Aryan: Difference between revisions
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|nativename = *Airás | |nativename = *Airás | ||
|pronunciation = əi̯ˈrəs | |pronunciation = əi̯ˈrəs | ||
|setting = Caucasus Mountains | |setting = Caucasus Mountains | ||
|era = {{gcl|c.|circa}}10,000–8,000 BC | |era = {{gcl|c.|circa}}10,000–8,000 BC | ||
|familycolor = Pangaean Code | |familycolor = [[Pangaean Code]] | ||
|ancestor = Transitional Dialect | |ancestor = Transitional Dialect | ||
|retrospection of = Indo-European Language Family | |retrospection of = Indo-European Language Family | ||
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Aryan (''*Airás'', pronounced /əi̯ˈrəs/) is an [[ab interiori language]] depicting the transition from [[Paleolithic Codes]] to [[w:Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE). There are no historical records of its existence, or comparative data to support it; rather, it is an abductive experiment based on the hypothesis of [[Transitional Dialects]]. | Aryan (''*Airás'', pronounced /əi̯ˈrəs/) is an [[ab interiori language]] depicting the transition from [[Paleolithic Codes]] to [[w:Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE). There are no historical records of its existence, or comparative data to support it; rather, it is an abductive experiment based on the hypothesis of [[Transitional Dialects]]. | ||
Aryan must have been spoken somewhere near the Caucasus Mountains in compliance with the [[w:Armenian hypothesis|Armenian Hypothesis]], which in its current form holds that the speakers of "Pre-Proto-Indo-European" pertained to the genepool of the [[w:Caucasus hunter-gatherer|Caucasian Hunter-Gatherers]] (CHG)<ref>Lazaridis et al (2022), ''The genetic history of the Southern Arc: a bridge between West Asia and Europe''</ref>, who would eventually contribute to the formation of the [[w:Yamnaya culture|Yamnaya Culture]] and the dispersion of "Core Proto-Indo-European" as detailed in the [[w:Kurgan hypothesis|Kurgan Hypothesis]]. The age of the language is more controversial, being set between 12,000 and 10,000 years Before Present (BP), or the double of its daughter-language's, to coincide with the notion of [[Linguistic Modernity]]. | In the hybrid model, Aryan must have been spoken somewhere near the Caucasus Mountains in compliance with the [[w:Armenian hypothesis|Armenian Hypothesis]], which in its current form holds that the speakers of "Pre-Proto-Indo-European" pertained to the genepool of the [[w:Caucasus hunter-gatherer|Caucasian Hunter-Gatherers]] (CHG)<ref>Lazaridis et al (2022), ''The genetic history of the Southern Arc: a bridge between West Asia and Europe''</ref>, who would eventually contribute to the formation of the [[w:Yamnaya culture|Yamnaya Culture]] and the dispersion of "Core Proto-Indo-European" as detailed in the [[w:Kurgan hypothesis|Kurgan Hypothesis]]. The age of the language is more controversial, being set between 12,000 and 10,000 years Before Present (BP), or the double of its daughter-language's, to coincide with the notion of [[Linguistic Modernity]]. | ||
==History== | ==History== | ||
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|''*ud-rós'' "aquatic" | |''*ud-rós'' "aquatic" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | | ''ˈɗ̟ɦɨho-ə'' "foot" | ||
| ''*díop<sup>h</sup>-as'' "foot" | | ''*díop<sup>h</sup>-as'' "foot" | ||
| ''*pód-s'' "foot" | | ''*pód-s'' "foot" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | | ''ˈɗ̟ɦɨho ˈə'' "foot-like" | ||
| ''*pd-yás'' "pedestrian" | | ''*pd-yás'' "pedestrian" | ||
| ''*ped-yós'' "on foot" | | ''*ped-yós'' "on foot" | ||
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The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek). | The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek). | ||
mobile roots: | mobile roots: | ||
-*r "quality" | -*r "quality" | ||
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*gʷaināsyas | *gʷaināsyas | ||
*gʷaināsay, *gʷaināmas | *gʷaināsay, *gʷaināmas | ||
Aryan has only zero-grade (∅) and full grade (_) | |||
*(_)-as [forms active animate nouns] EX: kʰúh<sub>2</sub>as "sound" = PIE *(é)-os in *ḱlewos | |||
*(∅)-ás [forms active animate adjectives] EX: *pdás "capable to step" = PIE *(e)-ós in *pṓds | |||
*(á)-as [forms passive animate nouns] EX: ... = PIE *(ó)-os in ... | |||
*(a)-ás [forms passive animate adjectives] EX: = PIE *(o)-ós, *the construction became agentive instead of passive in PIE, but some archaic forms remain, such as *gʰoysós "spear" | |||
*(_)-ar [forms active inanimate nouns] EX: *húdar "water" = PIE *-r̥ in *wódr̥ | |||
*(∅)-ár [forms active inanimate adjectives] | |||
*(á)-ar [forms passive inanimate nouns] | |||
*(a)-ár [forms passive inanimate adjectives] | |||
mas | |||
*(_)-tár [forms agent nouns] | |||
*(_)-tram [forms instrument nouns] *fusion of *(_)-tár [agent particle] and *-am [neuter particle] | |||
*(∅)-C-ás [forms derived nouns through mobile roots] EX: *pʰtʰūymás PIE = PIE *(∅)-mós | |||
===Root=== | ===Root=== | ||
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*p∅dasyás > *pedés > pedis, ποδός | *p∅dasyás > *pedés > pedis, ποδός | ||
== | ==Syntax== | ||
I am still here | |||
Je suis encore ici | |||
Ich bin noch hier | |||
Я '''все''' ещё здесь | |||
Hic adhuc sum | |||
Ich dachte, dass ich der Einzige war, der darüber nachdachte | Ich dachte, dass ich der Einzige war, der darüber nachdachte | ||
Я думал я один кто об этом подумал... | Я думал я один кто об этом подумал... |
Latest revision as of 15:06, 24 December 2024
Aryan | |
---|---|
*Airás | |
Models of indo-european migrations | |
Pronunciation | [əi̯ˈrəs] |
Created by | Veno |
Setting | Caucasus Mountains |
Era | c.10,000–8,000 BC |
Pangaean Code
| |
Early form | Transitional Dialect
|
This article is a construction site. This project is currently undergoing significant construction and/or revamp. By all means, take a look around, thank you. |
Aryan (*Airás, pronounced /əi̯ˈrəs/) is an ab interiori language depicting the transition from Paleolithic Codes to Proto-Indo-European (PIE). There are no historical records of its existence, or comparative data to support it; rather, it is an abductive experiment based on the hypothesis of Transitional Dialects.
In the hybrid model, Aryan must have been spoken somewhere near the Caucasus Mountains in compliance with the Armenian Hypothesis, which in its current form holds that the speakers of "Pre-Proto-Indo-European" pertained to the genepool of the Caucasian Hunter-Gatherers (CHG)[1], who would eventually contribute to the formation of the Yamnaya Culture and the dispersion of "Core Proto-Indo-European" as detailed in the Kurgan Hypothesis. The age of the language is more controversial, being set between 12,000 and 10,000 years Before Present (BP), or the double of its daughter-language's, to coincide with the notion of Linguistic Modernity.
History
Development from Paleolithic Codes
The history of Aryan taken into account starts with the transition from Atomism to Double Articulation by the dialects of the Upper Paleolithic, mostly regarding the Pangaean Code as its ultimate source, next to the influence of the Diluvian and Hyperborean Codes. Although the actor responsible for this transition is a matter of debate even within the experiment, the loss of archaic features is assumed to coincide with the End of the Last Ice Age. At that time (12,000 BP), the loss of strict adherence to the primordial grammar might have allowed sound changes to take place, as seen below.
- Weak (plosive) stops become aspirated/murmured preceding a laryngeal consonant, as strong (ejective/implosive) stops gain plosive qualities in the same position.
Weak Voiceless Stop before laryngeal |
Strong Voiceless Stop before laryngeal |
Weak Voiced Stop before laryngeal |
Strong Voiced Stop before laryngeal |
---|---|---|---|
/kH/→/kh/ | /kʼH/→/k/ | /gH/→/gɦ/ | /ɠH/→/g/ |
/pH/→/ph/ | /pʼH/→/p/ | /bH/→/bɦ/ | /ɓH/→/b/ |
/tH/→/th/ | /tʼH/→/t/ | /dH/→/dɦ/ | /ɗH/→/d/ |
- The production of aspirated/murmured series contaminates the regular sounds, whose qualities of WEAK and STRONG are rearranged to accomodate Aspiration/Breathy Voice instead of Ejection/Implosion.
Weak Voiceless Stop | Weak Voiced Stop | Strong Voiceless Stop | Strong Voiced Stop |
---|---|---|---|
/k/→/k/ | /g/→/g/ | /kʼ/→/kh/ | /ɠ/→/gɦ/ |
/p/→/p/ | /b/→/b/ | /pʼ/→/ph/ | /ɓ/→/bɦ/ |
/t/→/t/ | /d/→/d/ | /tʼ/→/th/ | /ɗ/→/dɦ/ |
- Relative articulated sounds when stops transform into Diluvian consonant clusters following former examples of aspiration/breathy voice.
Retracted before Laryngeal |
Retracted | Advanced before Laryngeal |
Advanced |
---|---|---|---|
/k̠H/→/khph/ | /k̠/→/kp/ | /k̟H/→/khth/ | /k̟/→/kt/ |
/p̠H/→/phth/ | /p̠/→/pt/ | /p̟H/→/phkh/ | /p̟/→/pk/ |
/t̠H/→/thkh/ | /t̠/→/tk/ | /t̟H/→/thph/ | /t̟/→/tp/ |
/g̠H/→/gɦbɦ/ | /g̠/→/gb/ | /g̟H/→/gɦdɦ/ | /g̟/→/gd/ |
/b̠H/→/bɦdɦ/ | /b̠/→/bd/ | /b̟H/→/bɦgɦ/ | /b̟/→/bg/ |
/d̠H/→/dɦgɦ/ | /d̠/→/dg/ | /d̟H/→/dɦbɦ/ | /d̟/→/db/ |
/k̠ʼH/→/kp/ | /k̠ʼ/→/khph/ | /k̟ʼH/→/kt/ | /k̟ʼ/→/khth/ |
/p̠ʼH/→/pt/ | /p̠ʼ/→/phth/ | /p̟ʼH/→/pk/ | /p̟ʼ/→/phkh/ |
/t̠ʼH/→/tk/ | /t̠ʼ/→/thkh/ | /t̟ʼH/→/tp/ | /t̟ʼ/→/thph/ |
/ɠ̠H/→/gb/ | /ɠ̠/→/gɦbɦ/ | /ɠ̟H/→/gd/ | /ɠ̟/→/gɦdɦ/ |
/ɓ̠H/→/bd/ | /ɓ̠/→/bɦdɦ/ | /ɓ̟H/→/bg/ | /ɓ̟/→/bɦgɦ/ |
/ɗ̠H/→/dg/ | /ɗ̠/→/dɦgɦ/ | /ɗ̟H/→/db/ | /ɗ̟/→/dɦbɦ/ |
- Sonorants, contrary to the stop series, remain conserved when onset; however, they collapse as voiced codas.
Voiceless Sonorant(I) |
Voiced Sonorant(I) |
Voiceless Sonorant(II) |
Voiced Sonorant(II) |
---|---|---|---|
/j̥/→/j̥/~/j/ | /j/→/j/ | /w̥/→/w̥/~/w/ | /w/→/w/ |
/n̥/→/n̥/~/n/ | /n/→/n/ | /m̥/→/m̥/~/m/ | /m/→/m/ |
/l̥/→/l̥/~/l/ | /l/→/l/ | /r̥/→/r̥/~/r/ | /r/→/r/ |
- The positive and negative forms of the sonorants still follow a Diluvian paradigm.
Retracted Voiceless Sonorant |
Retracted Voiced Sonorant |
Advanced Voiceless Sonorant |
Advanced Voiced Sonorant |
---|---|---|---|
/j̠̊/→/j̥/~/j/ | /j̠/→/j/ | /j̟̊/→/j̥/~/j/ | /j̟/→/j/ |
/n̠̊/→/kn/ | /n̠/→/kn | /n̟̊/→/pn/ | /n̊/→/pn/ |
/l̠̊/→/l̥/~/l/ | /l̠/→/l/ | /l̟̊/→/l̥/~/l/ | /l̟/→/l/ |
/ẘ̠/→/w̥/~/w/ | /w̠/→/w/ | /ẘ̟/→/w̥/~/w/ | /w̟/→/w/ |
/m̠̊/→/dm/ | /m̠/→/dm/ | /m̟̊/→/gm/ | /m̟/→/gm/ |
/r̠̊/→/r̥/~/r/ | /r̠/→/r/ | /r̟̊/→/r̥/~/r/ | /r̟/→/r/ |
- Within the turbulents, clicks are exchanged by plosive equivalents, and uvular laryngeals turn velar.
Labiodental Click | Dental Click | Alveolar Click |
---|---|---|
/ʘ̪/→/dʷ/ | /ǀ/→/dʲ/ | /ǁ/→/t͡ɬ/ |
Voiceless Uvular Laryngeal | Voiced Uvular Laryngeal |
---|---|
/χ/→/x/ | /ʁ/→/ɣ/ |
- Complex and long vowels are reduced to their basic and short versions.
Front | Central | Back |
---|---|---|
/i/→/i/ | /ɨ/→/i/ | /u/→/u/ |
/y/→/u/ | /ʉ/→/u/ | /ɯ/→/i/ |
/e/→/e/ | /ɪ/→/e/ | /o/→/o/ |
/ø/→/o/ | /ʊ/→/o/ | /ɤ/→/e/ |
/e̞/→/i/ | /ə/→/ə/ | /o̞/→/u/ |
/ɛ/→/e/ | /ɐ/→/a/ | /ɔ/→/o/ |
/æ/→/e/ | /a/→/a/ | /ɒ/→/o/ |
Special cases |
---|
HVHC > HVC |
CHVHC > CVC |
CHVH > CVH |
/ʕɨ̀ː/→/əi̯/ |
/V̰/→/Vː/~/aV/ |
/V̤/ > /Vː/~/Va/ |
In Morphology, Aryan introduced a series of innovations by mixing and developing peculiarities from different Paleolithic Codes. The Hyperborean nominative -s for example was probably borrowed via another caucasian substrate, which completely assumed the role of epenthetic root (next to Aryan *-ar) in the construction "ROOT1 ROOT2". Primordial [ˈn̠ʕih ˈə] "old" would therefore yield *knīás "old" (=*knih1 *ás) [PIE *sénos "old"]. Furthermore, this development culminated into the Indo-European Ablaut. That is: when the accent falls into the epenthetic root, the first root suffers a phonetic change influenced by the interaction between laryngeals and vowels, which fuse into diphthongs or long vowels. This effect is considered a reflex of Umlaut in the Pangaean Code, where guttural fricatives can alternate between their vocalic equivalents and even modify the qualities of the nucleus.
Stress in first root |
Stress in second root |
---|---|
HV́C-R | VVC-Ŕ |
CV́C-R | C∅C-Ŕ |
CV́H-R | CVV-Ŕ |
Codex | Aryan | PIE equivalent |
---|---|---|
ˈhuhd-ə "water" | *h1úd-ar "water" | *wód-r̥ "water" |
ˈhuhd ˈə "water-like" | *wid-rás "aquatic" | *ud-rós "aquatic" |
ˈɗ̟ɦɨho-ə "foot" | *díoph-as "foot" | *pód-s "foot" |
ˈɗ̟ɦɨho ˈə "foot-like" | *pd-yás "pedestrian" | *ped-yós "on foot" |
ˈkhuħ-ə "sound" | *kʰúh2-as "sound" | *ḱléw-os "fame" |
ˈkhuħ ˈə "sound-like" | *kʰaw-ás "sound-maker" | *ḱlu-ós "famous" |
Development into Indo-European Languages
Correspondences:
- gʰedʰ "to join" < *gʰdʰ- "to gather" < g̟
- gʰabʰ ~ gʰeh₁bʰ- "to seize" < *pʰkʰ- "to take" < p̟
The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek).
mobile roots:
-*r "quality"
-*m "result"
-*dʰ "fixation"
NOTE: PIE neuter particle *-om derives from Aryan *(_)-am, which forms result nouns
origin of PIE declensions:
(_)-as Hysterokinetic:
- kʰúh2as > (*ḱléwos) > *ḱléwos
- kʰuh2ásyas > (*ḱlewésyos) > *ḱléwesos
(∅)-ás Hysterokinetic:
- pdás > *pád∅s (*pods) > *pṓds
- pdasyás > *padás∅s (*pedés) > *pedés
- (á)-as Acrostatic:
- pkáih1as > (*ǵʰéyos) > *ǵʰéyos
- pkáih1asyas > (*ǵʰéyosyos) > *ǵʰéyosyo
- (a)-ás Acrostatic:
- pkaisás > (*ǵʰoysós) > *ǵʰoysós
- pkaisásyas > (*ǵʰoysésyos) > *ǵʰoysósyo
ptár > ph2tḗr ptsaryás > ptryás (pətrés)> ph2trés
What marks a Transitional Dialect:
- the presence of mobile roots
p̠hṵh "fume" > *pʰtʰawimás (*pʰtʰūh1-*más) "smoke" > *dʰuh2mós (*dʰewh2-*mós)
- Hu, *u, *uH, *HuH > *we, *u, *ew, *we
Inheritances: huhg̠ > *h1ugp > *wegʷ ɦuhd > *h4ud > *sweyd
- ud > *úd
p̟ʼhuh > *pkuh > *ǵʰew pʼhuh > *puh > *plew Borrowings:
- h2ekʷ
-
- Hū, *ū, *ūH, *HūH> h2ew, ew, ewh2, h2ew
Inheritances: p̠hṵh > *pʰtʰawi > *dʰewh2 krhṳh > *GRuia > *krewh2 Borrowings: -phu- [Diluvian] > *po > *peh3 -
- Ho, o, oH, HoH > *h3e, e, *eh3, *Hew
Inheritances: kʼhohr > *kohr > *kerh3 (variant *ker from *kor) hoħd > *h1od > *h3ed ħoħd > *h2od > *h3ed ... > *poh2 > *peh3 (*puH) pʰol > bʰel "shine"
- h1oh1 > *h1ews
Borrowings: pohar [Diluvian] > *pawar (*paw-(a)-ar) > *péh2wr̥ (pew-r̥)
- h1engʷ < *h1ew-ǵenh1-yéti
-
- Hō, ō, ōH, HōH > *h3u, h3, *uh3, *Hu
Inheritances: Borrowings: -
- Ha, *a, *aH, *HaH > *h2e, *h2, *eh2, *h2e
Inheritances: phah > *pʰah > *bʰeh2 Borrowings: -
- ā > ...
Inheritances: Borrowings: -
- a > *e/o
Inheritances: ə > *(á)as > *(é)os Borrowings: -
- He, *e, *eH, HeH > *h1e, *h1, *eh1, *h1e
Inheritances: heħd > *h1ed > *h1ed Borrowings: -
- Hē, *ē, *ēH, HēH > ...
Inheritances: Borrowings: -
- Hi, i, iH, HiH > *ye, *i, *ey, *ye
Inheritances: Borrowings: -
- Hī, ī, īH, HīH > h1ey, ey, eyh1, h1ey
Inheritances: ʕii̯h > *ī > *h1ey Borrowings: +
- ew > eh3 [see: *gdew > deh3]
- aw > ew [see: kʰaw-ás > ḱlew]
+ h4- > s-
heħʘ̪ > h1eh2dʷ [nominative *séh2dʷ (=**h1éh2dʷ-as)] > *sweh2dʷ- > suavis there can only be one laryngeal in a root... except when former clicks.
*meh2dʷ (=**h1eh2dʷ-más) > *médʰu [*mélid, a variation]
dʷ- > *b-~bʰ-, -dʷ > -d dʲ- > *s~*sw-, -dʲ > -di
- h2oh2dʲ-, *h2óh2dʲam "hatred"
? > *ak "sharp" borrowing
- dʲairgʰ > *swergʰ... "be ill"
sour < *sūrós (*sweh2-rós) < *dʲāyrás (=*dʲeh2-rás)
h2isṓm/aísmi, h2isṓmas/aísmas > *h1ésmi, *h1smós h2isḗs/aíssi, h2isḗtas/aístas > *h1ési, *h1sté (*h1stés 2P.DUAL) h2isī́t/aísti, h2isī́nt/aísant> *h1ésti, *h1sénti
- /ə/ > */e/ when pretonic or tonic polysyllabic [exception: o-derivation]
- /ə/ > */o/ when postonic or tonic monosyllabic (*pʰ∅rás > *pʰárs >*pʰórs > *pʰṓr) [exception: o-derivation] *monosyllabic words without pithc accept /e/ instead (*swa > *swe)
- /əi̯/ > */e/, */aː/ when result of zero-grade (*gain- >*g∅n-tás > *gnaitás > *gnātós, as in Latin gnātus and Greek -γνητός)
- /ai̯/ > */ai̯/
- kʰpʰ-
- kp- > *kʷʰ-
- kn- > *sn-
- h2i (TD) > *h1e (PIE)
an original click as onset inverts the laryngeals: ǁheħp > tɬeh1p> seh1p an original click as coda preserves both laryngeals: heħʘ̪ > *h1eh2dʷ > sweh2d həħǁ > *h1ah2t͡ɬ > *sent
When an <e> is introduced in adjectives, the accent falls n̠ʕih > *knaiás > *sénos "old" compare
- sādú > *swādús "sweet"
- sādú méh2dʷ
- swādús médʰu~mélid
Primordial elements transitioned into particles in Aryan. That is: Aryan roots could be changed back then. Those were the mobile roots. For example: *dʷ survived as PIE *-id, which was a particle used to indicate comestibles.
- pʰrás
laryngeals turn into vowels and vice-versa
- mai > *meh1
?we are searching for a single voiceless plosive before a voiced one? ?"Aryan doesn't accept initial voiced clusters of original implosives? As if **dbíoh1 > *díopʰ "?
h1uC ~ h1oC > uj ~ oj h1aC ~ h1əC > aj ~ i h1iC ~ h1eC > ī ~ ej Cuh1 ~ Coh1 > uj ~ oj Cah1 ~ Cəh1 > aj ~ i Cih1 ~ Ceh1 > ī ~ ej - h2uC ~ h2oC > aw ~ ow h2aC ~ h2əC > ā ~ i h2iC ~ h2eC > aj ~ ej Cuh2 ~ Coh2 > aw ~ ow Cah2 ~ Cəh2 > ā ~ i Cih2 ~ Ceh2 > aj ~ ej - h3uC ~ h3oC > ū ~ ow h3aC ~ h3əC > wa ~ u h3iC ~ h3eC > ī ~ je Cuh3 ~ Coh3 > ū~ ow Cah3 ~ Cəh3 > wa ~ u Cih3 ~ Ceh3 > iw ~ ew
Sanskrit | Avestan | O.C.S. | Lithuanian | Albanian | Armenian | Hittite | Tocharian | Greek | Latin | Goidelic | Gothic | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
>*p | p; pʰ | p; f | p | p | p | h; w | p; pp | p | p / pt | p | ∅ | f; β |
>*t | x x | |||||||||||
>*k | x x | |||||||||||
>*ḱ | x x |
p pt p ∅ f; b [β] [C 6] f; v, f[C 2]
thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...
PIE | Indo-Iranian | Balto-Slavic | Alb. | Arm. | Anatol. | Toch. | Greek | Italic | Celtic | Germanic | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sanskrit | Avestan | O.C.S. | Lith. | Hitt. | Latin | Old Irish | Gothic | English | |||||||
normal | C+[j] [C 1] | normal | -C- [C 2] [C 1] | ||||||||||||
*p | p; ph [pʰ] [C 3] | p; f [C 4] | p | h; w [C 5] |
p, pp | p | pt | p | ∅ | f; b [β] [C 6] |
f; v, f[C 2] | ||||
*t | t; th [t̪ʰ] [C 3] | t; θ[C 4] | t | tʿ [tʰ] | t, tt; z [ts] [C 7] |
t; c [c] [C 7] |
t | s; tt/ss[C 5] | t | t | th [θ] | þ [θ]; d [ð]; [C 6] |
th; d; [C 6] | ||
*ḱ | ś [ɕ] | s | š [ʃ] | th [θ]; k[C 8] |
s | k, kk | k; ś [ɕ][C 8] |
k | c [k] | c [k] | ch [x] | h; g [ɣ] [C 6] |
h; ∅;[C 2] y [C 6] | ||
*k | k; c [t͡ɕ]; [C 7] kh [kʰ] [C 3] |
k; c [tʃ]; [C 7] x[C 4] |
k; č [tʃ]; [C 7] c [ts][C 9] |
k | k; q [c][C 9] |
kʿ [kʰ] | |||||||||
*kʷ | k; s; [C 7] q [c][C 9] |
ku, kku | p; t; [C 7] k[C 10] |
qu [kʷ]; c [k] [C 11] |
ƕ [ʍ]; gw, w [C 6] |
wh; w [C 6] | |||||||||
*b | b; bh [C 3] | b; β [C 12] | b | p | b | pt | b | b [b] | -[β]- | p | |||||
*d | d; dh [C 3] | d; δ [C 12] | d | d; dh [ð][C 2] |
t | ts; ś [ɕ] [C 7] |
d | z [zd] > [z] | d | d [d] | -[ð]- | t | |||
*ǵ | j [d͡ʑ]; h [ɦ] [C 3] |
z | ž [ʒ] | dh [ð]; g[C 8] |
c [ts] | k | k; ś [ɕ][C 8] |
g | g | g [ɡ] | -[ɣ]- | k | c / k; ch[C 9] | ||
*g | g; j [d͡ʑ]; [C 7] gh; [C 3] h [ɦ] [C 3] |
g; j [dʒ]; [C 7] γ [C 12] |
g; ž [ʒ]; [C 7] dz[C 9] |
g | g | k | |||||||||
*gʷ | g; z; [C 7] gj [ɟ][C 9] |
ku | b; d; [C 7] g[C 10] |
u [w > v]; gu [ɡʷ] [C 13] |
b [b] | -[β]- | q [kʷ] | qu | |||||||
*pʰ | bh [bʱ] | b; β [C 12] | b | b; w[C 2] |
p | ph [pʰ] | pt | f;[C 14] b |
b [b]; b [β];[C 2] f [C 15] |
b; v / f[C 16] | |||||
*tʰ | dh [dʱ] | d; δ [C 12] | d | t | t; c [c] [C 7] |
th [tʰ] | tt/ss | f;[C 14] d; b [C 17] |
d [d] | -[ð]- | d; d [ð];[C 2] þ [C 15] |
d | |||
*ǵʰ | h [ɦ] | z | ž [ʒ] | dh [ð]; d[C 8] |
j [dz]; z[C 2] |
k | k; ś [ɕ] [C 7] |
kh [kʰ] | h; h / g[C 8] |
g [ɡ] | -[ɣ]- | g; g [ɣ];[C 2] g [x] [C 15] |
g; y / w[C 16] | ||
*gʰ | gh [ɡʱ]; h [ɦ] [C 7] |
g; j [dʒ]; [C 7] γ [C 12] |
g; ž [ʒ]; [C 7] dz[C 9] |
g | g | g; ǰ [dʒ] [C 7] | |||||||||
*gʷʰ | g; z; [C 7] gj [ɟ][C 9] |
ku | ph [pʰ]; th [tʰ]; [C 7] kh [kʰ][C 10] |
f;[C 14] g / u [w];[C 2] gu [ɡʷ] [C 13] |
g; b;[C 14] w;[C 2] gw [C 13] |
g; b;[C 14] w[C 2] | |||||||||
*s | s | h [h, x] | s | sh [ʃ]; gj [ɟ];[C 18] h[C 2] |
h; ∅[C 2] |
š [s] | s; ṣ [ʂ] |
h;[C 14] s;[C 19][C 15]/ ∅;[C 2] [¯] [C 20] |
i | s; r[C 2] |
s ʃ | -[h]- | s; z [C 6] |
s; r [C 6] | |
ṣ [ʂ][C 21] | š [ʃ][C 21] | x [x][C 21] | š [ʃ][C 21] | ||||||||||||
*m | m | in | m | m [m] | -[w̃]- | m | |||||||||
*-m [C 15] | m | ˛ [˜] | n | ∅ | n | n | -- | m [˜] | n | ∅ | |||||
*n | n | n; ˛ [˜] [C 15] |
n | n; ñ [ɲ] |
n | in | n | ||||||||
*l | r (dial. l) | r | l | l; ll [ɫ][C 2] |
l / ɫ [ɫ > ɣ] |
l | il | l | |||||||
*r | r/l[C 22] | r | r [ɾ]; rr [r][C 2] |
r | ir | r | |||||||||
*y | y [j] | j [j] | gj [ɟ]; ∅ |
∅ | y [j] | z [zd] > [z] / h; ∅ [C 2] |
?i | i [j]; ∅ [C 2] |
∅ | j | y | ||||
*w | v [ʋ] | v [w] | v | v [ʋ] | v | g / w | w | w > h / ∅ | i | u [w > v] | f | -∅- | w | ||
PIE | Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Alb. | Arm. | Hitt. | Toch. | Greek | Greek+/j/ | Latin | Old Irish | Gothic | English |
Notes for table 1:
- ^ a b A capital C stands for consonant in this table
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Between vowels
- ^ a b c d e f g h Before an original h₂.
- ^ a b c Before a consonant or original laryngeal.
- ^ a b After a vowel.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Following an unstressed vowel (Verner's law).
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Before a (PIE) front vowel (*i, *e).
- ^ a b c d e f Before a sonorant.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.
- ^ a b c Before or after a (PIE) u
- ^ Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel (*u, *o).
- ^ a b c d e f In Younger Avestan, after a vowel.
- ^ a b c After n.
- ^ a b c d e f At the beginning of a word
- ^ a b c d e f At the end of a word.
- ^ a b Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)
- ^ After u, r or before r, l.
- ^ Before a stressed vowel
- ^ Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)
- ^ Before or after a resonant (r, l, m, n).
- ^ a b c d After r, u, k, i (Ruki sound law).
- ^ rare
Consonant clusters
Proto-Indo-European also had numerous consonant clusters, such as *st, *ḱs. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):
PIE | Indo-Iranian | Balto-Slavic | Alb. | Arm. | Anatol. | Toch. | Greek | Italic | Celtic | Germanic | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Hitt. | Latin | Old Irish | Gothic | English | ||||||
normal | C+[j] | |||||||||||||
*sr | sr | r | str | sr | rr [r] | (a)r | š(ša)r ʃʃr | rh | n/a | fr-, -br- | sr | str | str | |
*tw | tv | θβ | tv | tv | t | kʿ [kʰ] | ttu, ddu | s-, -ss- | n/a | p? | t | þw | thw | |
*dʰw | dhv | ðβ | dv | dv | d | ? | tu, du | f | d | dw | dw | |||
*dw | dv | (e)rk | tu, du | b | tw | tw | ||||||||
*tl | sl | kl, sl | tl | kl | tl | |||||||||
*dl | ll | |||||||||||||
*dn | nn, ṇṇ | |||||||||||||
*ḱw | śv | sp | sv | šv | s | sk, š | n/a | qu [kʷ] | cu [kʷ] | Template:Transl [xʷ] | wh | |||
*ǵʰw | hv | zv | žv | z | ||||||||||
*ǵw | jv | q [kʷ] | qu [kw] | |||||||||||
*sw | sv | xuu [xʷ] | sv | sv | v, d[CC 1] | kʿ [kʰ] | normal dev. | h | n/a | su [sw] | s | sw | sw | |
*sp | sp | sp [CC 2] | sp | f | sp [CC 2] / pʿ [pʰ] |
normal dev. | sp [CC 2] | ? | sp | f | sp [CC 3] | |||
*sbʰ | spʰ | |||||||||||||
*sd | d; ḷ[CC 4] > ḍ, ḍḍ | zd | zd | zd | st | d | -t- [d] | st | st | |||||
*sdʰ | dh; ḷh[CC 4] > ḍh, ḍḍh | zd | zd | zd | sth | -t- [d] | zd | d | ||||||
*st | st; ṣṭ[CC 4] | st [CC 2] | st | sht [ʃt] | st [CC 2] | normal dev. | st [CC 2] | s; tt/ss[CC 5] | st | st [CC 3] | ||||
*sḱ | ch [t͡ɕʰ]; cch[CC 5] | s? | sk | š? | h | ?? č`; c`[CC 5] | normal dev. | sk; [CC 2] kh [kʰ];[CC 6] skh [skʰ] [CC 7] |
sc [sk] | sc [sk] | sk [CC 3] | sh [ʃ] | ||
*sk | sk, {śc, ch}[CC 8] | sk, sč [CC 2] | normal dev. | ? | sk [CC 2] | normal dev. | ||||||||
*skʷ | norm. | squ [skʷ] | sq [CC 3] | |||||||||||
*t+t [tst] | tt; tth [CC 9] | st; sθ?[CC 10] | st | s | s? | zt, zzašt, zzazz [tst] | ss? | st | ss | ss / st | ||||
*sǵ | jj | |||||||||||||
*sgʰ | jj[CC 8] | |||||||||||||
*dt | tt | st | st | st | s | ss | ss [s] | |||||||
*ddʰ | ddʰ | zd | d | t | ||||||||||
*dʰt | ddʰ | zd, st | st | st | ||||||||||
*pt | pt | ft | t? | pt | t | pt | pt | cht [xt] | ft [CC 3] | |||||
*ḱt | ṣṭ [ʂʈ] | št [ʃt] | st | št [ʃt] | kt | ct [kt] | ht [CC 3] | ght [t] [CC 3] | ||||||
*kt | kt | xt | t? | kt | ||||||||||
*kʷt | pt | ct [kt] | ||||||||||||
*ps | ps | ps | ps | s, ss | fs | ps | ||||||||
*ts | ts | |||||||||||||
*ḱs | kṣ | š | sh [ʃ] | ks | x [ks] | hs | x [ks] | |||||||
*ks | kṣ[CC 4] | xš[CC 4] | (ks) | |||||||||||
*kʷs | kʷs | ps | x [ks] | |||||||||||
*gs | kṣ | |||||||||||||
*gʷs | kṣ | |||||||||||||
*ǵʰs | kṣ | ž | ks | |||||||||||
*gʰs | kṣ | |||||||||||||
*gʷʰs | kṣ | ps | ||||||||||||
*tḱ | kṣ | š | k | kt | s | |||||||||
*tk | kṣ | xš | kt | |||||||||||
*dʰǵʰ | kṣ | z | ž | tk | tk/k | khth | ||||||||
*dʰgʰ | kṣ | tk | ||||||||||||
*dʰgʷʰ | kṣ | γž | kts | phth | s | |||||||||
PIE | Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Alb. | Arm. | Hitt. | Toch. | Greek | Greek+/j/ | Latin | Old Irish | Gothic | English |
-->
Orthography
Trad. PIE | Laryng. PIE | Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Arm. | Alb. | Toch. | Hitt. | Greek | Latin[V 1] | Proto-Celtic | Gothic[V 2] | Old English[V 1] | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
normal | umlauted[V 3] | ||||||||||||||
*e | *e, *h₁e | a | e | je, ie, e, i; ja[V 4] | ä | e, ʔe, i | e | i; aí [ɛ][V 5] | e; eo[V 6] | i; ie[V 6] | |||||
*a | (*a[V 7]), *h₂e | o | a | a | ha, a | ā | ha, a | a | a | æ; a;[V 8] ea[V 6] | e; ie[V 6] | ||||
*o | *h₃e | o, a | a | a, e | a | o | |||||||||
*o | a; ā[V 9] | ||||||||||||||
*ə[V 10] | *h₁[V 10] | i | i, ∅ | ∅ | a, ∅ | ā | ∅ | e | a | a, ∅ | |||||
*h₂[V 10] | ḫ | a | |||||||||||||
*h₃[V 10] | ∅ | o | |||||||||||||
*- | *h₁-[V 11] | ∅ | e (a?) | ∅ | a, ∅ | e (o) | ∅ | ||||||||
*h₂-[V 11] | a | ḫa | a | ||||||||||||
*h₃-[V 11] | a, ha | o | |||||||||||||
*ē | *ē, *eh₁ | ā | ě | ė | i | o, ua | a/e?; ā?[V 12] | ē, e, i | ē | ī | ē | ǣ | |||
*ā | (*ā[V 7]), *eh₂ | a | o [oː] | a | a/o? | a, ah | ā > ē[V 13] | ā | ā | ō | ē | ||||
*ō | *ō, *eh₃ | uo | u | e | a/ā?; ū?[V 12] | a, ā | ō | ā; ū[V 12] | |||||||
*i | *i | i | ь | i | i | i; e[V 14] | ä | i, ī | i | i; aí [ɛ][V 5] | i | ||||
*ī | *ih₁ | ī | i | y [iː] | i | i | ī | ī | ei [iː] | ī | |||||
*ih₂ | i or (j)a?[V 15] |
yā | ī or (j)ā?[V 15] | ||||||||||||
*ih₃ | ī or (j)ō?[V 15] | ||||||||||||||
*ei | *ei, *h₁ei | ai > ē | ai > ōi, āi > aē[V 9] |
ei; ie[V 16] | i | e | ē | ei | ī | ē | |||||
*oi | *oi, *h₃ei | ě | ai; ie[V 16] | e | e, ai | ē, ai | oi | ū | oi | ái | ā | ǣ | |||
*ai | (*ai[V 7]), *h₂ei | ai | ae | ai | |||||||||||
*ēi | *ēi | āi > ai; ā[V 12] | āi; ā(i)[V 12] | i | i | ē | ēi | ī? | ei [iː] | ī | |||||
*ōi | *ōi (*oei) | y; u[V 12] | ai; ui[V 12] | e, ai | ai | ōi | ō | u[V 12] | ái | ā | ǣ | ||||
*āi | *eh₂ei | ě | ai | āi > ēi[V 13] | ae | ||||||||||
*u | *u | u | ъ | u | u | u; y[V 17] | ä | u | u | u | u; o[V 18] | u; aú [ɔ][V 5] | u; o[V 19] | y | |
*ū | *uh₁ | ū | y | ū | y; i[V 12] | u | ū | ū | ȳ | ||||||
*uh₂ | u or (w)a?[V 15] |
wā | ū or (w)ā?[V 15] | ||||||||||||
*uh₃ | ū or (w)ō?[V 15] | ||||||||||||||
*eu | *eu, *h₁eu | au > ō | ə̄u; ao[V 9] | ju | iau | oy | e | u | eu | ū | ou | iu | ēo | īe | |
*ou | *ou,*h₃eu | u | au | a | o, au | ou | áu | ēa | |||||||
*au | (*au[V 7]), *h₂eu | aw | au | au | |||||||||||
*ēu | *ēu | āu > au | āu | u | iau | e | ū? | iu | ēo | ||||||
*ōu | *ōu | a | au | ō | áu | ēa | |||||||||
*m̥ | *m̥ | a | ę | im̃; um̃[V 20] | am | a | äm | a, un | a | em | em, am | um | um | ym | |
*m̥̅ | *mh₁ | ā | ìm; ùm[V 20] | ama | mā | mē | mā | ||||||||
*mh₂ | mā > mē[V 13] | ||||||||||||||
*mh₃ | mō | ||||||||||||||
*m̥m | *m̥m | am | ьm/ъm | im; um[V 20] | am | am | em | am | |||||||
*n̥ | *n̥ | a | ę | iñ; uñ[V 20] | an | än | an | a | en | en, an | un | un | yn | ||
*n̥̄ | *nh₁ | ā | ìn; ùn[V 20] | ana | nā | nē | nā | ||||||||
*nh₂ | nā > nē [V 13] | ||||||||||||||
*nh₃ | nō | ||||||||||||||
*n̥n | *n̥n | an | ьn/ъn | iñ; uñ[V 20] | an | an | en | an | |||||||
*l̥ | *l̥ | r̥ | ərə | lь/lъ | il̃; ul̃[V 20] | al | il, li; ul, lu | äl | al | la | ol | li;[V 21] al | ul | ul; ol[V 19] | yl |
*l̥̄ | *lh₁ | īr; ūr[V 22] | arə | ìl; ùl[V 20] | ala | al | lā | lē | lā | ||||||
*lh₂ | lā > lē[V 13] | ||||||||||||||
*lh₃ | lō | ||||||||||||||
*l̥l | *l̥l | ir; ur[V 22] | ar | ьl/ъl | il; ul[V 20] | al, la | al | el | al | ||||||
*r̥ | *r̥ | r̥ | ərə | rь/rъ | ir̃; ur̃[V 20] | ar | ir, ri; ur, ru | är | ar, ur | ra | or | ri;[V 21] ar | aúr [ɔr] | ur; or[V 19] | yr |
*r̥̄ | *rh₁ | īr; ūr[V 22] | arə | ìr; ùr[V 20] | ara | ra | rā | rē | rā | ||||||
*rh₂ | rā > rē[V 13] | ||||||||||||||
*rh₃ | rō | ||||||||||||||
*r̥r | *r̥r | ir; ur[V 22] | ar | ьr/ъr | ir; ur[V 20] | ar | ar | ar | ar | ||||||
Trad. PIE | Laryng. PIE | Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Arm. | Alb. | Toch. | Hitt. | Greek | Latin[V 1] | Proto-Celtic | Gothic[V 2] | normal | umlauted[V 3] |
Old English[V 1] |
Historical and Geographical Distribution
Since Lazaridis et al's paper[2], absence of Eastern European Hunter-Gatherer (EHG) ancestry in the Anatolian component of the Indo-European speaking populations has suggested a caucasian homeleand for earlier stages of PIE rather than a pre-Yamnaya pontic continuance. Recent studies[3][4], furthermore, point to a total farming economy by the Zagros around 6,000 BC, which tempts an older dating for a Transitional Dialect such as Aryan.
Phonology
Consonants
Aryan is reconstructed as having 36 consonants, with an assumption made that it would have maintained the inventory of the Pangaean Code in some form.
Vowels
|
|
|
Pitch Accent
Morphology
Affix
- gʷaináh0
- gʷaināsyas
- gʷaināsay, *gʷaināmas
Aryan has only zero-grade (∅) and full grade (_)
*(_)-as [forms active animate nouns] EX: kʰúh2as "sound" = PIE *(é)-os in *ḱlewos *(∅)-ás [forms active animate adjectives] EX: *pdás "capable to step" = PIE *(e)-ós in *pṓds *(á)-as [forms passive animate nouns] EX: ... = PIE *(ó)-os in ... *(a)-ás [forms passive animate adjectives] EX: = PIE *(o)-ós, *the construction became agentive instead of passive in PIE, but some archaic forms remain, such as *gʰoysós "spear" *(_)-ar [forms active inanimate nouns] EX: *húdar "water" = PIE *-r̥ in *wódr̥ *(∅)-ár [forms active inanimate adjectives] *(á)-ar [forms passive inanimate nouns] *(a)-ár [forms passive inanimate adjectives]
mas
*(_)-tár [forms agent nouns] *(_)-tram [forms instrument nouns] *fusion of *(_)-tár [agent particle] and *-am [neuter particle] *(∅)-C-ás [forms derived nouns through mobile roots] EX: *pʰtʰūymás PIE = PIE *(∅)-mós
Root
In Aryan, roots are either static or mobile. In the first case, they serve as a prototypical source of meaning, impossible to be further decomposed. Otherwise, further analysis is possible through pure consonantal and vocalic segments, treated as "fundamental atoms".
A consonantal root is intrinsically modified by vocalic roots.
- pʰair < action root *p "bearing" + class root *h5ih1 "person" + epenthetic *r
Clitic
In Aryan, clitics, similarly to tones, became fossilized as affixes.
Ablaut
Noun
German:
dieser Mensch dies-er Mensch DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person "this" "person" this person
Russian:
этот человек эт-от человек DEITIC-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person.NOMINATIVE "this" "person" this person
Latin:
iste homo iste homo DEITIC.PROXIMAL .NOMINATIVE person.NOMINATIVE "that" "person" that person
Greek:
οὗτος ἄνθρωπος οὗτ-ος ἄνθρωπ-ος DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE "this" "person" this person
Aryan:
*aestad naī́r *aes-tad *naī́r MASCULINE.3PERSON-DEITIC.3PERSON.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE man.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE "this" "man" this person
The above samples follow the term *tad instead of *sa, as the former is used to refer to third person in general. *sa *tad <
- h0e * eah0 *as *ats
- pʰirás > pʰā́r = *dʰgʰūmás > *gʰā́mar, *gʰā́man
- pʰerós > *phṓr dʰ
aes, eah0, ad, sa [animated distal], tad [inanimated distal], aestad, eātad, atad
German:
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Nominative | -er[1][2] -∅[3],-e[4] | -e[1][4][5], -ie[2], -∅[3] | -es[1], -as[2], -∅[3], -e[4] | -e[1][3][6], -ie[2], -en[4][5], -er[7] |
Genitive | -es[2][3][6][7], -en[1][4] | -er[1][2][3], -en[4] | -es[2][3], -en[1][4] | -er[1][2][3], -en[4] |
Dative | -em[1][2][3], -en[4], -e[6][7] | -er[1][2][3], -en[4] | -em[1][2][3], -en[4] | -en[1][2][3][4][6][7] |
Accusative | -en[1][2][3][4] | -e[1][3][4], -ie[2] | -es[1][5], -as[2], -e[4] | -e[1][3], -ie[2], -en[4] |
^1 Declension of adjectives without articles; ^2 Declension of definite articles; ^3 Declension of indefinite articles; ^4 Declension of adjectives with articles; ^5 Declension of regular feminine nouns; ^6 Declension of regular masculine nouns; ^7 Declension of regular neuter nouns.
Russian:
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Nominative | -от[1], -ый[2], -ин[3], -∅/-ь[7][9] | -а/-я[1][4][5], -ая[2], -ина[3], -ь[9] | -о[1], -ое[2], -ино[3], -о/-е[8], -мя[9] | -и/ы[1][4][5][7], -ые[2], -ины[3], -а/-я[8], -и/-мена[9] |
Genitive | -ого[1][2], -иного[3], -а/-я[7], -и[9] | -ой[1][2], -иной[3], -и/ы[4][5][6][9] | -ого[1][2], -иного[3], -а/-я[8], -мени[9] | -их[1], -ых[2], -иных[3], -∅/-ь[4][5], -ов/-ей[6][7], ∅-/-(е)й[8], -ей/-мён(-мян)[9] |
Dative | -ому[1][2], -иному[3], -у/-ю[7], -и[9] | -ой[1][2], -иной[3], -е[4][5], -и[9] | -ому[1][2], -иному[3], -у/-ю[8], -мени[9] | -им[1], -ым[2], -иным[3], -ам/-ям[4][5][6][7][8], -ям/-менам[9] |
Accusative.A | -ого[1][2], -иного[3], -а/-я[7], -ь[9] | -ту[1], -ую[2], -ину[3], -у[4][5][6], -ь[9] | -о[1], -ое[2], -ино[3], -о/-е[8], -мя[9] | -их[1], -ых[2], -иных[3], -∅/ь[4][5][6], -ов/-ей[7], -а/-я[8], -и/-мена[9] |
Accusative.I | -от[1], -ый[2], -ин[3], -∅/-ь[7] | -ту[1], -ую[2], -ину[3], -у[4][5][6] | -о[1], -ое[2], -ино[3], -о/-е[8] | -и/-ы[1][7], -ые[2], -ины[3], -∅/-ь[4][5][6], ∅-/-(е)й[8], -ь/-мена[9] |
Instrumental | -им[1], -ым[2], -иным[3], -ом/-ем[7], -ью[9] | -ой/-ою//-ей[1][2][4][5][6], -иной/-иною[3], -ю[6], -ью[9] | -им[1], -ым[2], -иным[3], -ом/-ем[8], -менем[9] | -ими[1], -ыми[2], -иными[3], -ами/-ями[4][5][6][7][8], -ями(ьми)/-менами[9] |
Prepositional | -ом[1][2], -ином[3], -е[7], -и[9] | -ой[1][2], -иной[3], -е[4][5][6], -и[9] | -ом[1][2], -ином[3], -е[8], -мени[9] | -их[1], -ых[2], -иных[3], -ах/-ях[4][5][6][7][8], -ях/-менах[9] |
^1 Declension of correlatives; ^2 Declension of non-possessive adjectives; ^3 Declension of possessive adjectives; ^4 Declension of animated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and vowel; ^5 Declension of animated feminine nouns ending in a hard consonant and vowel or inanimated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and vowel; ^6 Declension of inanimated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and no vowel; ^7 Declension of animated masculine nouns ending in no vowel; ^8 Declension of neuter nouns; ^9 Declension of nouns ending in hard consonant and no vowel.
LATIN DECLENSION | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | |||||
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
Nominative | -e/-us[1], -us, -is, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs | -a[1], -is, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs | -ud, -um[1], -e, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs | -ī[1], -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs | -ae[1], -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs | -a[1], -ia, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs |
Genitive | -īus[1], -ī, -is, -ūs, -(i)ēī | -īus[1], -ae, -ūs, -(i)ēī | -īus[1], -ī, -is, -ūs, -(i)ēī | -ōrum[1], -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum | -ārum[1], -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum | -ōrum[1], -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum |
Dative | -ī[1], -ō, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī | -ī[1], -ae, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī | -ī[1][3], -ō, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī | -īs[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus | -īs[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus | -īs[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus |
Accusative | -um[1], -em, -um/-ū, -(i)em | -am[1], -em, -um/-ū, -(i)em | -ud, -um[1], -e, -um/-ū, -(i)em | -ōs[1], -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs | -ās[1], -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs | -a[1], -ia, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs |
Ablative | -ō[1][2], -ī, -ū, -(i)ē | -ā[1], -ī, -ū, -(i)ē | -ō[1], -ī, -ū, -(i)ē | -īs[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus | -īs[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus | -īs[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus |
Vocative | -e[1], -is | -a[1], -is | -ud, -um[1], -e | -ī[1], -ēs | -ae[1], -ēs, | -a[1], -ia |
^1 Declension of correlatives and regular nouns.
GREEK DECLENSION | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |||||||
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
Nominative | -ος[1], -ας/-ης, -(ε)ς, -ων | -η/α[1], -(ε)ς, -ων | -ον[1] | -ω[1], -ε, -ονε | -α[1], -ε, -ονε | -ω[1] | -οι[1], -ες, -ονες | -αι[1], -ες | -α |
Genitive | -ου[1], -ος/-ως, -ονος | -ης/-ας[1], -ος/-ως, -ονος | -ου[1] | -οιν[1] | -αιν[1], -οιν, -ονοιν | -οιν[1], -ονοιν | -ων[1], -ονων | -ων[1], -ονων | -ων[1] |
Dative | -ῳ[1], -ι, -ονι | -ῃ[1], -ι, -ονι | -ῳ[1] | -οιν[1], -ονοιν | -αιν[1], -οιν, -ονοιν | -οιν[1] | -οις[1], -ας/-ς/-νς, -οσι | -αις[1], -οσι | -οις[1] |
Accusative | -ον[1], -α, -ονα | -ην[1], -ονα | -ον[1] | -ω[1] | -α[1] | -ω[1] | -ους[1], -ονας | -ας[1], -ονας | -α[1] |
Vocative | -ε[1], -(ε)ς, -ον | -η[1], -(ε)ς, -ον | -ον[1] | -ω[1], -ε, -ονε | -α[1], -ε, -ονε | -ω[1] | -οι[1], -ες, -ονες | -αι[1], -ες, -ονες | -α[1] |
^1 Declension of correlatives and regular nouns.
ARYAN DECLENSION | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |||||||
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
Nominative | *-as | *-ah0 | *-am | *-ā | *-āh0 | *-ā | *-ayn | *-ah0in | *-a |
Genitive | *-asyas | *-āsyas | -ου[1] | -οιν[1] | -αιν[1], -οιν, -ονοιν | -οιν[1], -ονοιν | -ων[1], -ονων | -ων[1], -ονων | -ων[1] |
Dative | -ῳ[1], -ι, -ονι | -ῃ[1], -ι, -ονι | -ῳ[1] | -οιν[1], -ονοιν | -αιν[1], -οιν, -ονοιν | -οιν[1] | -οις[1], -ας/-ς/-νς, -οσι | -αις[1], -οσι | -οις[1] |
Accusative | -ον[1], -α, -ονα | -ην[1], -ονα | -ον[1] | -ω[1] | -α[1] | -ω[1] | -ους[1], -ονας | -ας[1], -ονας | -α[1] |
Vocative | -ε[1], -(ε)ς, -ον | -η[1], -(ε)ς, -ον | -ον[1] | -ω[1], -ε, -ονε | -α[1], -ε, -ονε | -ω[1] | -οι[1], -ες, -ονες | -αι[1], -ες, -ονες | -α[1] |
diese schöne Kone эта красивая жена ista pulchra uxor
- eātad kaláh0 gʷaînah0
Pronoun
Verb
*gaínōm, *gígnmi "I generate" *pūhāṓm, *píbmi "I drink" *wehdḗyōm, *wḗydmi "I see"
- gánas > γόνος "offspring"
Initial clusters in the Nominative will give way to /ə/
- ptā́r (A)> *patḗr (PIE)
- páh5man > *póh5mn̥ > πῶμα "slid"
[*peh5] "feed, protect"
*pʰair- "bearing" [n/v] (Latin ferō, Greek φέρω < *pʰaírōm, *pʰíprmi) > *pʰaíras [bare noun], *pʰ∅rás "bearer" [adjective-noun] (Latin fūr, Greek φώρ "thief"), *pʰáras [result-noun] (Greek φόρος "tribute")
*daim- "building" [n/v] (Greek δέμω < *daímōm, *dídmmi) > *daímas [bare noun], *d∅más "building" [adjective-noun] (Greek δῶ "house"), *dámas "house" [result-noun] (Latin domus, Greek δόμος "house")
*paid- "stepping" [n/v] (*paídōm, *pípdmi) > *paídas [bare noun], *p∅dás "foot" [adjective-noun] (Latin pes, Greek πούς "foot"), *pádas "step" [result-noun]
*kpain- "killing" [n/v] (Proto-Indo-European *kʷʰen, Latin de-fendo "I expell from") > *kpaínas [bare noun], *kp∅nás "murderer" [adjective-noun], *kpánas "murder" [result-noun] (Greek φόνος "murder")
*h1ed- "eating" [n/v] (German esse, Russian ем, Latin edō, Greek ἔδω < *h1édōm, *yédmi) > *h1édas [bare noun], *yedás "eater" [adjective-noun], *h1ádas [result-noun]
In Aryan, personal enclitics are positioned after the first word of a proposition (Wackernagel's Law)
the verb either starts or ends the clause... tendence to follow SOV
- the finite verb loses accent in an independent clause, except when in first position (always has accent in dependent clause)
- absolute construction
- subject is ommitted
- na pʰaírīt mai
- pʰaírīt mai na?
h5ígōm, mayás, mai
_(negation=subject/int.pronoun/accented verb)-_()-_(unaccented verb)
The most comprehensive summary available on PIE morphosyntax was written by Matthias Fritz in Indo-European Linguistics (Michael Meier-Brügger, 2003), pp. 238-276.
Winfred Philipp Lehmann’s Proto-Indo-European Syntax (1974)
morphological cylce (Hock and Joseph, 1996) Szemerényi 1957: 119; Kuryłowicz 1964: 233; Rasmussen 1999: Meier-Brügger
-ōm/mi -āṓm/-mā
- pʰaír-
-ōm / *-mi (perfective)
- -āṓm / *-āmi (perfective)
í (animated nouns) ì (inanimate nouns) *neuter nouns and vocatives have recessive accent Aryan has a complex system of accent loss
As Greek neuter nouns possess recessive accent (especially the monosyllabic ones, which when accented, carry a circunflex)
- paid- ... *p∅dás
- p∅dás > páds > póds
- p∅dás > *póds > pēs, πούς
- p∅dasyás > *pedés > pedis, ποδός
Syntax
I am still here Je suis encore ici Ich bin noch hier Я все ещё здесь Hic adhuc sum
Ich dachte, dass ich der Einzige war, der darüber nachdachte Я думал я один кто об этом подумал...
sie sagen, dass morgen will ich arbeiten, um Geld zu verdienen; ich, wer wusste nichts darüber
ils disent que demain je veux travailler pour gagner d'argent; moi, qui n'y savais rien pas
Subordinate clause... in German, Russian, Latin, and Greek:
- Sie sagen, dass morgen will ich arbeiten, um Geld zu verdienen.
- Они говорят, что завстра я хачу работат, чтобы зарабатывать деньге.
- Illi dicent me cras laborare volo ut pecuniam meream.
- They say I want to work tomorrow in order to earn money.
movement verbs and cases: cubitum ire *as French and German treat it in the european sprachbund
eo domum
end goal: accusative
- h2iyṓm dámam
Sample text
References
- Behaghel, Otto (1932), Deutsche Syntax
- Benveniste, Émile (1935), Les Origines de la Formation des Noms en Indo-Européen
- Collinge, N. E. (1985), The Laws of Indo-European
- Jespersen , Otto (1924), The Philosophy Of Grammar
- Priscianus (6th Century), Institutiones Grammaticae
- Sütterlin, Ludwig (1908), Die Lehre von der Lautbildung
- Szemerényi, Oswald (1970), Einführung in die vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft
- Sommerstein, Alan (1973), Sound Pattern of Ancient Greek
- Thomasus Erfordiensis (13th Century), Tractatus de Modis Significandi seu Grammatica Speculativa
- Wackernagel, Jakob (1892), Über ein Gesetz der indogermanischen Worstellung
https://archive.org/details/bomhardtheoriginsofprotoindoeuropean/page/n1/mode/2up
The Origin of the Caland System and the Typology of Adjectives
https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/if-2024-0008/html
- ^ Lazaridis et al (2022), The genetic history of the Southern Arc: a bridge between West Asia and Europe
- ^ Lazaridis et al (2022), The genetic history of the Southern Arc: a bridge between West Asia and Europe
- ^ Brami (2019), Anatolia: from the origins of agriculture to the spread of Neolithic economies
- ^ Ulas et al (2024), Drawing diffusion patterns of Neolithic agriculture in Anatolia
- ^ 3
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