North-East Antarctican: Difference between revisions

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However, it differs from English in many other ways. Syntactically, it prefers SVO, but is less strict than English, often allowing words to be fronted as topics, or elided if they are obvious from context. This does not create ambiguities, since verbs have hierarchical person marking. The language also marks [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inalienable_possession alienable and inalienable possession]. Phonologically, the language uses secondary articulation to contrast a very large number of consonant phonemes, however the phonotactics are extremely restrictive, and most dialects have a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_vowel_system Vertical Vowel System] (the ones that do not still preserve an older system with vowel harmony).

Even though the dialects are easily mutually intelligible, there is no one name for the dialect cluster. The most commonly used one is /ˈʀɨ̤ŋːasɨ̤/ [ˈʁɤ̤ŋːa̤sɨ]. However, some communities strongly prefer to refer to it as /kɨˈʎə̰ɴbə/ [kiˈʎḛɴbə]~~. A third, neutral term is /ʔaʔɨʈaˈʔɨ̤ːwamaɴɻahɨ/ [ʔaʔɤʈɑˈʔṳːwa̤mɑ̤ɳɻɑ̤hɨ], however this has an extremely stilted, formal flavour and is rarely used~~.

Even though the dialects are easily mutually intelligible, there is no one name for the dialect cluster. The most commonly used one is /ˈʀɨ̤ŋːasɨ̤/ [ˈʁɤ̤ŋːa̤sɨ]. However, some communities strongly prefer to refer to it as /kɨˈʎə̰ɴbə/ [kiˈʎḛɴbə].

==Phonology==

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Compounds are head final. Stress, phonation and gemination are lost on all but the first member of the compound e.g. /ˈkə̰tə/ [ˈkə̰ːtə̰] - "short", and /ˈkʷə̰sa/ [ˈkʷo̰ːsa] - "throwing spear" combine to make /ˈkə̰təkʷəsa/ [ˈkə̰ːto̰kʷo̰sa] - "dart" (literally "short spear").

The restriction against more than one strong consonant in a word applies to compound words e.g. when /bɨˈhə̤kɨ/ [bɨˈhə̤ːkɨ] - "bake" is combined with /ˈkʷɨ̤sːɨ/ [~~ˈkʷṳsːa~~] - "ocean fish", the result is /bɨˈʔə̤kɨkʷɨsɨ/ [bɨˈʔə̤ːkukʷusɨ] - "baked (ocean) fish". Because the /kʷ/ in the word for "fish" is strong, it causes the /h/ in the word for "bake" to shift to a glottal stop.

The restriction against more than one strong consonant in a word applies to compound words e.g. when /bɨˈhə̤kɨ/ [bɨˈhə̤ːkɨ] - "bake" is combined with /ˈkʷɨ̤sːɨ/ [ˈkʷṳsːɨ] - "ocean fish", the result is /bɨˈʔə̤kɨkʷɨsɨ/ [bɨˈʔə̤ːkukʷusɨ] - "baked (ocean) fish". Because the /kʷ/ in the word for "fish" is strong, it causes the /h/ in the word for "bake" to shift to a glottal stop.

There is a very strong preference to make endocentric compounds from words that have identical voicing on the stressed syllable. For example, the word /ˈxa̰ɾʲɨ/ [ˈxæ̰ːɾʲḭ] - "freshwater fish", could, in theory, be compounded with /bɨˈhə̤kɨ/ [bɨˈhə̤ːkɨ] - "bake", to form /bɨˈʔə̤kɨxaɾʲɨ/ [bɨˈʔə̤ːkɨxæɾʲi] - "baked freshwater fish". However, since /bɨˈhə̤kɨ/ has breathy voice, and /ˈxa̰ɾʲɨ/ has tense voice, the resulting compound would strike native speakers as inelegant and clumsy.

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/ˈnə̰tʷɨ/ [ˈno̰ːtʷṵ] - "North", /gʷɨˈʔə̤/ [gʷuˈʔə̤ː] - "remain", /ˈnə̰tɨgʷɨʔə/ [ˈnə̰ːtṵgʷuʔə] - "person who did not migrate south to Antarctica, but rather stayed to take their chances on the northern continents" (literally "North remain").

===Nominalisation===

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===Verbalisation===

Similarly, nouns / adjectives (they are not distinguished in the grammar) can become verbs meaning "to make X" by shifting the stress to the right e.g. /ˈkə̰dːəmə/ [ˈkə̰dːəmə] - "child" becomes /kəˈdə̰mːə/ [kəˈdə̰mːə̰] - "to have a child", and /ˈka̤ɫːaʔɨdʷɨʔa/ [ˈkɑ̤ɫːɑ̤ʔudʷuʔa] - "warm" becomes /kaɫaˈʔɨdːʷɨʔa/ [~~ˈkɑɫɑˈʔṳdːʷṳʔa~~] - "to make warm".

Similarly, nouns / adjectives (they are not distinguished in the grammar) can become verbs meaning "to make X" by shifting the stress to the right e.g. /ˈkə̰dːəmə/ [ˈkə̰dːəmə] - "child" becomes /kəˈdə̰mːə/ [kəˈdə̰mːə̰] - "to have a child", and /ˈka̤ɫːaʔɨdʷɨʔa/ [ˈkɑ̤ɫːɑ̤ʔudʷuʔa] - "warm" becomes /kaɫaˈʔɨdːʷɨʔa/ [kɑɫɑˈʔṳdːʷṳʔa] - "to make warm".

There are also many irregular verbalisations e.g. /ˈkʷa̰jːa/ [ˈkʷœ̰jːæ̰] - "fire" becomes /~~ˈkʷaˈja̤~~/ [kʷœˈjæ̤ː] - "to burn", and /maˈhɨ̤ɻːɨ/ [maˈhɤ̤ɻːɤ̤] - "goop / mush" becomes /mʲɨˈɾʲɨ̰/ [mʲiˈɾʲḭː] - "to mash up".

There are also many irregular verbalisations e.g. /ˈkʷa̰jːa/ [ˈkʷœ̰jːæ̰] - "fire" becomes /kʷaˈja̤/ [kʷœˈjæ̤ː] - "to burn", and /maˈhɨ̤ɻːɨ/ [maˈhɤ̤ɻːɤ̤] - "goop / mush" becomes /mʲɨˈɾʲɨ̰/ [mʲiˈɾʲḭː] - "to mash up".

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Also, the honorific human prefix /hɨʔa-/ and the prefix for children /kɨʔa-/ labialise any following dorsal consonant (palatal, velar and uvular). The only exception to this is lateral consonants, which have no labialised equivalents.

===Possession===

====Possessive Pronouns====

Possessive pronouns occupy the same syntactic "slot" as adnominal demonstratives and noun class particles. They also cause replacement of any subsequent glottal consonant, and have different allomorphs depending on the stressed vowel phonation of the following word.

{| class="wikitable"

|-

! Class !! Breathy Phonation !! Tense Phonation !! Breathy Phonation + Initial Glottal Cons. !! Tense Phonation + Initial Glottal Cons.

|-

| 1st Person Singular || mə- || mɨha- || mɨhəj- || mɨhaj-

|-

| 1st Person Plural || haɴsɨ- || haɴsɨ- || haɴs- || haɴs-

|-

| 2nd Person || jəhɨ- || jəhɨ- || jɨw- || jɨw-

|-

| 3rd Person Masculine Singular || qɨɻɨ- || qɨɾʲɨ- || qɨɻ- || qɨɾʲ-

|-

| 3rd Person Feminine Singular || qɨ- || qɨ- || kɨʀ- || kɨʀ-

|-

| 3rd Person Nonhuman|| hɨsɨ- || hɨsɨ- || hɨs- || hɨs-

|-

| 3rd Person Plural || dʷɨʔə- || dʷɨʔa- || dɨʔəʀ- || dɨʔaʀ-

|-

| 3rd Person Honorific || jɨɫɨ- || jɨɫɨ- || jɨɫ- || jɨɫ-

|-

| 3rd Person Topicalised Possessor || həɴ- || həʔɨɴ- || hən- || həʔɨn-

|}

====Alienable and Inalienable Possession====

If a noun is possessed by a pronoun, possessive grammar is relatively simple. But if the possessor is another noun in the sentence, then things get more complicated.

The same pronouns as above are used to mark the possessed noun, but the location of the possessor depends on whether or not the possession is alienable or inalienable.

In the case of inalienable possession, the word order is Possessed - Possessor e.g.

dɨʔa=bəˈhɨ̰ɴ ɾʲɨmʲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰

3PS.POSS.PL=bone animal.PL=dog

Dogs' bones (in their bodies)

In the case of alienable possession, the word order is the opposite (i.e. Possessor - Possessed) e.g.

ɾʲɨmʲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰ dɨʔa=bəˈhɨ̰ɴ

animal.PL=dog 3PS.POSS.PL=bone

Dogs' bones (that they eat / play with / bury etc.)

==Verb Morphology==

Unlike nouns, verbs have a complex morphology. The verb template is: [Relativiser] [TAM Prefix] [Transitivity / Object Pronoun / Hierarchical Prefix] Stem [TAM Suffix]. Affixes have different allomorphs depending on whether the stressed syllable of the root has breathy or tense voice. Additionally, if a prefix is followed by a glottal consonant, then that consonant is deleted and replaced with another consonant that is determined by the prefix (like demonstrative clitics).

===Pronominal Objects===

If the direct object of a verb is a pronoun, it is marked by a prefix.

{| class="wikitable"

|-

! TAM !! Breathy Phonation !! Tense Phonation !! Breathy Phonation + Initial Glottal Cons. !! Tense Phonation + Initial Glottal Cons.

|-

| 1PS Singular || mɨhə- || mɨha- || mɨʔəh- || mɨʔəh-

|-

| 2PS || tɨhə- || tɨha- || tɨʔəh- || tɨʔəh-

|-

| 1PS Plural || nɨha- * || nə- || nɨhas- || nəs-

|-

| Reflexive || sɨhə- || sɨha- || sɨʔəh- || sɨʔəh-

|}

The prefix /nɨha-/ labialises the following consonant (if possible), for example when it attaches to /kaɫaˈʔɨdːʷɨʔa/ [kɑɫɑˈʔṳdːʷṳʔa] - "to make warm"., the result is /nɨʔa-kʷaɫaˈʔɨdːʷɨʔa/ [nɨʔa-kʷɒɫɑˈʔṳdːʷṳʔa] - "to make us warm".

===Inverse Marking===

If a transitive verb does not have a pronominal object prefix, then it must usually be marked as either direct (unmarked) or inverse (with the prefix gatɨ- / gat-). Direct marking is used when the subject has greater animacy than the object. The animacy hierarchy is Lords etc. > Men > Women (their culture is quite sexist) > Children > Animals > Plants > Anything else. Inverse marking is used when the object has greater animacy than the subject. Marking on the verb overrides word order when determining subject and object e.g. both the below sentences have direct marking.

/dʷə=ˈma̤ɴ ˈbə̤tɨ-ta hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰/

human.PL.INDEF=man bite=PST.TEL animal.SG.INDEF=dog

Some men bit a dog.

/hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰ ˈbə̤tɨ-ta dʷə=ˈma̤ɴ/

animal.SG.INDEF=dog bite=PST.TEL human.PL.INDEF=man

A dog was bitten by some men.

While both the below sentences have inverse marking:

/dʷə=ˈma̤ɴ gatɨ-ˈbə̤tɨ-ta hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰/

human.PL.INDEF=man INV-bite=PST.TEL animal.SG.INDEF=dog

Some men were bitten by a dog.

/hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰ gatɨ-ˈbə̤tɨ-ta dʷə=ˈma̤ɴ/

animal.SG.INDEF=dog INV-bite=PST.TEL human.PL.INDEF=man

A dog bit some men.

If both the agent and the patient of a transitive verb are equal on the animacy hierarchy, whichever one is earlier in the sentence counts as more animate e.g.

/ɾʲɨɴ=ˈça̰ɾʲɨ ˈbə̤tɨ-ta hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰/

animal.PL.INDEF=fish bite-PST.TEL animal.SG.INDEF=dog

Some fish bit a dog.

/hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰ ˈbə̤tɨ-ta ɾʲɨɴ=ˈça̰ɾʲɨ/

animal.SG.INDEF=dog bite-PST.TEL animal.PL.INDEF=fish

A dog bit some fish.

/ɾʲɨɴ=ˈça̰ɾʲɨ gatɨ-ˈbə̤tɨ-ta hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰/

animal.PL.INDEF=fish INV-bite-PST.TEL animal.SG.INDEF=dog

Some fish were bitten by a dog.

/hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰ gatɨ-ˈbə̤tɨ-ta ɾʲɨɴ=ˈça̰ɾʲɨ/

animal.SG.INDEF=dog INV-bite-PST.TEL animal.PL.INDEF=fish

A dog was bitten by some fish.

===Reciprocal Voice===

To express the meaning of "each other" or "one another", the first syllable of the verb root is reduplicated e.g. from /ˈbə̤tɨ/ - "to bite", the verb /bəˈbə̤tɨ/ - "to bite each other" can be derived.

===Intransitivisation===

Many intransitive verbs are derived from transitive verbs with the prefix /ba-/ e.g. /cɨtanaˈhɨ̰/ [citanaˈhɨ̰ː] - "to make dirty" becomes /ba-cɨtanaˈhɨ̰/ [ba-citanaˈhɨ̰ː] - "to become dirty".

===Tense / Aspect / Mood===

TAM can be marked by prefixes, suffixes or circumfixes, that come before the previously mentioned prefixes.

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telicity Telicity] is very important in the TAM system. Except for future, negative and conditional forms, verbs are marked for telic vs. atelic aspect.

{| class="wikitable"

|-

! TAM !! Breathy Phonation !! Tense Phonation !! Breathy Phonation + Initial Glottal Cons. !! Tense Phonation + Initial Glottal Cons.

|-

| Present Atelic || ja- || ja- || jah- || jah-

|-

| Present Telic || gʷɨʔə- || gʷɨʔa- || bɨʔəʁ- || bɨʔaʁ-

|-

| Future || ɥɨha- || jə- || ɥɨʔah- || jəh-

|-

| Nonpast Conditional || ŋa- || ŋa- || ŋah- || ŋah-

|-

| Past Atelic || -ta || -ta || -ta || -ta

|-

| Past Telic || gʷɨʔə- -ta || gʷɨʔa- -ta || bɨʔəʁ- -ta || bɨʔaʁ- -ta

|-

| Past Conditional || ŋa- -ta || ŋa- -ta || ŋah- -ta || ŋah- -ta

|-

| Nonfuture Atelic Benefactive || -kɨ / -ja || -kɨ / -ja || -kɨ / -ja || -kɨ / -ja

|-

| Nonfuture Telic Benefactive || gʷɨʔə- -kɨ / -ja || gʷɨʔa- -kɨ / -ja || bɨʔəʁ- -kɨ / -ja || bɨʔaʁ- -kɨ / -ja

|-

| Future Benefactive || ɥɨha- -kɨ / -ja || jə- -kɨ / -ja || ɥɨʔah- -kɨ / -ja || jəh- -kɨ / -ja

|-

| Conditional Benefactive || ŋa- -kɨ / -ja || ŋa- -kɨ / -ja || ŋah- -kɨ / -ja || ŋah- -kɨ / -ja

|-

| Nonfuture Atelic Applicative || -ŋɨ || -ŋɨ || -ŋɨ || -ŋɨ

|-

| Nonfuture Telic Applicative || gʷɨʔə- -ŋɨ || gʷɨʔa- -ŋɨ || bɨʔəʁ- -ŋɨ || bɨʔaʁ- -ŋɨ

|-

| Future Applicative || ɥɨha- -ŋɨ || jə- -ŋɨ || ɥɨʔah- -ŋɨ || jəh- -ŋɨ

|-

| Conditional Applicative || ŋa- -ŋɨ || ŋa- -ŋɨ || ŋah- -ŋɨ || ŋah- -ŋɨ

|-

| Nonpast Negative || na- || na- || nat- || nat-

|-

| Conditional Negative || ŋa- -nakata || ŋa- -nakata || ŋah- -nakata || ŋah- -nakata

|-

| Past Negative || -nakata || -nakata || -nakata || -nakata

|-

| Atelic Nonfuture Irrealis || ja- -ʈa || ja- -ʈa || jah- -ʈa || jah- -ʈa

|-

| Telic Nonfuture Irrealis || gʷɨʔə- -ʈa || gʷɨʔa- -ʈa || bɨʔəʁ- -ʈa || bɨʔaʁ- -ʈa

|-

| Future Irrealis || ɥɨha- -ʈa || jə- -ʈa || ɥɨʔah- -ʈa || jəh- -ʈa

|-

| Conditional Irrealis || ŋa- -ʈa || ŋa- -ʈa || ŋah- -ʈa || ŋah- -ʈa

|-

| Atelic Nonfuture Optative || -tɨ || -tɨ || -tɨ || -tɨ

|-

| Telic Nonfuture Optative || gʷɨʔə- -tɨ || gʷɨʔa- -tɨ || bɨʔəʁ- -tɨ || bɨʔaʁ- -tɨ

|-

| Future Optative || ɥɨha- -tɨ || jə- -tɨ || ɥɨʔah- -tɨ || jəh- -tɨ

|-

| Conditional Optative || ŋa- -tɨ || ŋa- -tɨ || ŋah- -tɨ || ŋah- -tɨ

|-

| Negative Optative || na- -tɨ || na- -tɨ || nat- -tɨ || nat- -tɨ

|-

| Gerund || -ʈa || -ʈa || -ʈa || -ʈa

|}

The benefactive form is used for actions that are done for the benefit of the speaker (if suffixed with -kɨ), or for the listener (if suffixed with -ja). For example, the root /wɨdɨkʷaˈja̤/ [wudukʷœˈjæ̤ː] - "to burn dried wood" can take the nonfuture telic benefective to become /bɨʔə-wɨdɨkʷaˈja̤-kɨ/ [bɨʔowudukʷœˈjæ̤ːkɨ] - "burnt up the dried wood for me", or /bɨʔə-wɨdɨkʷaˈja̤-ja/ [bɨʔowudukʷœˈjæ̤ːæ̤] - "burnt up the dried wood for you".

The irrealis forms are used for events that the speaker considers hypothetical, or at least unlikely e.g. the telic nonfuture irrealis /bɨʔə-wɨdɨkʷaˈja̤-ʈa/ [bɨʔowudukʷœˈjɐ̤ːʈɑ] - "would have burnt up the dried wood".

The optative is used to express commands and hopes e.g. /bɨʔə-wɨdɨkʷaˈja̤-tɨ/ [bɨʔowudukʷœˈjæ̤ː-tɨ] - "hopefully burnt up the dried wood".

The future optative is used for things that need to be done sometime in the future, as opposed to now e.g. /ɥɨʔa-wɨdɨkʷaˈja̤-tɨ/ [ɥyʔawudukʷœˈjæ̤ːtɨ] - "should burn the dried wood" (but not now, sometime in the future, perhaps when winter comes).

The conditional optative is a conditional form that is used for things that are / were supposed to have been done (e.g. as a duty). For example /ŋa-wɨdɨkʷaˈja̤-tɨ/ [ŋawudukʷœˈjæ̤ːtɨ] - "if ... had burned the dried wood" (which ... was supposed to do).

===Relativisation===

Verbs in relative clauses are marked by the prefix /gʷa-/ e.g.

dʷɨs=ɨˈɲɨ̰ gʷa-ˈbə̤tɨ-ta hɨmɨ=bəˈhɨ̰ɴ

this=dog REL-bite-PST.TEL bodypart.SG.INDEF=bone

This dog that bit a bone.

Transitive verbs in relative clauses must still take direct and inverse marking e.g. compare

dʷɨs=ɨˈɲɨ̰ gʷa-gatɨ-ˈbə̤tɨ-ta dʷə=ˈma̤ɴ

this=dog REL-INV-bite-PST.TEL human.PL.INDEF=man

This dog that bit some men.

and

dʷɨs=ɨˈɲɨ̰ gʷa-ˈbə̤tɨ-ta dʷə=ˈma̤ɴ

this=dog REL-bite-PST.TEL human.PL.INDEF=man

This dog that some men bit.

==Sentence Level Syntax==

The word order is quite strict, but is not connected with subjects and objects. The word order is as follows: [Topicalised / Proximate Noun] [Wh-Phrase] [Verb] [Obviate Nouns] [Adverbs].

==Copula==

In North-East Antarctican, the copula is the particle /haˈʔɨ̤sːɨ/. This can be used for nominal predication e.g.

dʷaˈʔɨ̤ːɻɨ haˈʔɨ̤sːɨ ɾʲɨmʲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰

these COP animal.PL.INDEF=dog

These are dogs.

It can also be used for locational predication (with a locative noun class marker) e.g.

mɨhaj=ɨˈɲɨ̰ haˈʔɨ̤sːɨ kɨwaˈn=ɨ̰mːʲɨ

1PS.SG.POSS=dog COP LOC.SG.INDEF=fjord

My dog is at a fjord.

Finally, it can also be used for adjectival predication e.g.

mɨhaj=ɨˈɲɨ̰ haˈʔɨ̤sːɨ ˈka̤ɫːaʔɨdʷɨʔa

1PS.SG.POSS=dog COP warm

My dog is warm.

However, it is important to note that, unlike English, the copula /haˈʔɨ̤sːɨ/ is a particle and not a verb, and does not take TAM or other inflections.

==Predicative Possession==

Like English, there is a transitive verb meaning "to have", /ˈka̤gːʷɨ/ e.g.

dʷəɻɨ=ˈma̤ɴ ja-ˈka̤gːʷɨ ɾʲɨmʲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰

those=man PRES.ATEL-have animal.PL.INDEF=dog

Those men have dogs.

Normally, /ˈka̤gːʷɨ/ is used with atelic prefixes. With telic prefixes, it means "get" or "obtain" e.g.

dʷəɻɨ=ˈma̤ɴ bɨʔa-ˈka̤gːʷɨ ɾʲɨmʲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰

those=man PRES.TEL-have animal.PL.INDEF=dog

Those men got dogs.

==Comparative Constructions==

North-East Antarctican has different comparative constructions depending on what the two things are being compared in terms of.

===Adjectives/Nouns===

To say "A is more X than B", where X is an adjective or noun, North-East Antarctican replaces the particle /haˈʔɨ̤sːɨ/ with the particle /ma̤sːɨ/. For example, from the following sentence:

mɨhaj=ɨˈɲɨ̰ haˈʔɨ̤sːɨ ˈka̤ɫːaʔɨdʷɨʔa

1PS.SG.POSS=dog COP warm

My dog is warm.

we can derive a comparative sentence:

mɨhaj=ɨˈɲɨ̰ ma̤sːɨ ˈka̤ɫːaʔɨdʷɨʔa jɨw=ɨˈɲɨ̰

1PS.SG.POSS=dog CMPR warm 2PS.POSS=dog

My dog is warmer than your dog.

===Verbs===

To say "A does X more than B", B takes the preposition /dʷa̤ɴ/ e.g.

mɨhaj=ɨˈɲɨ̰ ja-bə~ˈbə̤tɨ dʷa̤ɴ jɨw=ɨˈɲɨ̰

1PS.SG.POSS=dog PRES.ATEL-RECP-bite more.than 2PS.POSS=dog

My dogs bite each other more than your dogs.

[[Category:Languages]]

[[Category:North-East Antarctican]]

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 However, it differs from English in many other ways. Syntactically, it prefers SVO, but is less strict than English, often allowing words to be fronted as topics, or elided if they are obvious from context. This does not create ambiguities, since verbs have hierarchical person marking. The language also marks [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inalienable_possession alienable and inalienable possession]. Phonologically, the language uses secondary articulation to contrast a very large number of consonant phonemes, however the phonotactics are extremely restrictive, and most dialects have a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_vowel_system Vertical Vowel System] (the ones that do not still preserve an older system with vowel harmony).
-Even though the dialects are easily mutually intelligible, there is no one name for the dialect cluster. The most commonly used one is /ˈʀɨ̤ŋːasɨ̤/ [ˈʁɤ̤ŋːa̤sɨ]. However, some communities strongly prefer to refer to it as /kɨˈʎə̰ɴbə/ [kiˈʎḛɴbə]. A third, neutral term is /ʔaʔɨʈaˈʔɨ̤ːwamaɴɻahɨ/ [ʔaʔɤʈɑˈʔṳːwa̤mɑ̤ɳɻɑ̤hɨ], however this has an extremely stilted, formal flavour and is rarely used.
+Even though the dialects are easily mutually intelligible, there is no one name for the dialect cluster. The most commonly used one is /ˈʀɨ̤ŋːasɨ̤/ [ˈʁɤ̤ŋːa̤sɨ]. However, some communities strongly prefer to refer to it as /kɨˈʎə̰ɴbə/ [kiˈʎḛɴbə].
 ==Phonology==
@@ Line 190: / Line 190: @@
 Compounds are head final. Stress, phonation and gemination are lost on all but the first member of the compound e.g. /ˈkə̰tə/ [ˈkə̰ːtə̰] - "short", and /ˈkʷə̰sa/ [ˈkʷo̰ːsa] - "throwing spear" combine to make /ˈkə̰təkʷəsa/ [ˈkə̰ːto̰kʷo̰sa] - "dart" (literally "short spear").
-The restriction against more than one strong consonant in a word applies to compound words e.g. when /bɨˈhə̤kɨ/ [bɨˈhə̤ːkɨ] - "bake" is combined with /ˈkʷɨ̤sːɨ/ [ˈkʷṳsːa] - "ocean fish", the result is /bɨˈʔə̤kɨkʷɨsɨ/ [bɨˈʔə̤ːkukʷusɨ] - "baked (ocean) fish". Because the /kʷ/ in the word for "fish" is strong, it causes the /h/ in the word for "bake" to shift to a glottal stop.
+The restriction against more than one strong consonant in a word applies to compound words e.g. when /bɨˈhə̤kɨ/ [bɨˈhə̤ːkɨ] - "bake" is combined with /ˈkʷɨ̤sːɨ/ [ˈkʷṳsːɨ] - "ocean fish", the result is /bɨˈʔə̤kɨkʷɨsɨ/ [bɨˈʔə̤ːkukʷusɨ] - "baked (ocean) fish". Because the /kʷ/ in the word for "fish" is strong, it causes the /h/ in the word for "bake" to shift to a glottal stop.
 There is a very strong preference to make endocentric compounds from words that have identical voicing on the stressed syllable. For example, the word /ˈxa̰ɾʲɨ/ [ˈxæ̰ːɾʲḭ] - "freshwater fish", could, in theory, be compounded with /bɨˈhə̤kɨ/ [bɨˈhə̤ːkɨ] - "bake", to form /bɨˈʔə̤kɨxaɾʲɨ/ [bɨˈʔə̤ːkɨxæɾʲi] - "baked freshwater fish". However, since /bɨˈhə̤kɨ/ has breathy voice, and /ˈxa̰ɾʲɨ/ has tense voice, the resulting compound would strike native speakers as inelegant and clumsy.
@@ Line 213: / Line 213: @@
 /ˈnə̰tʷɨ/ [ˈno̰ːtʷṵ] - "North", /gʷɨˈʔə̤/ [gʷuˈʔə̤ː] - "remain", /ˈnə̰tɨgʷɨʔə/ [ˈnə̰ːtṵgʷuʔə] - "person who did not migrate south to Antarctica, but rather stayed to take their chances on the northern continents" (literally "North remain").
 ===Nominalisation===
@@ Line 229: / Line 228: @@
 ===Verbalisation===
-Similarly, nouns / adjectives (they are not distinguished in the grammar) can become verbs meaning "to make X" by shifting the stress to the right e.g. /ˈkə̰dːəmə/ [ˈkə̰dːəmə] - "child" becomes /kəˈdə̰mːə/ [kəˈdə̰mːə̰] - "to have a child", and /ˈka̤ɫːaʔɨdʷɨʔa/ [ˈkɑ̤ɫːɑ̤ʔudʷuʔa] - "warm" becomes /kaɫaˈʔɨdːʷɨʔa/ [ˈkɑɫɑˈʔṳdːʷṳʔa] - "to make warm".
+Similarly, nouns / adjectives (they are not distinguished in the grammar) can become verbs meaning "to make X" by shifting the stress to the right e.g. /ˈkə̰dːəmə/ [ˈkə̰dːəmə] - "child" becomes /kəˈdə̰mːə/ [kəˈdə̰mːə̰] - "to have a child", and /ˈka̤ɫːaʔɨdʷɨʔa/ [ˈkɑ̤ɫːɑ̤ʔudʷuʔa] - "warm" becomes /kaɫaˈʔɨdːʷɨʔa/ [kɑɫɑˈʔṳdːʷṳʔa] - "to make warm".
-There are also many irregular verbalisations e.g. /ˈkʷa̰jːa/ [ˈkʷœ̰jːæ̰] - "fire" becomes /ˈkʷaˈja̤/ [kʷœˈjæ̤ː] - "to burn", and /maˈhɨ̤ɻːɨ/ [maˈhɤ̤ɻːɤ̤] - "goop / mush" becomes /mʲɨˈɾʲɨ̰/ [mʲiˈɾʲḭː] - "to mash up".
+There are also many irregular verbalisations e.g. /ˈkʷa̰jːa/ [ˈkʷœ̰jːæ̰] - "fire" becomes /kʷaˈja̤/ [kʷœˈjæ̤ː] - "to burn", and /maˈhɨ̤ɻːɨ/ [maˈhɤ̤ɻːɤ̤] - "goop / mush" becomes /mʲɨˈɾʲɨ̰/ [mʲiˈɾʲḭː] - "to mash up".
@@ Line 354: / Line 353: @@
 Also, the honorific human prefix /hɨʔa-/ and the prefix for children /kɨʔa-/ labialise any following dorsal consonant (palatal, velar and uvular). The only exception to this is lateral consonants, which have no labialised equivalents.
+===Possession===
+====Possessive Pronouns====
+Possessive pronouns occupy the same syntactic "slot" as adnominal demonstratives and noun class particles. They also cause replacement of any subsequent glottal consonant, and have different allomorphs depending on the stressed vowel phonation of the following word.
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+! Class !! Breathy Phonation !! Tense Phonation !! Breathy Phonation + Initial Glottal Cons. !! Tense Phonation + Initial Glottal Cons.
+|-
+| 1st Person Singular || mə- || mɨha- || mɨhəj- || mɨhaj-
+|-
+| 1st Person Plural || haɴsɨ- || haɴsɨ- || haɴs- || haɴs-
+|-
+| 2nd Person || jəhɨ- || jəhɨ- || jɨw- || jɨw-
+|-
+| 3rd Person Masculine Singular || qɨɻɨ- || qɨɾʲɨ- || qɨɻ- || qɨɾʲ-
+|-
+| 3rd Person Feminine Singular || qɨ- || qɨ- || kɨʀ- || kɨʀ-
+|-
+| 3rd Person Nonhuman|| hɨsɨ- || hɨsɨ- || hɨs- || hɨs-
+|-
+| 3rd Person Plural || dʷɨʔə- || dʷɨʔa- || dɨʔəʀ- || dɨʔaʀ-
+|-
+| 3rd Person Honorific || jɨɫɨ- || jɨɫɨ- || jɨɫ- || jɨɫ-
+|-
+| 3rd Person Topicalised Possessor || həɴ- || həʔɨɴ- || hən- || həʔɨn-
+|}
+====Alienable and Inalienable Possession====
+If a noun is possessed by a pronoun, possessive grammar is relatively simple. But if the possessor is another noun in the sentence, then things get more complicated.
+The same pronouns as above are used to mark the possessed noun, but the location of the possessor depends on whether or not the possession is alienable or inalienable.
+In the case of inalienable possession, the word order is Possessed - Possessor e.g.
+dɨʔa=bəˈhɨ̰ɴ     ɾʲɨmʲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰
+PS.POSS.PL=bone animal.PL=dog
+Dogs' bones (in their bodies)
+In the case of alienable possession, the word order is the opposite (i.e. Possessor - Possessed) e.g.
+ɾʲɨmʲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰ dɨʔa=bəˈhɨ̰ɴ
+animal.PL=dog 3PS.POSS.PL=bone
+Dogs' bones (that they eat / play with / bury etc.)
+==Verb Morphology==
+Unlike nouns, verbs have a complex morphology. The verb template is: [Relativiser] [TAM Prefix] [Transitivity / Object Pronoun / Hierarchical Prefix] Stem [TAM Suffix]. Affixes have different allomorphs depending on whether the stressed syllable of the root has breathy or tense voice. Additionally, if a prefix is followed by a glottal consonant, then that consonant is deleted and replaced with another consonant that is determined by the prefix (like demonstrative clitics).
+===Pronominal Objects===
+If the direct object of a verb is a pronoun, it is marked by a prefix.
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+! TAM !! Breathy Phonation !! Tense Phonation !! Breathy Phonation + Initial Glottal Cons. !! Tense Phonation + Initial Glottal Cons.
+|-
+| 1PS Singular || mɨhə- || mɨha- || mɨʔəh- || mɨʔəh-
+|-
+| 2PS || tɨhə- || tɨha- || tɨʔəh- || tɨʔəh-
+|-
+| 1PS Plural || nɨha- * || nə- || nɨhas- || nəs-
+|-
+| Reflexive || sɨhə- || sɨha- || sɨʔəh- || sɨʔəh-
+|}
+The prefix /nɨha-/ labialises the following consonant (if possible), for example when it attaches to /kaɫaˈʔɨdːʷɨʔa/ [kɑɫɑˈʔṳdːʷṳʔa] - "to make warm"., the result is /nɨʔa-kʷaɫaˈʔɨdːʷɨʔa/ [nɨʔa-kʷɒɫɑˈʔṳdːʷṳʔa] - "to make us warm".
+===Inverse Marking===
+If a transitive verb does not have a pronominal object prefix, then it must usually be marked as either direct (unmarked) or inverse (with the prefix gatɨ- / gat-). Direct marking is used when the subject has greater animacy than the object. The animacy hierarchy is Lords etc. > Men > Women (their culture is quite sexist) > Children > Animals > Plants > Anything else. Inverse marking is used when the object has greater animacy than the subject. Marking on the verb overrides word order when determining subject and object e.g. both the below sentences have direct marking.
+/dʷə=ˈma̤ɴ ˈbə̤tɨ-ta hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰/
+human.PL.INDEF=man bite=PST.TEL animal.SG.INDEF=dog
+Some men bit a dog.
+/hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰ ˈbə̤tɨ-ta dʷə=ˈma̤ɴ/
+animal.SG.INDEF=dog bite=PST.TEL  human.PL.INDEF=man
+A dog was bitten by some men.
+While both the below sentences have inverse marking:
+/dʷə=ˈma̤ɴ gatɨ-ˈbə̤tɨ-ta hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰/
+human.PL.INDEF=man INV-bite=PST.TEL animal.SG.INDEF=dog
+Some men were bitten by a dog.
+/hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰ gatɨ-ˈbə̤tɨ-ta dʷə=ˈma̤ɴ/
+animal.SG.INDEF=dog INV-bite=PST.TEL  human.PL.INDEF=man
+A dog bit some men.
+If both the agent and the patient of a transitive verb are equal on the animacy hierarchy, whichever one is earlier in the sentence counts as more animate e.g.
+/ɾʲɨɴ=ˈça̰ɾʲɨ ˈbə̤tɨ-ta hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰/
+animal.PL.INDEF=fish bite-PST.TEL animal.SG.INDEF=dog
+Some fish bit a dog.
+/hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰ ˈbə̤tɨ-ta ɾʲɨɴ=ˈça̰ɾʲɨ/
+animal.SG.INDEF=dog bite-PST.TEL  animal.PL.INDEF=fish
+A dog bit some fish.
+/ɾʲɨɴ=ˈça̰ɾʲɨ gatɨ-ˈbə̤tɨ-ta hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰/
+animal.PL.INDEF=fish INV-bite-PST.TEL animal.SG.INDEF=dog
+Some fish were bitten by a dog.
+/hɨɲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰ gatɨ-ˈbə̤tɨ-ta ɾʲɨɴ=ˈça̰ɾʲɨ/
+animal.SG.INDEF=dog INV-bite-PST.TEL  animal.PL.INDEF=fish
+A dog was bitten by some fish.
+===Reciprocal Voice===
+To express the meaning of "each other" or "one another", the first syllable of the verb root is reduplicated e.g. from /ˈbə̤tɨ/ - "to bite", the verb /bəˈbə̤tɨ/ - "to bite each other" can be derived.
+===Intransitivisation===
+Many intransitive verbs are derived from transitive verbs with the prefix /ba-/ e.g. /cɨtanaˈhɨ̰/ [citanaˈhɨ̰ː] - "to make dirty" becomes /ba-cɨtanaˈhɨ̰/ [ba-citanaˈhɨ̰ː] - "to become dirty".
+===Tense / Aspect / Mood===
+TAM can be marked by prefixes, suffixes or circumfixes, that come before the previously mentioned prefixes.
+[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telicity Telicity] is very important in the TAM system. Except for future, negative and conditional forms, verbs are marked for telic vs. atelic aspect.
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+! TAM !! Breathy Phonation !! Tense Phonation !! Breathy Phonation + Initial Glottal Cons. !! Tense Phonation + Initial Glottal Cons.
+|-
+| Present Atelic || ja- || ja- || jah- || jah-
+|-
+| Present Telic || gʷɨʔə- || gʷɨʔa- || bɨʔəʁ- || bɨʔaʁ-
+|-
+| Future || ɥɨha- || jə- || ɥɨʔah- || jəh-
+|-
+| Nonpast Conditional || ŋa- || ŋa- || ŋah- || ŋah-
+|-
+| Past Atelic || -ta || -ta || -ta || -ta
+|-
+| Past Telic || gʷɨʔə- -ta || gʷɨʔa- -ta || bɨʔəʁ- -ta || bɨʔaʁ- -ta
+|-
+| Past Conditional || ŋa- -ta || ŋa- -ta || ŋah- -ta || ŋah- -ta
+|-
+| Nonfuture Atelic Benefactive || -kɨ / -ja || -kɨ / -ja  || -kɨ / -ja || -kɨ / -ja
+|-
+| Nonfuture Telic Benefactive || gʷɨʔə- -kɨ / -ja || gʷɨʔa- -kɨ / -ja || bɨʔəʁ- -kɨ / -ja || bɨʔaʁ- -kɨ / -ja
+|-
+| Future Benefactive || ɥɨha- -kɨ / -ja || jə- -kɨ / -ja || ɥɨʔah- -kɨ / -ja || jəh- -kɨ / -ja
+|-
+| Conditional Benefactive || ŋa- -kɨ / -ja || ŋa- -kɨ / -ja || ŋah- -kɨ / -ja || ŋah- -kɨ / -ja
+|-
+| Nonfuture Atelic Applicative || -ŋɨ || -ŋɨ || -ŋɨ || -ŋɨ
+|-
+| Nonfuture Telic Applicative || gʷɨʔə- -ŋɨ || gʷɨʔa- -ŋɨ || bɨʔəʁ- -ŋɨ || bɨʔaʁ- -ŋɨ
+|-
+| Future Applicative || ɥɨha- -ŋɨ || jə- -ŋɨ || ɥɨʔah- -ŋɨ || jəh- -ŋɨ
+|-
+| Conditional Applicative || ŋa- -ŋɨ || ŋa- -ŋɨ || ŋah- -ŋɨ || ŋah- -ŋɨ
+|-
+| Nonpast Negative || na- || na- || nat- || nat-
+|-
+| Conditional Negative || ŋa- -nakata || ŋa- -nakata || ŋah- -nakata || ŋah- -nakata
+|-
+| Past Negative || -nakata || -nakata || -nakata || -nakata
+|-
+| Atelic Nonfuture Irrealis || ja- -ʈa || ja- -ʈa || jah- -ʈa || jah- -ʈa
+|-
+| Telic Nonfuture Irrealis || gʷɨʔə- -ʈa || gʷɨʔa- -ʈa || bɨʔəʁ- -ʈa || bɨʔaʁ- -ʈa
+|-
+| Future Irrealis || ɥɨha- -ʈa || jə- -ʈa || ɥɨʔah- -ʈa || jəh- -ʈa
+|-
+| Conditional Irrealis || ŋa- -ʈa || ŋa- -ʈa || ŋah- -ʈa || ŋah- -ʈa
+|-
+| Atelic Nonfuture Optative || -tɨ || -tɨ || -tɨ || -tɨ
+|-
+| Telic Nonfuture Optative || gʷɨʔə- -tɨ || gʷɨʔa- -tɨ || bɨʔəʁ- -tɨ || bɨʔaʁ- -tɨ
+|-
+| Future Optative || ɥɨha- -tɨ || jə- -tɨ || ɥɨʔah- -tɨ || jəh- -tɨ
+|-
+| Conditional Optative || ŋa- -tɨ || ŋa- -tɨ || ŋah- -tɨ || ŋah- -tɨ
+|-
+| Negative Optative || na- -tɨ || na- -tɨ || nat- -tɨ || nat- -tɨ
+|-
+| Gerund || -ʈa || -ʈa || -ʈa || -ʈa
+|}
+The benefactive form is used for actions that are done for the benefit of the speaker (if suffixed with -kɨ), or for the listener (if suffixed with -ja). For example, the root /wɨdɨkʷaˈja̤/ [wudukʷœˈjæ̤ː] - "to burn dried wood" can take the nonfuture telic benefective to become /bɨʔə-wɨdɨkʷaˈja̤-kɨ/ [bɨʔowudukʷœˈjæ̤ːkɨ] - "burnt up the dried wood for me", or /bɨʔə-wɨdɨkʷaˈja̤-ja/ [bɨʔowudukʷœˈjæ̤ːæ̤] - "burnt up the dried wood for you".
+The irrealis forms are used for events that the speaker considers hypothetical, or at least unlikely e.g. the telic nonfuture irrealis /bɨʔə-wɨdɨkʷaˈja̤-ʈa/ [bɨʔowudukʷœˈjɐ̤ːʈɑ] - "would have burnt up the dried wood".
+The optative is used to express commands and hopes e.g. /bɨʔə-wɨdɨkʷaˈja̤-tɨ/ [bɨʔowudukʷœˈjæ̤ː-tɨ] - "hopefully burnt up the dried wood".
+The future optative is used for things that need to be done sometime in the future, as opposed to now e.g. /ɥɨʔa-wɨdɨkʷaˈja̤-tɨ/ [ɥyʔawudukʷœˈjæ̤ːtɨ] - "should burn the dried wood" (but not now, sometime in the future, perhaps when winter comes).
+The conditional optative is a conditional form that is used for things that are / were supposed to have been done (e.g. as a duty). For example /ŋa-wɨdɨkʷaˈja̤-tɨ/ [ŋawudukʷœˈjæ̤ːtɨ] - "if ... had burned the dried wood" (which ... was supposed to do).
+===Relativisation===
+Verbs in relative clauses are marked by the prefix /gʷa-/ e.g.
+dʷɨs=ɨˈɲɨ̰ gʷa-ˈbə̤tɨ-ta hɨmɨ=bəˈhɨ̰ɴ
+this=dog REL-bite-PST.TEL bodypart.SG.INDEF=bone
+This dog that bit a bone.
+Transitive verbs in relative clauses must still take direct and inverse marking e.g. compare
+dʷɨs=ɨˈɲɨ̰ gʷa-gatɨ-ˈbə̤tɨ-ta dʷə=ˈma̤ɴ
+this=dog REL-INV-bite-PST.TEL human.PL.INDEF=man
+This dog that bit some men.
+and
+dʷɨs=ɨˈɲɨ̰ gʷa-ˈbə̤tɨ-ta dʷə=ˈma̤ɴ
+this=dog REL-bite-PST.TEL human.PL.INDEF=man
+This dog that some men bit.
+==Sentence Level Syntax==
+The word order is quite strict, but is not connected with subjects and objects. The word order is as follows: [Topicalised / Proximate Noun] [Wh-Phrase] [Verb] [Obviate Nouns] [Adverbs].
+==Copula==
+In North-East Antarctican, the copula is the particle /haˈʔɨ̤sːɨ/. This can be used for nominal predication e.g.
+dʷaˈʔɨ̤ːɻɨ haˈʔɨ̤sːɨ ɾʲɨmʲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰
+these COP animal.PL.INDEF=dog
+These are dogs.
+It can also be used for locational predication (with a locative noun class marker) e.g.
+mɨhaj=ɨˈɲɨ̰ haˈʔɨ̤sːɨ kɨwaˈn=ɨ̰mːʲɨ
+PS.SG.POSS=dog COP LOC.SG.INDEF=fjord
+My dog is at a fjord.
+Finally, it can also be used for adjectival predication e.g.
+mɨhaj=ɨˈɲɨ̰ haˈʔɨ̤sːɨ ˈka̤ɫːaʔɨdʷɨʔa
+PS.SG.POSS=dog COP warm
+My dog is warm.
+However, it is important to note that, unlike English, the copula /haˈʔɨ̤sːɨ/ is a particle and not a verb, and does not take TAM or other inflections.
+==Predicative Possession==
+Like English, there is a transitive verb meaning "to have", /ˈka̤gːʷɨ/ e.g.
+dʷəɻɨ=ˈma̤ɴ ja-ˈka̤gːʷɨ ɾʲɨmʲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰
+those=man PRES.ATEL-have animal.PL.INDEF=dog
+Those men have dogs.
+Normally, /ˈka̤gːʷɨ/ is used with atelic prefixes. With telic prefixes, it means "get" or "obtain" e.g.
+dʷəɻɨ=ˈma̤ɴ bɨʔa-ˈka̤gːʷɨ ɾʲɨmʲ=ɨˈɲɨ̰
+those=man PRES.TEL-have animal.PL.INDEF=dog
+Those men got dogs.
+==Comparative Constructions==
+North-East Antarctican has different comparative constructions depending on what the two things are being compared in terms of.
+===Adjectives/Nouns===
+To say "A is more X than B", where X is an adjective or noun, North-East Antarctican replaces the particle /haˈʔɨ̤sːɨ/ with the particle /ma̤sːɨ/. For example, from the following sentence:
+mɨhaj=ɨˈɲɨ̰ haˈʔɨ̤sːɨ ˈka̤ɫːaʔɨdʷɨʔa
+PS.SG.POSS=dog COP warm
+My dog is warm.
+we can derive a comparative sentence:
+mɨhaj=ɨˈɲɨ̰ ma̤sːɨ ˈka̤ɫːaʔɨdʷɨʔa 	jɨw=ɨˈɲɨ̰
+PS.SG.POSS=dog CMPR warm 2PS.POSS=dog
+My dog is warmer than your dog.
+===Verbs===
+To say "A does X more than B", B takes the preposition /dʷa̤ɴ/ e.g.
+mɨhaj=ɨˈɲɨ̰ ja-bə~ˈbə̤tɨ dʷa̤ɴ jɨw=ɨˈɲɨ̰
+PS.SG.POSS=dog PRES.ATEL-RECP-bite more.than 2PS.POSS=dog
+My dogs bite each other more than your dogs.
+[[Category:Languages]]
+[[Category:North-East Antarctican]]