr > *kerh3 (variant *ker from *kor) hoħd > *h1od > *h3ed ħoħd > *h2od > *h3ed ... > *poh2 > *peh3 (*puH) pʰol > bʰel "shine"

• h1oh1 > *h1ews

Borrowings: pohar [Diluvian] > *pawar (*paw-(a)-ar) > *péh2wr̥ (pew-r̥)

• h1engʷ < *h1ew-ǵenh1-yéti

-

• Hō, ō, ōH, HōH > *h3u, h3, *uh3, *Hu

Inheritances: Borrowings: -

• Ha, *a, *aH, *HaH > *h2e, *h2, *eh2, *h2e

Inheritances: phah > *pʰah > *bʰeh2 Borrowings: -

• ā > ...

Inheritances: Borrowings: -

• a > *e/o

Inheritances: ə > *(á)as > *(é)os Borrowings: -

• He, *e, *eH, HeH > *h1e, *h1, *eh1, *h1e

Inheritances: heħd > *h1ed > *h1ed Borrowings: -

• Hē, *ē, *ēH, HēH > ...

Inheritances: Borrowings: -

• Hi, i, iH, HiH > *ye, *i, *ey, *ye

Inheritances: Borrowings: -

• Hī, ī, īH, HīH > h1ey, ey, eyh1, h1ey

Inheritances: ʕii̯h > *ī > *h1ey Borrowings: +

• ew > eh3 [see: *gdew > deh3]
• aw > ew [see: kʰaw-ás > ḱlew]

+ h4- > s-

heħʘ̪ > h1eh2dʷ [nominative *séh2dʷ (=**h1éh2dʷ-as)] > *sweh2dʷ- > suavis there can only be one laryngeal in a root... except when former clicks.

*meh2dʷ (=**h1eh2dʷ-más) > *médʰu [*mélid, a variation]

dʷ- > *b-~bʰ-, -dʷ > -d dʲ- > *s~*sw-, -dʲ > -di

• h₂oh₂dʲ-, *h₂óh₂dʲam "hatred"

? > *ak "sharp" borrowing

• dʲairgʰ > *swergʰ... "be ill"

sour < *sūrós (*sweh2-rós) < *dʲāyrás (=*dʲeh2-rás)

h2isṓm/aísmi, h2isṓmas/aísmas > *h1ésmi, *h1smós h2isḗs/aíssi, h2isḗtas/aístas > *h1ési, *h1sté (*h1stés 2P.DUAL) h2isī́t/aísti, h2isī́nt/aísant> *h1ésti, *h1sénti

• /ə/ > */e/ when pretonic or tonic polysyllabic [exception: o-derivation]
• /ə/ > */o/ when postonic or tonic monosyllabic (*pʰ∅rás > *pʰárs >*pʰórs > *pʰṓr) [exception: o-derivation] *monosyllabic words without pithc accept /e/ instead (*swa > *swe)
• /əi̯/ > */e/, */aː/ when result of zero-grade (*gain- >*g∅n-tás > *gnaitás > *gnātós, as in Latin gnātus and Greek -γνητός)
• /ai̯/ > */ai̯/
• kʰpʰ-
• kp- > *kʷʰ-
• kn- > *sn-
• h₂i (TD) > *h₁e (PIE)

an original click as onset inverts the laryngeals: ǁheħp > tɬeh1p> seh1p an original click as coda preserves both laryngeals: heħʘ̪ > *h1eh2dʷ > sweh2d həħǁ > *h1ah2t͡ɬ > *sent

When an <e> is introduced in adjectives, the accent falls n̠ʕih > *knaiás > *sénos "old" compare

• sādú > *swādús "sweet"
• sādú méh2dʷ
• swādús médʰu~mélid

Primordial elements transitioned into particles in Aryan. That is: Aryan roots could be changed back then. Those were the mobile roots. For example: *dʷ survived as PIE *-id, which was a particle used to indicate comestibles.

• pʰrás

laryngeals turn into vowels and vice-versa

• mai > *meh1

?we are searching for a single voiceless plosive before a voiced one? ?"Aryan doesn't accept initial voiced clusters of original implosives? As if **dbíoh1 > *díopʰ "?

h1uC ~ h1oC > uj ~ oj h1aC ~ h1əC > aj ~ i h1iC ~ h1eC > ī ~ ej Cuh1 ~ Coh1 > uj ~ oj Cah1 ~ Cəh1 > aj ~ i Cih1 ~ Ceh1 > ī ~ ej - h2uC ~ h2oC > aw ~ ow h2aC ~ h2əC > ā ~ i h2iC ~ h2eC > aj ~ ej Cuh2 ~ Coh2 > aw ~ ow Cah2 ~ Cəh2 > ā ~ i Cih2 ~ Ceh2 > aj ~ ej - h3uC ~ h3oC > ū ~ ow h3aC ~ h3əC > wa ~ u h3iC ~ h3eC > ī ~ je Cuh3 ~ Coh3 > ū~ ow Cah3 ~ Cəh3 > wa ~ u Cih3 ~ Ceh3 > iw ~ ew

	Sanskrit	Avestan	O.C.S.	Lithuanian	Albanian	Armenian	Hittite	Tocharian	Greek	Latin	Goidelic	Gothic
>*p	p; pʰ	p; f	p	p	p	h; w	p; pp	p	p / pt	p	∅	f; β
>*t				x x
>*k		x x
>*ḱ		x x

p pt p ∅ f; b [β] [C 6] f; v, f[C 2]

thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...

Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants

PIE	Indo-Iranian		Balto-Slavic		Alb.	Arm.	Anatol.	Toch.	Greek		Italic	Celtic		Germanic
	Sanskrit	Avestan	O.C.S.	Lith.			Hitt.				Latin	Old Irish		Gothic	English
									normal	C+[j]		normal	-C-
*p	p; ph [pʰ]	p; f	p			h; w	p, pp	p		pt	p	∅		f; b [β]	f; v, f
*t	t; th [t̪ʰ]	t; θ	t			tʿ [tʰ]	t, tt; z [ts]	t; c [c]	t	s; tt/ss	t	t	th [θ]	þ [θ]; d [ð];	th; d;
*ḱ	ś [ɕ]	s		š [ʃ]	th [θ]; k	s	k, kk	k; ś [ɕ]	k		c [k]	c [k]	ch [x]	h; g [ɣ]	h; ∅; y
*k	k; c [t͡ɕ]; kh [kʰ]	k; c [tʃ]; x	k; č [tʃ]; c [ts]	k	k; q [c]	kʿ [kʰ]
*kʷ					k; s; q [c]		ku, kku		p; t; k		qu [kʷ]; c [k]			ƕ [ʍ]; gw, w	wh; w
*b	b; bh	b; β	b			p			b	pt	b	b [b]	-[β]-	p
*d	d; dh	d; δ	d		d; dh [ð]	t		ts; ś [ɕ]	d	z [zd] > [z]	d	d [d]	-[ð]-	t
*ǵ	j [d͡ʑ]; h [ɦ]	z		ž [ʒ]	dh [ð]; g	c [ts]	k	k; ś [ɕ]	g		g	g [ɡ]	-[ɣ]-	k	c / k; ch
*g	g; j [d͡ʑ]; gh; h [ɦ]	g; j [dʒ]; γ	g; ž [ʒ]; dz	g	g	k
*gʷ					g; z; gj [ɟ]		ku		b; d; g		u [w > v]; gu [ɡʷ]	b [b]	-[β]-	q [kʷ]	qu
*pʰ	bh [bʱ]	b; β	b			b; w	p		ph [pʰ]	pt	f; b			b [b]; b [β]; f	b; v / f
*tʰ	dh [dʱ]	d; δ	d				t	t; c [c]	th [tʰ]	tt/ss	f; d; b	d [d]	-[ð]-	d; d [ð]; þ	d
*ǵʰ	h [ɦ]	z		ž [ʒ]	dh [ð]; d	j [dz]; z	k	k; ś [ɕ]	kh [kʰ]		h; h / g	g [ɡ]	-[ɣ]-	g; g [ɣ]; g [x]	g; y / w
*gʰ	gh [ɡʱ]; h [ɦ]	g; j [dʒ]; γ	g; ž [ʒ]; dz	g	g	g; ǰ [dʒ]
*gʷʰ					g; z; gj [ɟ]		ku		ph [pʰ]; th [tʰ]; kh [kʰ]		f; g / u [w]; gu [ɡʷ]			g; b; w; gw	g; b; w
*s	s	h [h, x]	s		sh [ʃ]; gj [ɟ]; h	h; ∅	š [s]	s; ṣ [ʂ]	h; s;/ ∅; [¯]	i	s; r	s ʃ	-[h]-	s; z	s; r
	ṣ [ʂ]	š [ʃ]	x [x]	š [ʃ]
*m	m									in	m	m [m]	-[w̃]-	m
*-m	m		˛ [˜]	n		∅	n	n		--	m [˜]	n		∅
*n	n		n; ˛ [˜]	n				n; ñ [ɲ]	n	in	n
*l	r (dial. l)	r	l		l; ll [ɫ]	l / ɫ [ɫ > ɣ]	l			il	l
*r	r/l	r			r [ɾ]; rr [r]	r				ir	r
*y	y [j]		j [j]		gj [ɟ]; ∅	∅	y [j]		z [zd] > [z] / h; ∅	?i	i [j]; ∅	∅		j	y
*w	v [ʋ]	v [w]	v	v [ʋ]	v	g / w	w		w > h / ∅	i	u [w > v]	f	-∅-	w
PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Alb.	Arm.	Hitt.	Toch.	Greek	Greek+/j/	Latin	Old Irish		Gothic	English

Notes for table 1:

Consonant clusters

Proto-Indo-European also had numerous consonant clusters, such as *st, *ḱs. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):

Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters

PIE	Indo-Iranian		Balto-Slavic		Alb.	Arm.	Anatol.	Toch.	Greek		Italic	Celtic	Germanic
	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.			Hitt.				Latin	Old Irish	Gothic	English
									normal	C+[j]
*sr	sr	r	str	sr	rr [r]	(a)r	š(ša)r ʃʃr		rh	n/a	fr-, -br-	sr	str	str
*tw	tv	θβ	tv	tv	t	kʿ [kʰ]	ttu, ddu		s-, -ss-	n/a	p?	t	þw	thw
*dʰw	dhv	ðβ	dv	dv	d	?	tu, du				f	d	dw	dw
*dw	dv					(e)rk	tu, du				b		tw	tw
*tl			sl	kl, sl					tl		kl	tl
*dl	ll
*dn	nn, ṇṇ
*ḱw	śv	sp	sv	šv	s	sk, š				n/a	qu [kʷ]	cu [kʷ]	Template:Transl [xʷ]	wh
*ǵʰw	hv		zv	žv	z
*ǵw	jv												q [kʷ]	qu [kw]
*sw	sv	xuu [xʷ]	sv	sv	v, d	kʿ [kʰ]	normal dev.		h	n/a	su [sw]	s	sw	sw
*sp	sp	sp	sp		f	sp / pʿ [pʰ]	normal dev.		sp	?	sp	f	sp
*sbʰ		spʰ
*sd	d; ḷ > ḍ, ḍḍ	zd	zd	zd		st					d	-t- [d]	st	st
*sdʰ	dh; ḷh > ḍh, ḍḍh	zd	zd	zd					sth			-t- [d]	zd	d
*st	st; ṣṭ	st	st		sht [ʃt]	st	normal dev.		st	s; tt/ss	st		st
*sḱ	ch [t͡ɕʰ]; cch	s?	sk	š?	h	?? č`; c`	normal dev.		sk; kh [kʰ]; skh [skʰ]		sc [sk]	sc [sk]	sk	sh [ʃ]
*sk	sk, {śc, ch}	sk, sč	normal dev.		?	sk	normal dev.
*skʷ									norm.		squ [skʷ]		sq
*t+t [tst]	tt; tth	st; sθ?	st		s	s?	zt, zzašt, zzazz [tst]	ss?	st		ss		ss / st
*sǵ	jj
*sgʰ	jj
*dt	tt	st						st	st		s		ss	ss [s]
*ddʰ	ddʰ	zd									d	t
*dʰt	ddʰ	zd, st		st					st
*pt	pt	ft	t?	pt	t				pt		pt	cht [xt]	ft
*ḱt	ṣṭ [ʂʈ]	št [ʃt]	st	št [ʃt]					kt		ct [kt]		ht	ght [t]
*kt	kt	xt	t?	kt
*kʷt									pt		ct [kt]
*ps	ps								ps		ps	s, ss	fs	ps
*ts	ts
*ḱs	kṣ	š			sh [ʃ]				ks		x [ks]		hs	x [ks]
*ks	kṣ	xš						(ks)
*kʷs							kʷs		ps		x [ks]
*gs	kṣ
*gʷs	kṣ
*ǵʰs	kṣ	ž								ks
*gʰs	kṣ
*gʷʰs	kṣ								ps
*tḱ	kṣ	š			k				kt		s
*tk	kṣ	xš							kt
*dʰǵʰ	kṣ	z		ž			tk	tk/k	khth
*dʰgʰ	kṣ						tk
*dʰgʷʰ	kṣ	γž					kts		phth		s
PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Alb.	Arm.	Hitt.	Toch.	Greek	Greek+/j/	Latin	Old Irish	Gothic	English

-->

Orthography

Trad. PIE	Laryng. PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Arm.	Alb.	Toch.	Hitt.	Greek	Latin	Proto-Celtic	Gothic	Old English
														normal	umlauted
*e	*e, *h₁e	a		e			je, ie, e, i; ja	ä	e, ʔe, i	e			i; aí [ɛ]	e; eo	i; ie
*a	(*a), *h₂e			o	a	a	ha, a	ā	ha, a	a			a	æ; a; ea	e; ie
*o	*h₃e					o, a	a	a, e	a	o
	*o	a; ā
*ə	*h₁	i	i, ∅	∅		a, ∅		ā	∅	e	a		a, ∅
	*h₂								ḫ	a
	*h₃								∅	o
*-	*h₁-	∅				e (a?)	∅		a, ∅	e (o)	∅
	*h₂-					a			ḫa	a
	*h₃-								a, ha	o
*ē	*ē, *eh₁	ā		ě	ė	i	o, ua	a/e?; ā?	ē, e, i	ē		ī	ē	ǣ
*ā	(*ā), *eh₂			a	o [oː]	a		a/o?	a, ah	ā > ē	ā	ā	ō		ē
*ō	*ō, *eh₃				uo	u	e	a/ā?; ū?	a, ā	ō		ā; ū
*i	*i	i		ь	i	i	i; e	ä	i, ī	i			i; aí [ɛ]	i
*ī	*ih₁	ī		i	y [iː]		i	i		ī	ī		ei [iː]	ī
	*ih₂					i or (j)a?		yā		ī or (j)ā?
	*ih₃									ī or (j)ō?
*ei	*ei, *h₁ei	ai > ē	ai > ōi, āi > aē		ei; ie	i		e	ē	ei	ī	ē
*oi	*oi, *h₃ei			ě	ai; ie	e	e, ai		ē, ai	oi	ū	oi	ái	ā	ǣ
*ai	(*ai), *h₂ei									ai	ae	ai
*ēi	*ēi	āi > ai; ā	āi; ā(i)	i			i		ē	ēi	ī?		ei [iː]	ī
*ōi	*ōi (*oei)			y; u	ai; ui		e, ai		ai	ōi	ō	u	ái	ā	ǣ
*āi	*eh₂ei			ě					ai	āi > ēi	ae
*u	*u	u		ъ	u	u	u; y	ä	u	u	u	u; o	u; aú [ɔ]	u; o	y
*ū	*uh₁	ū		y	ū		y; i	u		ū	ū				ȳ
	*uh₂					u or (w)a?		wā		ū or (w)ā?
	*uh₃									ū or (w)ō?
*eu	*eu, *h₁eu	au > ō	ə̄u; ao	ju	iau	oy	e	u		eu	ū	ou	iu	ēo	īe
*ou	*ou,*h₃eu			u	au		a	o, au		ou			áu	ēa
*au	(*au), *h₂eu					aw				au	au
*ēu	*ēu	āu > au	āu	u	iau		e				ū?		iu	ēo
*ōu	*ōu						a		au	ō			áu	ēa
*m̥	*m̥	a		ę	im̃; um̃	am	a	äm	a, un	a	em	em, am	um	um	ym
*m̥̅	*mh₁	ā			ìm; ùm	ama		mā		mē	mā
	*mh₂									mā > mē
	*mh₃									mō
*m̥m	*m̥m	am		ьm/ъm	im; um	am				am	em	am
*n̥	*n̥	a		ę	iñ; uñ	an		än	an	a	en	en, an	un	un	yn
*n̥̄	*nh₁	ā			ìn; ùn	ana		nā		nē	nā
	*nh₂									nā > nē
	*nh₃									nō
*n̥n	*n̥n	an		ьn/ъn	iñ; uñ	an				an	en	an
*l̥	*l̥	r̥	ərə	lь/lъ	il̃; ul̃	al	il, li; ul, lu	äl	al	la	ol	li; al	ul	ul; ol	yl
*l̥̄	*lh₁	īr; ūr	arə		ìl; ùl	ala	al	lā		lē	lā
	*lh₂									lā > lē
	*lh₃									lō
*l̥l	*l̥l	ir; ur	ar	ьl/ъl	il; ul	al, la				al	el	al
*r̥	*r̥	r̥	ərə	rь/rъ	ir̃; ur̃	ar	ir, ri; ur, ru	är	ar, ur	ra	or	ri; ar	aúr [ɔr]	ur; or	yr
*r̥̄	*rh₁	īr; ūr	arə		ìr; ùr	ara	ra	rā		rē	rā
	*rh₂									rā > rē
	*rh₃									rō
*r̥r	*r̥r	ir; ur	ar	ьr/ъr	ir; ur	ar				ar	ar	ar
Trad. PIE	Laryng. PIE	Skr.	Av.	O.C.S.	Lith.	Arm.	Alb.	Toch.	Hitt.	Greek	Latin	Proto-Celtic	Gothic	normal	umlauted
														Old English

Historical and Geographical Distribution

Since Lazaridis et al's paper, absence of Eastern European Hunter-Gatherer (EHG) ancestry in the Anatolian component of the Indo-European speaking populations has suggested a caucasian homeleand for earlier stages of PIE rather than a pre-Yamnaya pontic continuance. Recent studies, furthermore, point to a total farming economy by the Zagros around 6,000 BC, which tempts an older dating for a Transitional Dialect such as Aryan.

Phonology

Consonants

Aryan is reconstructed as having 36 consonants, with an assumption made that it would have maintained the basic inventory of the Pangaean Code in some form. In comparison, PIE is mostly reconstructed as having 24 consonants.

		Labial	Alveolar			Palatal	Velar	Pharyngeal	Glottal
Nasal	Voiceless	*m̥	*n̥
	Voiced	*m	*n
Plosive	Voiceless	*p	*t				*k		*ʔ
	Voiced	*b	*d	*dʲ	*dʷ		*g
	Aspirated	*ph	*th				*kh
	Murmured	*bɦ	*dɦ				*gɦ
Fricative	Voiceless		*s				*x	*ħ	*h
	Voiced		*z				*ɣ	*ʕ	*ɦ
Vibrant	Voiceless		*r̥
	Voiced		*r
Lateral	Voiceless		*l̥	*t͡ɬ
	Voiced		*l
Approximant	Voiceless					*j̊	*ẘ
	Voiced					*j	*w

Vowels

While the simplicity of the vocalic inventory of PIE (constituted exclusively of *e, *o, *ē, and *ō, ignoring allophones of syllabic consonants and diphthongs with sonorants) has inspired some researchers to draw connections with language families of similar conditions near the Pontic–Caspian Steppe, such as the Pontic Hypothesis witht the Northwest Caucasian Languages, Aryan is reconstructed instead with a rich system of monophthongs, diphthongs, and even triphthongs.

Monophthongs Front Central Back Close i iː u uː Mid e eː ə əː o oː Open a aː

Diphthongs Front Central Back Close u̯i i̯u Mid ei̯ eu̯ əi̯ əu̯ oi̯ ou̯ Open i̯a u̯a ai̯ au̯

Triphthongs Front Central Back Close u̯iᵊ i̯uᵊ Mid ei̯ᵊ eu̯ᵊ əi̯ᵊ əu̯ᵊ oi̯ᵊ ou̯ᵊ Open i̯aᵊ u̯aᵊ ai̯ᵊ au̯ᵊ

Morphology

Affix

• gʷaináh0
• gʷaināsyas
• gʷaināsay, *gʷaināmas

Aryan has only zero-grade (∅) and full grade (_)

*(_)-as [forms active animate nouns] EX: kʰúh2as "sound" = PIE *(é)-os in *ḱlewos
*(∅)-ás [forms active animate adjectives] EX: *pdás "capable to step" = PIE *(e)-ós in *pṓds
*(á)-as [forms passive animate nouns] EX: ... = PIE *(ó)-os in ...
*(a)-ás [forms passive animate adjectives] EX: = PIE *(o)-ós, *the construction became agentive instead of passive in PIE, but some archaic forms remain, such as *gʰoysós "spear"
*(_)-ar [forms active inanimate nouns] EX: *húdar "water" = PIE *-r̥ in *wódr̥
*(∅)-ár [forms active inanimate adjectives] 
*(á)-ar [forms passive inanimate nouns]
*(a)-ár [forms passive inanimate adjectives]

mas

*(_)-tár [forms agent nouns]
*(_)-tram [forms instrument nouns] *fusion of *(_)-tár [agent particle] and *-am [neuter particle]
*(∅)-C-ás [forms derived nouns through mobile roots] EX: *pʰtʰūymás PIE = PIE *(∅)-mós

Root

In Aryan, roots are either static or mobile. In the first case, they serve as a prototypical source of meaning, impossible to be further decomposed. Otherwise, further analysis is possible through pure consonantal and vocalic segments, treated as "fundamental atoms".

A consonantal root is intrinsically modified by vocalic roots.

• pʰair < action root *p "bearing" + class root *h5ih1 "person" + epenthetic *r

Clitic

In Aryan, clitics, similarly to tones, became fossilized as affixes.

Noun

German:

dieser Mensch
dies-er	Mensch
DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE	person
"this"	"person"
this person

Russian:

этот человек
эт-от	человек
DEITIC-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE	person.NOMINATIVE
"this"	"person"
this person

Latin:

iste homo
iste	homo
DEITIC.PROXIMAL .NOMINATIVE	person.NOMINATIVE
"that"	"person"
that person

Greek:

οὗτος ἄνθρωπος
οὗτ-ος	ἄνθρωπ-ος
DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE	person-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE
"this"	"person"
this person

Aryan:

*aestad naī́r
*aes-tad	*naī́r
MASCULINE.3PERSON-DEITIC.3PERSON.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE	man.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE
"this"	"man"
this person

The above samples follow the term *tad instead of *sa, as the former is used to refer to third person in general. *sa *tad <

• h0e * eah0 *as *ats
  • pʰirás > pʰā́r = *dʰgʰūmás > *gʰā́mar, *gʰā́man
  • pʰerós > *phṓr dʰ

aes, eah₀, ad, sa [animated distal], tad [inanimated distal], aestad, eātad, atad

German:

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Plural
Nominative	-er -∅,-e	-e, -ie, -∅	-es, -as, -∅, -e	-e, -ie, -en, -er
Genitive	-es, -en	-er, -en	-es, -en	-er, -en
Dative	-em, -en, -e	-er, -en	-em, -en	-en
Accusative	-en	-e, -ie	-es, -as, -e	-e, -ie, -en

^1 Declension of adjectives without articles; ^2 Declension of definite articles; ^3 Declension of indefinite articles; ^4 Declension of adjectives with articles; ^5 Declension of regular feminine nouns; ^6 Declension of regular masculine nouns; ^7 Declension of regular neuter nouns.

Russian:

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Plural
Nominative	-от, -ый, -ин, -∅/-ь	-а/-я, -ая, -ина, -ь	-о, -ое, -ино, -о/-е, -мя	-и/ы, -ые, -ины, -а/-я, -и/-мена
Genitive	-ого, -иного, -а/-я, -и	-ой, -иной, -и/ы	-ого, -иного, -а/-я, -мени	-их, -ых, -иных, -∅/-ь, -ов/-ей, ∅-/-(е)й, -ей/-мён(-мян)
Dative	-ому, -иному, -у/-ю, -и	-ой, -иной, -е, -и	-ому, -иному, -у/-ю, -мени	-им, -ым, -иным, -ам/-ям, -ям/-менам
Accusative.A	-ого, -иного, -а/-я, -ь	-ту, -ую, -ину, -у, -ь	-о, -ое, -ино, -о/-е, -мя	-их, -ых, -иных, -∅/ь, -ов/-ей, -а/-я, -и/-мена
Accusative.I	-от, -ый, -ин, -∅/-ь	-ту, -ую, -ину, -у	-о, -ое, -ино, -о/-е	-и/-ы, -ые, -ины, -∅/-ь, ∅-/-(е)й, -ь/-мена
Instrumental	-им, -ым, -иным, -ом/-ем, -ью	-ой/-ою//-ей, -иной/-иною, -ю, -ью	-им, -ым, -иным, -ом/-ем, -менем	-ими, -ыми, -иными, -ами/-ями, -ями(ьми)/-менами
Prepositional	-ом, -ином, -е, -и	-ой, -иной, -е, -и	-ом, -ином, -е, -мени	-их, -ых, -иных, -ах/-ях, -ях/-менах

^1 Declension of correlatives; ^2 Declension of non-possessive adjectives; ^3 Declension of possessive adjectives; ^4 Declension of animated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and vowel; ^5 Declension of animated feminine nouns ending in a hard consonant and vowel or inanimated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and vowel; ^6 Declension of inanimated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and no vowel; ^7 Declension of animated masculine nouns ending in no vowel; ^8 Declension of neuter nouns; ^9 Declension of nouns ending in hard consonant and no vowel.

	LATIN DECLENSION
	Singular			Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nominative	-e/-us, -us, -is, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs	-a, -is, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs	-ud, -um, -e, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs	-ī, -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-ae, -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-a, -ia, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs
Genitive	-īus, -ī, -is, -ūs, -(i)ēī	-īus, -ae, -ūs, -(i)ēī	-īus, -ī, -is, -ūs, -(i)ēī	-ōrum, -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum	-ārum, -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum	-ōrum, -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum
Dative	-ī, -ō, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī	-ī, -ae, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī	-ī, -ō, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus
Accusative	-um, -em, -um/-ū, -(i)em	-am, -em, -um/-ū, -(i)em	-ud, -um, -e, -um/-ū, -(i)em	-ōs, -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-ās, -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs	-a, -ia, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs
Ablative	-ō, -ī, -ū, -(i)ē	-ā, -ī, -ū, -(i)ē	-ō, -ī, -ū, -(i)ē	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus	-īs, -ibus, -(i)ēbus
Vocative	-e, -is	-a, -is	-ud, -um, -e	-ī, -ēs	-ae, -ēs,	-a, -ia

^1 Declension of correlatives and regular nouns.

	GREEK DECLENSION
	Singular			Dual			Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nominative	-ος, -ας/-ης, -(ε)ς, -ων	-η/α, -(ε)ς, -ων	-ον	-ω, -ε, -ονε	-α, -ε, -ονε	-ω	-οι, -ες, -ονες	-αι, -ες	-α
Genitive	-ου, -ος/-ως, -ονος	-ης/-ας, -ος/-ως, -ονος	-ου	-οιν	-αιν, -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν, -ονοιν	-ων, -ονων	-ων, -ονων	-ων
Dative	-ῳ, -ι, -ονι	-ῃ, -ι, -ονι	-ῳ	-οιν, -ονοιν	-αιν, -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν	-οις, -ας/-ς/-νς, -οσι	-αις, -οσι	-οις
Accusative	-ον, -α, -ονα	-ην, -ονα	-ον	-ω	-α	-ω	-ους, -ονας	-ας, -ονας	-α
Vocative	-ε, -(ε)ς, -ον	-η, -(ε)ς, -ον	-ον	-ω, -ε, -ονε	-α, -ε, -ονε	-ω	-οι, -ες, -ονες	-αι, -ες, -ονες	-α

^1 Declension of correlatives and regular nouns.

	ARYAN DECLENSION
	Singular			Dual			Plural
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nominative	*-as	*-ah0	*-am	*-ā	*-āh0	*-ā	*-ayn	*-ah0in	*-a
Genitive	*-asyas	*-āsyas	-ου	-οιν	-αιν, -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν, -ονοιν	-ων, -ονων	-ων, -ονων	-ων
Dative	-ῳ, -ι, -ονι	-ῃ, -ι, -ονι	-ῳ	-οιν, -ονοιν	-αιν, -οιν, -ονοιν	-οιν	-οις, -ας/-ς/-νς, -οσι	-αις, -οσι	-οις
Accusative	-ον, -α, -ονα	-ην, -ονα	-ον	-ω	-α	-ω	-ους, -ονας	-ας, -ονας	-α
Vocative	-ε, -(ε)ς, -ον	-η, -(ε)ς, -ον	-ον	-ω, -ε, -ονε	-α, -ε, -ονε	-ω	-οι, -ες, -ονες	-αι, -ες, -ονες	-α

diese schöne Kone эта красивая жена ista pulchra uxor

• eātad kaláh0 gʷaînah0

Verb

*gaínōm, *gígnmi "I generate" *pūhāṓm, *píbmi "I drink" *wehdḗyōm, *wḗydmi "I see"

• gánas > γόνος "offspring"

Initial clusters in the Nominative will give way to /ə/

• ptā́r (A)> *patḗr (PIE)
  
• páh5man > *póh5mn̥ > πῶμα "slid"
  

[*peh5] "feed, protect"

*pʰair- "bearing" [n/v] (Latin ferō, Greek φέρω < *pʰaírōm, *pʰíprmi) > *pʰaíras [bare noun], *pʰ∅rás "bearer" [adjective-noun] (Latin fūr, Greek φώρ "thief"), *pʰáras [result-noun] (Greek φόρος "tribute")

*daim- "building" [n/v] (Greek δέμω < *daímōm, *dídmmi) > *daímas [bare noun], *d∅más "building" [adjective-noun] (Greek δῶ "house"), *dámas "house" [result-noun] (Latin domus, Greek δόμος "house")

*paid- "stepping" [n/v] (*paídōm, *pípdmi) > *paídas [bare noun], *p∅dás "foot" [adjective-noun] (Latin pes, Greek πούς "foot"), *pádas "step" [result-noun]

*kpain- "killing" [n/v] (Proto-Indo-European *kʷʰen, Latin de-fendo "I expell from") > *kpaínas [bare noun], *kp∅nás "murderer" [adjective-noun], *kpánas "murder" [result-noun] (Greek φόνος "murder")

*h₁ed- "eating" [n/v] (German esse, Russian ем, Latin edō, Greek ἔδω < *h₁édōm, *yédmi) > *h₁édas [bare noun], *yedás "eater" [adjective-noun], *h₁ádas [result-noun]

In Aryan, personal enclitics are positioned after the first word of a proposition (Wackernagel's Law)

the verb either starts or ends the clause... tendence to follow SOV

• the finite verb loses accent in an independent clause, except when in first position (always has accent in dependent clause)
• absolute construction
• subject is ommitted

• na pʰaírīt mai
• pʰaírīt mai na?

h₅ígōm, mayás, mai

_(negation=subject/int.pronoun/accented verb)-_()-_(unaccented verb)

The most comprehensive summary available on PIE morphosyntax was written by Matthias Fritz in Indo-European Linguistics (Michael Meier-Brügger, 2003), pp. 238-276.

Winfred Philipp Lehmann’s Proto-Indo-European Syntax (1974)

morphological cylce (Hock and Joseph, 1996) Szemerényi 1957: 119; Kuryłowicz 1964: 233; Rasmussen 1999: Meier-Brügger

-ōm/mi -āṓm/-mā

• pʰaír-

-ōm / *-mi (perfective)

• -āṓm / *-āmi (perfective)

í (animated nouns) ì (inanimate nouns) *neuter nouns and vocatives have recessive accent Aryan has a complex system of accent loss

As Greek neuter nouns possess recessive accent (especially the monosyllabic ones, which when accented, carry a circunflex)

• paid- ... *p∅dás

• p∅dás > páds > póds

• p∅dás > *póds > pēs, πούς
• p∅dasyás > *pedés > pedis, ποδός

Syntax

I am still here Je suis encore ici Ich bin noch hier Я все ещё здесь Hic adhuc sum

Ich dachte, dass ich der Einzige war, der darüber nachdachte Я думал я один кто об этом подумал...

sie sagen, dass morgen will ich arbeiten, um Geld zu verdienen; ich, wer wusste nichts darüber

ils disent que demain je veux travailler pour gagner d'argent; moi, qui n'y savais rien pas

Subordinate clause... in German, Russian, Latin, and Greek:

Sie sagen, dass morgen will ich arbeiten, um Geld zu verdienen.

Они говорят, что завстра я хачу работат, чтобы зарабатывать деньге.

Illi dicent me cras laborare volo ut pecuniam meream.

They say I want to work tomorrow in order to earn money.

movement verbs and cases: cubitum ire *as French and German treat it in the european sprachbund eo domum end goal: accusative

• h2iyṓm dámam

References

• Behaghel, Otto (1932), Deutsche Syntax
• Brugmmann, Karl (1925), Die syntax des einfachen satzes im indogermanischen
• Brugmmann; Delbrück (1889), Grundriss der vergleichenden grammatik der indogermanischen sprachen
• Benveniste, Émile (1935), Les Origines de la Formation des Noms en Indo-Européen
• Collinge, N. E. (1985), The Laws of Indo-European
• Jespersen , Otto (1924), The Philosophy Of Grammar
• Priscianus (6th Century), Institutiones Grammaticae
• Sütterlin, Ludwig (1908), Die Lehre von der Lautbildung
• Szemerényi, Oswald (1970), Einführung in die vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft
• Sommerstein, Alan (1973), Sound Pattern of Ancient Greek
• Thomasus Erfordiensis (13th Century), Tractatus de Modis Significandi seu Grammatica Speculativa
• Wackernagel, Jakob (1892), Über ein Gesetz der indogermanischen Worstellung

https://archive.org/details/bomhardtheoriginsofprotoindoeuropean/page/n1/mode/2up

https://www.academia.edu/40559059/The_Precursors_of_Proto_Indo_European_The_Indo_Anatolian_and_Indo_Uralic_Hypotheses_2019_

The Origin of the Caland System and the Typology of Adjectives

https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/if-2024-0008/html

Indo-European Phonology