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{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|name=Scots Norse
|name=Scots Norse
|nativename={{lang|snon|Sudraèsc}}
|nativename={{lang|snon|Sudhraèsc}}
|pronunciation=sˠʌdˠ.ˈreʃc
|pronunciation=sˠɤðˠ.ˈreʃc
|ethnicity=Norse Scots
|ethnicity=Norse Scots
|states=[[w:Suðreyjar|Suðreyjar]]
|states=[[w:Suðreyjar|Suðreyjar]]
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|fam4=[[w:West Scandinavian|West Scandinavian]]
|fam4=[[w:West Scandinavian|West Scandinavian]]
|fam5=Gaelo-Nordic<sup>?</sup>
|fam5=Gaelo-Nordic<sup>?</sup>
|script1=Runr
|script1=Latn
|script2=Latn
|ancestor=[[w:Old Norse language|Old Norse]]
|ancestor=[[w:Old Norse language|Old Norse]]
|ancestor2=[[w:Old West Norse|Old West Norse]]
|ancestor2=[[w:Old West Norse|Old West Norse]]
Line 36: Line 35:
}}
}}


'''Scots Norse''' (Also ''Sodor Norse''; [[w:endonym|endonym]]: ''{{lang|snon|Sudraèsc}}''; /sˠʌdˠ.ˈreʃc/) is a West Nordic language, making it closer to Icelandic and Faroese than Swedish or Danish. It is natively spoken throughout [[w:Suðreyjar|Suðreyjar]], being the dominant language of the isles. It has recieved heavy influence from Scots Gaelic over the last several centuries, contributing heavily to the spelling conventions of the language, and likely being the primary pushing force behind the development of the broad/slender distinction in Scots Norse.
'''Scots Norse''' (Also ''Sodor Norse''; [[w:endonym|endonym]]: ''{{lang|snon|{{term|Sudhraèsc}}}}''; /sˠɤðˠ.ˈreʃc/) is a West Nordic language, thus closer to [[w:Icelandic|Icelandic]] and [[w:Faroese|Faroese]] than [[w:Swedish|Swedish]] or [[w:Danish|Danish]]. It is natively spoken throughout [[w:Suðreyjar|Suðreyjar]], being the dominant language of the [[w:Hebrides|isles]]. It has recieved heavy influence from [[w:Scots Gaelic|Gàidhlig]] over the last several centuries, contributing heavily to the spelling conventions of the language, and likely being the primary pushing force behind the development of the broad/slender distinction in Scots Norse.


Scots Norse is typically split into two main dialect groups, Inner and Outer, corresponding to the Inner and Outer Hebrides, these are further divided into North and South for both, with a Central division for Inner. These dialects are almost entirely mutually intelligible within their groups, and mostly so even between the groups. Uniting all of these is the standardized form, ''{{lang|snon|Hàsudraèsc}}'', literally meaning "High Scots Norse". ("high" as in "exalted")
Scots Norse is typically split into two main [[w:dialect|dialect]] groups, Inner and Outer, corresponding to the Inner and Outer Hebrides, these are further divided into North and South for both, with a Central division for Inner. These dialects are almost entirely mutually intelligible within their groups, and mostly so even between the groups. Uniting all of these is the standardized form, ''{{lang|snon|Hàsudraèsc}}'', literally meaning "High Scots Norse". ("high" as in "exalted")


Scots Norse is hard to classify type-wise, as it shows signs of creolization, but not to the extent where it could typically be classed as a creole, this leads to the branching from Insular West Norse into so-called "Gaelo-Nordic", characterized by the partial creolization of Old West Norse with Middle Irish and Scots Gaelic. Regardless how it is classed, Scots Norse is with no doubt some kind of mixed language.
Scots Norse is hard to classify type-wise, as it shows signs of [[w:creolization|creolization]], but not to the extent where it could typically be classed as a [[w:creole|creole]], this leads to the branching from Insular West Norse into so-called "Gaelo-Nordic", characterized by the partial creolization of [[w:Old West Norse|Old West Norse]] with [[w:Middle Irish|Middle Irish]] and Scots Gaelic. Regardless how it is classed, Scots Norse is with no doubt some kind of [[w:mixed language|mixed language]].
==History==
==History==
===Pre-Modern===
===Pre-Modern===
Scots Norse originates in the mid to late 13th century, around the time Suðreyjar was handed over to Scotland with the Treaty of Perth. Though the language would continue to be largely unchanged from the Old Norse of the 12th century, 1266AD is often used as a dividing date between Old Norse and the earliest forms of Scots Norse. While 1266 is a relatively arbitrary date, it serves its purpose as a convenient divide between two stages, as following the Treaty of Perth, the Hebrides would gain a much larger population of Gaelic and English speakers (At this point still Middle Irish and Middle English), and from roughly 1450AD onward, Scots Norse would be increasingly influenced by Scots Gaelic and, to a lesser extent, Scots.
Scots Norse originates in the mid to late 13th century, around the time Suðreyjar was handed over to Scotland with the [[w:Treaty of Perth|Treaty of Perth]]. Though the language would continue to be largely unchanged from the Old Norse of the 12th century, 1266AD is often used as a dividing date between Old Norse and the earliest forms of Scots Norse. While 1266 is a relatively arbitrary date, it serves its purpose as a convenient divide between two stages, as following the Treaty of Perth, the Hebrides would gain a much larger population of [[w:Gaelic|Gaelic]] and [[w:English|English]] speakers (At this point still Middle Irish and [[w:Middle English|Middle English]]), and from roughly 1450AD onward, Scots Norse would be increasingly influenced by Scots Gaelic and, to a lesser extent, Scots.


Having been spoken throughout Suðreyjar, Scots Norse had a dialect within the Isle of Mann (Scots Norse {{lang|snon|{{term|Monaèirr}}}} /mˠɒ.ˈnei̯rʲ/). Little is known about Manx Norse ({{lang|snon|{{term|Monaèsc}}}} /mˠɔ.ˈneʃc/), as it is very poorly recorded, the most extensive description being a short document from around 1500AD that contains a list of about 150 words, with a very poor description of the pronunciations. Though from this description we can gather that Manx Norse still had the dental fricatives that had been lost in other dialects (merging with t/d), we get this from the description "... these [th and dh] are like that of the Saxons' beloved þ or the Scots' [Gaels'] sounds of the same staves [=letters]."
Having been spoken throughout Suðreyjar, Scots Norse had a dialect within the [[w:Isle of Man|Isle of Man]] (Scots Norse {{lang|snon|{{term|Monaèirr}}}}). Little is known about Manx Norse ({{lang|snon|{{term|Monaèsc}}}}), as it is very poorly recorded, the most extensive description being a short document from around 1500AD that contains a list of about 150 words (see ''[[the Noreine speche fra Man]]''), with a very poor description of the pronunciations. Though from this description we can gather that Manx Norse still had the [[w:dental fricative|dental fricatives]] that had been lost in other dialects (merging with t/d), we get this from the description "... these [th and dh] are like that of the Saxons' beloved þ."


Following the treaty of Perth, the usage of Norse began declining significantly, with evidence it was nearly extinct by 1550. A small revitalization occured in the mid 18th century when several of the last native speakers (at the time, Scots Norse had no more than 150 remaining speakers) gathered together to document the language so it could be taught to children. This effort was mostly effective, leading to the first noticeable rise in speaker count since it began declining. By the 1880's, there would be upwards of 1,500 native speakers, a majority of them young.
Following the treaty of Perth, the usage of Norse began declining significantly, with evidence it was nearly extinct by 1550. A small revitalization occured in the mid 18th century when several of the last native speakers (at the time, Scots Norse had no more than 150 remaining speakers) gathered together to document the language so it could be taught to children. This effort was mostly effective, leading to the first noticeable rise in speaker count since it began declining. By the 1880's, there would be upwards of 1,500 native speakers, a majority of them young.
===Modern===
===Modern===
Modern Scots Norse is typically classed as critically endangered due to how few speakers it has, having no more than 2,500 native speakers as of 2020, and virtually all of them live in the Hebrides, making it extremely limited.
Modern Scots Norse is typically classed as critically endangered due to how few speakers it has, having no more than 2,500 native speakers as of 2020, and virtually all of them live in the Hebrides, making it extremely limited.
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! colspan=2 rowspan=2 |  
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 |  
! colspan=3 | labial
! colspan=3 | labial
! colspan=3 | dental
! colspan=3 | alveolar
! colspan=3 | alveolar
! colspan=3 | velar
! colspan=3 | velar
|-
|-
! plain
! broad
! slender
! plain
! plain
! broad
! broad
Line 75: Line 79:
| mˠ
| mˠ
| mʲ
| mʲ
|
|
|
| n
| n
| nˠ
| nˠ
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| pˠ
| pˠ
| pʲ
| pʲ
|
|
|
| t
| t
| tˠ
| tˠ
| t͡ʃ
| tʲ
| colspan=2 | k
| colspan=2 | k
| c
| c
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| bˠ
| bˠ
| bʲ
| bʲ
|
|
|
| d
| d
| dˠ
| dˠ
| d͡ʒ
| dʲ
| colspan=2 | g
| colspan=2 | g
| ɟ
| ɟ
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| fˠ
| fˠ
| fʲ
| fʲ
| s, θ͇¹
| θ
| θˠ
| θʲ
| s
| sˠ
| sˠ
| ʃ
| ʃ
| h²
| h¹
| x
| x
| ç
| ç
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| vˠ
| vˠ
| vʲ
| vʲ
| ð
| ðˠ
| ðʲ
| z
| zˠ
| ʒ
| colspan=2 | ɣ
| ʝ
|-
! colspan=2 | Approximant
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|-
! colspan=2 | Approximant
|  
|  
|  
|  
|
| r, l
| r, l³
| rˠ, lˠ
| rˠ, lˠ
| rʲ, ʎ
| rʲ, ʎ
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|}
|}


#Often plain /θ/
#/h/ merges with /x/ outside of Standard Scots Norse.
#/h/ merges with /x/ outside of Standard Scots Norse.
#Final "l" (not "ll") is often realized as /ʃ/.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
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! Near-High
! Near-High
| ɪ
| ɪ
| colspan=2 | ʊ
| colspan=2 | ɤ~ʊ
|-
|-
! Mid-High
! Mid
| e
| e
| (ə)
| rowspan=2 | (ə)
| o
| o
|-
! Mid-Low
| ɛ
| (ʌ)
| ɔ
|-
|-
! Low
! Low
|  
| æ~ɛ
| ɑ
| ɔ~ɒ
| (ɒ)
|-
|-
|}
|}


#/ə, ʌ, ɒ/ are the unstressed realizations of /ɑ, ʊ, ɔ/.
#/ə/ is the unstressed realization of /æ, ɔ/. (differing by slender vs broad)
#/ʊ/ is most typically realized as [ɤ]
#/æ/ is often /ɛ/ before nasals, but rarely so anywhere else.


Long vowels have long been lost, though their effects remain prominently, influencing the languages stress patterns heavily.
Long vowels have long been lost, though their effects remain prominently, influencing the languages stress patterns heavily.
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*Before a fricative (Though "nh" is /n̥/)
*Before a fricative (Though "nh" is /n̥/)
*In some irregular positions when loaned from another language.
*In some irregular positions when loaned from another language.
===Dialects===
====Uist Norse====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 |
! colspan=2 | labial
! colspan=2 | dental
! colspan=2 | alveolar
! colspan=2 | velar
|-
! broad
! slender
! broad
! slender
! broad
! slender
! broad
! slender
|-
! colspan=2 | Nasal
| m
| mʲ
|
|
| n
| ɲ
|
|
|-
! rowspan=2 | Stop
! Unvoiced
| p
| pʲ
|
|
| t
| tʲ
| k
| c
|-
! Voiced
| b
| bʲ
|
|
| d
| dʲ
| g
| ɟ
|-
! rowspan=2 | Fricative
! Unvoiced
| f
| fʲ
| θ
| θʲ
| s
| ʃ
| x
| ç
|-
! Voiced
| v
| vʲ
| ð
| ðʲ
| z
| ʒ
| ɣ
| ʝ
|-
! colspan=2 | Approximant
|
|
|
|
| r, ɫ
| rʲ, ʎ
| colspan=2 | j
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! rowspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Front
! colspan=2 | Back
|-
! Unround
! Round
|-
! High
| i
|
| u
|-
! Mid
| e
|
| o
|-
! Low
| ɛ
| (ɐ)
| ɔ~ɒ
|-
|}
#/ə/ is the unstressed realization of /ɛ, ɔ/. (differing by slender vs broad)
Nasal vowels in Uist Norse are typically realized slightly centralized and longer, often without the nasalization.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! rowspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Front
! colspan=2 | Back
|-
! Unround
! Round
|-
! High
| ɪ̈ˑ
|
| ʊ̈ˑ
|-
! Mid
| ɘˑ
|
| ɵˑ
|-
! Low
| ɜˑ
| (əˑ)
| ɞˑ
|-
|}


===Prosody===
===Prosody===
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===Mutation===
===Mutation===
Since Old Norse, initial consonant mutations have began developing. Scots Norse has several forms:
Since Old Norse, initial [[w:consonant mutation|consonant mutation]] has developed. Scots Norse has several forms:
:radical (basic)
:radical (basic)
:lenited
:lenited
:nasal
:nasal
:soft
:voiced
these can be shown quite well through pronouns + lemma, as a pronoun exists that causes most of them (except soft).
these can be shown quite well through pronoun + verb, as a pronoun exists that causes most of them (except voiced), the word order for these will be slightly odd.


The following gives an example using each of the nominative pronouns:
The following gives an example using each of the nominative pronouns:
Line 208: Line 359:


==Orthography==
==Orthography==
Doubled consonants are essentially identical to singular ones, the exceptions will be placed in the table, and as a general rule, doubled initial consonants are long, composing the only geminates in the language.
(updated up to "dh")
 
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
! colspan=5 | consonants
! colspan=5 | consonants
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| colspan=2 | plain
| colspan=2 | plain
| /b/
| /b/
| {{term|}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|baiag}}}}'' /ˈbɪɡ/
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| colspan=2 | broad
| /bˠ/
| /bˠ/
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|bògi}}}}'' /ˈbˠo.ɟɪ/
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|bòegh}}}}'' /ˈbˠoʝ/
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| colspan=2 | slender
| /bʲ/
| /bʲ/
| {{term|}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|barr}}}}'' /ˈbʲærʲ/
|-  
|-  
| rowspan=4 | '''bh'''
| rowspan=4 | '''bh'''
| colspan=2 | before u/ù, a consonant, or finally
| colspan=2 | before u/ù, a consonant, or finally
| /./ or null
| /./ or null
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|bhùrr}}}}'' /ˈur/, ''{{lang|snon|{{term|àbbh}}}}'' /ˈo/
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|}}}}'' //
|-
|-
| rowspan=3 | usually
| rowspan=3 | usually
| plain
| plain
| /v/
| /v/
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|bhàrr}}}}'' /ˈvor/
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|}}}}'' //
|-
|-
| broad
| broad
| /vˠ/
| /vˠ/
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|bholl}}}}'' /ˈvˠɔl/
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|}}}}'' //
|-
|-
| slender
| slender
| /vʲ/
| /vʲ/
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|bhèrr}}}}'' /ˈvʲerʲ/
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|}}}}'' //
|-
|-
| rowspan=4 | '''c'''
| rowspan=2 | '''c'''
| rowspan=2 | plain/broad
| colspan=2 | plain/broad
| initially and finally
| /kʰ/
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|cotte}}}}'' /ˈkʰɔt͡ʃʰ/
|-
| between vowels
| /k/
| /k/
| {{term|}} //
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|coeth}}}}'' /ˈkɔθʲ/
|-
|-
| rowspan=2 | slender
| colspan=2 | slender
| initially and finally
| /cʰ/
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|cìss}}}}'' /cʰis/
|-
| between vowels
| /c/
| /c/
| {{term|}} //
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|ceth}}}}'' /ˈcɛθʲ/
|-
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''ch'''
| rowspan=2 | '''ch'''
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|-
|-
| colspan=3 | '''cn'''
| colspan=3 | '''cn'''
| /kʰɾ/
| /kɾ/
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|cnà}}}}'' /ˈkʰɾo/
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|cnà}}}}'' /ˈkɾo/
|-
|-
| colspan=3 | '''chn'''
| colspan=3 | '''chn'''
| /xɾ/ [r̥]
| /xɾ/ [ɾ̥]
| ''{{lang|snon|({{term|e}}) {{term|chnà}}}}'' /(ˈɛ) ˈxɾo/
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|}}}}'' //
|-
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''d'''
| rowspan=3 | '''d'''
| colspan=2 | plain
| colspan=2 | plain
| /d/
| /d/
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|dàge}}}}'' /ˈdoɟ/
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|dàegh}}}}'' /ˈdoʝ/
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| colspan=2 | broad
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| {{term|}} //
| {{term|}} //
|-
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''dh'''
| rowspan=4 | '''dh'''
| colspan=2 | intervocalic/pre-consonantal/finally
| colspan=2 | intervocalic/pre-consonantal/finally
| /./ or null
| /./ or null
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|òdha}}}}'' /ˈo.ə/, ''{{lang|snon|{{term|sudhraèir}}}}'' /sˠʌ.ˈrei̯θ͇/
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|}}}}'' //
|-
| colspan=2 | plain
| /ð/
| {{term|}} //
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | plain/broad
| colspan=2 | broad
| /ɣ/
| /ðˠ/
| {{term|}} //
| {{term|}} //
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| colspan=2 | slender
| /ʝ/
| /ðʲ/
| {{term|}} //
| {{term|}} //
|-
|-
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===Nouns===
===Nouns===
A major development in nouns is the complete loss of the definite forms, being replaced by the independent "hinn", which precedes the noun, triggering nasal mutation in some forms.
A major development in nouns is the complete loss of the definite forms, being replaced by the independent "hinn", which precedes the noun, triggering nasal mutation in some forms.
====Strong nouns====
There are two strong neuter, three masculine, and three feminine declensions. The masculine and feminine each have an A, an I, and an R stem, after the defining difference in the nominative singular of the Proto-Germanic form.


Though the masculine a-stems tend for an -s genitive singular, and the i- and r-stems tend for -ar, there are many words that don't follow. The -i of the dative singular is frequently dropped from many words, particularly in the i-declension. Bisyllabic proper names originally in -arr or -urr, such as Einarr (modern "Ènar" /ˈe.nəθ͇/) and Gizurr (modern "Gisur" /ˈɟɪ.sʌθ͇/) do not contract as hamarr ("hamr-") before an inflectional syllable.
Many of the forms have merged, this leads to a far stricter word order.
:The nominative and accusative merged together in the mid 1700's, leading to a necessarily stricter word order. The neuter has also merged with the masculine. The masculine genitive has also fallen together, while it remains distinct in feminine nouns. The singular direct and dative have also merged, with the masculine genitive being identical to these forms as well. (see the table for ''{{lang|snon|ald}}'')


First to be shown will be the masculine patterns, then the feminines, and lastly the neuters, with several examples for each pattern.
The genitive singular has two endings, these are highly consistent, being a null ending in the masculine and -arr in the feminine.


These first few are masculine a-stems.
The genitive has been increasingly falling out of use over the past two centuries, and is now largely superseded by constructions like "at [possessor (in dative)]".
{{snon-decl-m-a|eld|n=n-|l=ch-|fc=d}}
{{snon-decl-m-a|àt|òt|n=nh|c=h|l=ch|fc=t}}
{{snon-decl-m-a|àmar|omr|amr|amar|n=nh|c=h|l=ch}}
Due to many sound changes, "hamare" is quite irregular, this following table is more colloquial spellings that better show pronunciation.
{{snon-decl-m-a|àmar|onr|anr|anar|n=nh|c=h|l=ch}}
And an uncontracted form (which is regular):
{{snon-decl-m-a|àmar|òmar|n=nh|c=h|l=ch|fc=r}}


Younger (< age 35) speakers only distinguish three forms; the singular, the direct plural, and the dative plural. The singular is split into direct vs dative when paired with an article, but it is otherwise the same for both.
====Strong nouns====
=====Masculines=====
These first few are a-stems.
{{snon-decl-m-a|ald|1l=h-ald|1n=n-ald}}
{{snon-decl-m-a|hàt|hàet|1l='àt|2l='àet|1n=nhàt|2n=nhàet}}
{{snon-decl-m-a|r=y|hàmar|1l='àmar|1n=nhàmar}}


The masculine i-stem has also merged with the a-stem.
{{snon-decl-m-a|bèdh|1l=bhèdh|1n=mèdh}}


As has the u-stem.
{{snon-decl-m-a|bògh|bòegh|1l=bhògh|1n=mògh|2l=bhòegh|2n=mòegh}}


The following were originally neuter, but various changes have merged them with the masculine.
{{snon-decl-m-a|màl|màel|1l=mhàl|2l=mhàel}}
{{snon-decl-m-a|post|poest|1l=phost|2l=phoest|1n=mhost|2n=mhoest}}


 
=====Feminines=====
 
{{snon-decl-f-ō|arrv|orrv|1l=h-arrv|2l=h-orrv|1n=n-arrv|2n=n-orrv}}
Here we have the neuter a-stem.
{{snon-decl-n-a|ost|ost|c=p|n=mh|l=ph|fc=t}}
In "post", notice the lack of change in the nom/acc plural, this is due to umlaut only occuring on -a- in this pattern, as in this next pattern.
{{snon-decl-n-a|àl|òl|c=m|n=mm|l=mh|fc=l}}
Now here in "màl", notice how the difference is present.


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
Line 633: Line 780:


The forms of adjectives quickly began falling together, with the nominative/accusative distinction being lost quite early on.
The forms of adjectives quickly began falling together, with the nominative/accusative distinction being lost quite early on.
{{snon-decl-adj|sèl|r=sèl|fc=l}}
{{snon-decl-adj|sèl}}


===Prepositions===
===Prepositions===
Scots Norse has developed a system of inflected prepositions from the reduction of pronouns, these were eventually interpreted as part of the preposition rather than a pronoun as they had diverged so far from them.
Scots Norse has a very, very simple system of inflected prepositions, only inflecting for person and number, but never for case or gender, likely because it can usually be told through context.


{{snon-infl-prep|lem=ì|r=in|rm=im|rl=inh|dl=innh|nl=innh}}
A large amount of speakers simply don't use inflected prepositions, though the majority does.


{{snon-infl-prep|in|1l=inh|2l=ionh|1v=im}}




{{snon-infl-prep|lem=at|r=at|rm=an|rl=ath|dl=atth|rv=ad|rln=anh}}
{{snon-infl-prep|til|1l=tilh|2l=tiolh}}


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
Line 648: Line 796:


The stative doesn't exist for every verb, but the forms are still displayed for convenience's sake.
The stative doesn't exist for every verb, but the forms are still displayed for convenience's sake.
The original mediopassive indicative only remains in a small set of verbs acting as a reciprocal, typically physical actions taken towards others, like {{lang|snon|{{term|}}}} ("to fight"), {{lang|snon|{{term|slà}}}} ("to hit"), {{lang|snon|{{term|}}}} ("to embrace"), as well as a few abstract verbs, such as {{lang|snon|{{term|}}}} ("to love"). Otherwise it's been replaced by {{lang|snon|{{term|hìnu n-onaru}}}}
====Strong verbs====
====Strong verbs====
Strong verbs have survived rather well into Scots Norse, at times weak verbs have been made strong (though the opposite has also happened).
Strong verbs have survived rather well into Scots Norse, at times weak verbs have been made strong (though the opposite has also happened).
Line 660: Line 810:
====Weak verbs====
====Weak verbs====
=====Class 1=====
=====Class 1=====
The original distinction between "heavy" and "light" stems has long been lost in Scots Norse, the distinction between them having either been leveled out or sound changes led to its loss.
Class 1 has entirely been lost, having shifted to class 2.
 
=====Class 2=====
{{snon-conj-weak1|mèl|mèlt|1o=mèol|2o=mèolt}}
{{snon-conj-weak2|tàl|tòl|tàel}}


=====Class 2=====
{{snon-conj-weak2|tàl|tòl|fc=l}}


{{snon-conj-weak2|mèl|4=mèol}}
{{lang|snon|mèl}} was originally a class 1 verb.
=====Class 3=====
=====Class 3=====


Line 674: Line 824:
==Texts==
==Texts==
===UDHR Article 1===
===UDHR Article 1===
'''Original (English)''':
====Original (English)====
:All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.


'''Old Norse (modern translation)''':
====Old Norse (modern translation)====
:Allir menn eru bornir frjálsir ok jafnir at virðingu ok réttum. Þeir eru allir viti gœddir ok samvizku, ok skulu gøra hvárr til annars bróðurliga.
Allir menn eru bornir frjálsir ok jafnir at virðingu ok réttum. Þeir eru allir viti gœddir ok samvizku, ok skulu gøra hvárr til annars bróðurliga.
====Scots Norse====
{{lang|snon|alarr ma n-èor bhorrnarr friàlsarr o hiavnarr, hàevn vhirrdhing h-o rhèot h-atharr. tèrr èor h-alarr vìt gaèdarr o shanviosc, o shcùl gaèr vhàrr til anarr bhròdhorrligh.}}
:alarr ma n-èor bhorrnarr friàlsarr o hiavnarr, hàevn vhirrdhing h-o rhèot h-atharr. tèrr èor h-alarr vìt gaèdarr o shanviosc, o shcùl gaèr vhàrr til anarr bhròdhorrligh.


'''Scots Norse''':
=====English translation=====
:{{lang|snon|alir me n-èru bornir phriàlsir o chiabhnir, bhèrdi bhirdhingar o rhètti ather. thèr èru alir gaèddir bhìti o shamhiscu, o shculu gèrr bhàr til annarr bhròdhurligg.}}
:lit: "all men are born free and equal, being dignity and rights at them. they are all endowed to reason and to conscience, and should act each to others to brotherly(ness)"
:(alir me n-èru bornir bhriàlsir o chiabhnir, bhèrdi bhirdhingar o rhètti ather. thèr èru alir gaèddir bhìti o shamhiscu, o shculu gèrr bhàr til annarr bhròdhurligg.)
:"all men are born free and equal, having dignity and rights. they are all endowed with reason and conscience, and should act to eachother as a brotherhood"
:/ˈa.ʎɪθ mʲɛ ɲe.rˠʌ ˈbɔr.ɪθ ˈvrʲu.ʃɪθ ɒ ˈça.ɲɪθ ˈvʲer.d͡ʒɪ ˈvʲɪr.ɪŋ.ɡəθ ɒ r̥ʲe.t͡ʃɪ ə.çɛθ | çeθ ˈe.rˠʌ ˈa.ʎɪθ ˈɡe.d͡ʒɪθ vʲi.t͡ʃɪ ɒ ˈha.ˌm̥ʲɪs.kʌ ɒ ˈhkʰɤ.lʌ ˈɟer ˈvoθ ˈt͡ʃʰɪʃ ˈa.nər ˈvrˠo.ər.ʎɪɡ/


:'''English translation'''
===Deor===
::lit: "all men are born free and equal, being dignity and rights at them. they are all endowed to reason and to conscience, and should act each to others to brotherly(ness)"
{{col-begin}}
::"all men are born free and equal, having dignity and rights. they are all endowed with reason and conscience, and should act to eachother as a brotherhood"
{{col-break|width=250}}
'''Old English'''
:Welund him be wurman
::wræces cunnade,
:anhydig eorl
::earfoþa dreag,
:hæfde him to gesiþþe
::sorge and longaþ,
:wintercealde wræce,
::wean oft onfond
:siþþan hine Niðhad on
::nede legde,
:swoncre seonobende
::on syllan monn.
:Þæs ofereode,
::þisses swa mæg.
{{col-break}}
'''Scots Norse'''
:Vòluenn shi, thur ròvnirr
::cvàlarr cenn,
:ànar iall
::arrvidh thoeld,
:-
::-
:-
::-
:-
::-
:-
::-
:ta h-oevgangtirr,
::tash thil mègh.
{{col-end}}
(lines with "-" are yet to be translated)


==Lexical comparison==
==Lexical comparison==
Line 704: Line 889:
| fire
| fire
| eldr
| eldr
| elde /ˈœd͡ʒ/
| ald /ˈæʎdʲ/
| eldur
| eldur
| eld
| eld
Line 711: Line 896:
| nose
| nose
| nǫs
| nǫs
| nos /ˈnˠɔs/
| no /ˈnˠɔ/
| nös
| nös
| nas
| nas
Line 718: Line 903:
| to go
| to go
| ganga
| ganga
| gogg /ˈɡɔɡ/
| gang /ˈɟæŋ̟/
| ganga
| ganga
| gånga
| gånga
Line 725: Line 910:
| water
| water
| vatn
| vatn
| vànn /ˈvon/
| vat /ˈvʲætʲ/
| vatn
| vatn
| vatten
| vatten
Line 732: Line 917:
| mouth
| mouth
| (body) munnr</br>(river) mynni</br>(river) óss
| (body) munnr</br>(river) mynni</br>(river) óss
| (body) munne /ˈmˠɤɲ/</br>(river) mynni /ˈmi.ɲɪ/
| (body) muenn /ˈmˠɤɲ/</br>(river) mainn /ˈmiɲ/
|  
|  
|-
|-
Line 738: Line 923:
| tongue
| tongue
| tunga
| tunga
| tugg /ˈtˠɤɡ/
| tueng /ˈtˠɤŋ̟/
|-
|-
|7
|7
| blood
| blood
| blóð
| blóð
| blòdh /ˈblˠo(ː)/
| blòd /ˈbˠɫodˠ/
|-
|-
|8
|8
| bone
| bone
| bein
| bein
| bèn /ˈbʲen/
| bè /ˈbʲe/
|-
|-
|9
|9
Line 758: Line 943:
| root
| root
| rót
| rót
| ròt /ˈrˠotʰ/
| ròt /ˈrˠotˠ/
|-
|-
|11
|11
| to come (move)
| to come (move)
| koma
| koma
| comm /ˈkʰɔm/
| còem /ˈkomʲ/
|-
|-
|12
|12
| breast
| breast
| brjóst
| brjóst
| briòst /ˈbrʲos(tʰ)/
| briòst /ˈbʲrʲosˠ(tˠ)/
|-
|-
|13
|13
| rain
| rain
| regn
| regn
| regn /ˈrʲɛi̯n/
| rei /ˈrʲɛː/
|-
|-
|14
|14
| 1sg pronoun (I)
| 1sg pronoun (I)
| ek
| ek
| /ɛkʰ/
| e /ɛɛ/
|-
|-
|15
|15
| name
| name
| nafn
| nafn
| nàvn /ˈnou̯n/
| nav /ˈnʲæ/
|-
|-
|16
|16
Line 818: Line 1,003:
| night (time)
| night (time)
| nátt
| nátt
| nàtt /ˈnotʰ/
| nàtt /ˈnot/
|-
|-
|22
|22
Line 865: Line 1,050:
| to say
| to say
| tala
| tala
| tall /ˈtal/
| tàel /ˈtoʎ/
|-
|-
|30
|30
Line 888: Line 1,073:
| one (number)
| one (number)
| einn
| einn
| èn /ˈẽ/
| è /ˈe/
|-
|-
|34
|34
Line 899: Line 1,084:
| 3sg pronoun (they)
| 3sg pronoun (they)
| hann (m)</br>hǫ́n (f)</br>þat (n)
| hann (m)</br>hǫ́n (f)</br>þat (n)
| han (m) /ˈhã/</br>hòn (f) /ˈxõ/</br>that (n) /ˈtatʰ/
| ha (m) /ˈha/</br>hò (f) /ˈxo/
|-
|-
|36
|36
Line 922: Line 1,107:
| this (pron.)
| this (pron.)
| sá
| sá
| sà /ˈsˠo/
| tà /ˈto/
|-
|-
|40
|40
| fish
| fish
| fiskr
| fiskr
| fisce /ˈfʲɪsc/
| fisc /ˈfʲɪʃc/
|-
|-
|41
|41
Line 1,022: Line 1,207:
| not (adj./adv.)
| not (adj./adv.)
| eigi</br>(verbal) -at
| eigi</br>(verbal) -at
| ègi /ˈe.ʝɪ~ˈeɪ̯/</br>(verbal) -et /(ʲ)tʰ/
| ègh /eʝ/</br>(verbal) -(a)t /(ə)tʲ/
|-
|-
|57
|57
Line 1,033: Line 1,218:
| to know
| to know
| kunna</br>(a person) kenna
| kunna</br>(a person) kenna
| cunn /ˈkʰɤn/</br>(a person) cenn /ˈcʰɛn/
| cuen /ˈkɤ̃/</br>(a person) cen /ˈcɛ̃/
|-
|-
|59
|59
Line 1,092: Line 1,277:
| skin/hide
| skin/hide
| feldr (animal)</br> skinn (general)</br>húð
| feldr (animal)</br> skinn (general)</br>húð
| felde /ˈfʲœd͡ʒ/ (animal)</br> scinn /ˈscɪɲ/ (general)</br>hùdh /ˈxu/
| feld /ˈfʲɛʎdʲ/ (animal)</br> sci /ˈʃcɪ/ (general)</br>hùd /ˈxudˠ/
|-
|-
|69
|69
Line 1,133: Line 1,318:
| to eat
| to eat
| eta
| eta
| jatt /ˈjatʰ/
| èt /ˈetʲ/
|-
|-
|76
|76
Line 1,198: Line 1,383:
| dog
| dog
| hundr</br>rakki
| hundr</br>rakki
| hudde /ˈxɤd͡ʒ/ (archaic)</br>racci /ˈra.cɪ/</br>(affectionate) cù /ˈkʰu/
| huenn /ˈxɤɲ/ (archaic)</br>rac /ˈrʲæc/</br>(affectionate) cù /ˈku/
| hundur</br>rakki
| hundur</br>rakki
| hund</br>rakka
| hund</br>rakka
Line 1,241: Line 1,426:
| bird
| bird
| fugl
| fugl
| fugl /ˈfˠɯl/
| fùil /ˈfˠɯʎ/
|-
|-
|94
|94
Line 1,270: Line 1,455:
| in
| in
| í
| í
| ì /i, ɪ/
| ì /i/
|-
|-
|99
|99
Line 1,290: Line 1,475:
[[Category:A posteriori]]
[[Category:A posteriori]]
[[Category:Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Scots Norse|Scots Norse]]
[[Category:Scots Norse language]]

Latest revision as of 03:17, 22 April 2026


Scots Norse
Sudhraèsc
Pronunciation[sˠɤðˠ.ˈreʃc]
Created byMelinoë
DateApril 3rd, 2026
Native toSuðreyjar
EthnicityNorse Scots
Native speakers(L1) 2,000 (2019)
(L2) < 50,000
Early forms
Dialects
  • Inner South
  • Inner Central
  • Inner North
  • Outer South
  • Outer North
Official status
Official language in
Scotland
Scots Norse is classified as critically endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Scots Norse (Also Sodor Norse; endonym: Sudhraèsc; /sˠɤðˠ.ˈreʃc/) is a West Nordic language, thus closer to Icelandic and Faroese than Swedish or Danish. It is natively spoken throughout Suðreyjar, being the dominant language of the isles. It has recieved heavy influence from Gàidhlig over the last several centuries, contributing heavily to the spelling conventions of the language, and likely being the primary pushing force behind the development of the broad/slender distinction in Scots Norse.

Scots Norse is typically split into two main dialect groups, Inner and Outer, corresponding to the Inner and Outer Hebrides, these are further divided into North and South for both, with a Central division for Inner. These dialects are almost entirely mutually intelligible within their groups, and mostly so even between the groups. Uniting all of these is the standardized form, Hàsudraèsc, literally meaning "High Scots Norse". ("high" as in "exalted")

Scots Norse is hard to classify type-wise, as it shows signs of creolization, but not to the extent where it could typically be classed as a creole, this leads to the branching from Insular West Norse into so-called "Gaelo-Nordic", characterized by the partial creolization of Old West Norse with Middle Irish and Scots Gaelic. Regardless how it is classed, Scots Norse is with no doubt some kind of mixed language.

History

Pre-Modern

Scots Norse originates in the mid to late 13th century, around the time Suðreyjar was handed over to Scotland with the Treaty of Perth. Though the language would continue to be largely unchanged from the Old Norse of the 12th century, 1266AD is often used as a dividing date between Old Norse and the earliest forms of Scots Norse. While 1266 is a relatively arbitrary date, it serves its purpose as a convenient divide between two stages, as following the Treaty of Perth, the Hebrides would gain a much larger population of Gaelic and English speakers (At this point still Middle Irish and Middle English), and from roughly 1450AD onward, Scots Norse would be increasingly influenced by Scots Gaelic and, to a lesser extent, Scots.

Having been spoken throughout Suðreyjar, Scots Norse had a dialect within the Isle of Man (Scots Norse Monaèirr). Little is known about Manx Norse (Monaèsc), as it is very poorly recorded, the most extensive description being a short document from around 1500AD that contains a list of about 150 words (see the Noreine speche fra Man), with a very poor description of the pronunciations. Though from this description we can gather that Manx Norse still had the dental fricatives that had been lost in other dialects (merging with t/d), we get this from the description "... these [th and dh] are like that of the Saxons' beloved þ."

Following the treaty of Perth, the usage of Norse began declining significantly, with evidence it was nearly extinct by 1550. A small revitalization occured in the mid 18th century when several of the last native speakers (at the time, Scots Norse had no more than 150 remaining speakers) gathered together to document the language so it could be taught to children. This effort was mostly effective, leading to the first noticeable rise in speaker count since it began declining. By the 1880's, there would be upwards of 1,500 native speakers, a majority of them young.

Modern

Modern Scots Norse is typically classed as critically endangered due to how few speakers it has, having no more than 2,500 native speakers as of 2020, and virtually all of them live in the Hebrides, making it extremely limited.

Since the early 1990's, Scots Norse has gained a small but dedicated community of linguists that are determined to further document it and make resources more readily available. As of 2018, an online course has been published that goes over Standard Scots Norse, and it has been continually updated since then, improving the quality and extent of the contents, having started out as a rather barebones description of the phonology, orthography, and rudimentary grammar.

Phonology

labial dental alveolar velar
plain broad slender plain broad slender plain broad slender plain broad slender
Nasal m mˠ mʲ n nˠ ɲ
Stop Unvoiced p pˠ pʲ t tˠ tʲ k c
Voiced b bˠ bʲ d dˠ dʲ g ɟ
Fricative Unvoiced f fˠ fʲ θ θˠ θʲ s sˠ ʃ h¹ x ç
Voiced v vˠ vʲ ð ðˠ ðʲ z zˠ ʒ ɣ ʝ
Approximant r, l rˠ, lˠ rʲ, ʎ j
  1. /h/ merges with /x/ outside of Standard Scots Norse.
Front Back
Unround Round
High i u
Near-High ɪ ɤ~ʊ
Mid e (ə) o
Low æ~ɛ ɔ~ɒ
  1. /ə/ is the unstressed realization of /æ, ɔ/. (differing by slender vs broad)
  2. /æ/ is often /ɛ/ before nasals, but rarely so anywhere else.

Long vowels have long been lost, though their effects remain prominently, influencing the languages stress patterns heavily.

Every vowel can appear nasalized, though nasalization only occurs in specific positions, and is always shown with a single N. (though not all single Ns are nasalization)

  • Word finally
  • Before a fricative (Though "nh" is /n̥/)
  • In some irregular positions when loaned from another language.

Dialects

Uist Norse

labial dental alveolar velar
broad slender broad slender broad slender broad slender
Nasal m mʲ n ɲ
Stop Unvoiced p pʲ t tʲ k c
Voiced b bʲ d dʲ g ɟ
Fricative Unvoiced f fʲ θ θʲ s ʃ x ç
Voiced v vʲ ð ðʲ z ʒ ɣ ʝ
Approximant r, ɫ rʲ, ʎ j
Front Back
Unround Round
High i u
Mid e o
Low ɛ (ɐ) ɔ~ɒ
  1. /ə/ is the unstressed realization of /ɛ, ɔ/. (differing by slender vs broad)

Nasal vowels in Uist Norse are typically realized slightly centralized and longer, often without the nasalization.

Front Back
Unround Round
High ɪ̈ˑ ʊ̈ˑ
Mid ɘˑ ɵˑ
Low ɜˑ (əˑ) ɞˑ

Prosody

The rules for stress are very slightly more complex than they were in Old Norse, but not by much.

Stress always goes on the left-most syllable possible. When there are vowels with a grave, stress goes to the first one, skipping over all vowels without one. (so sudhraèir is stressed on "aèi")

Mutation

Since Old Norse, initial consonant mutation has developed. Scots Norse has several forms:

radical (basic)
lenited
nasal
voiced

these can be shown quite well through pronoun + verb, as a pronoun exists that causes most of them (except voiced), the word order for these will be slightly odd.

The following gives an example using each of the nominative pronouns:

e thàel /ˈɛ θoʎ/ — "I speak"
tù thàlarr /ˈtˠu ˈθo.lər/ — "you speak"
ha nhàlarr /ˈha n̥o.lər/ — "he speaks"
ho nhàlarr /ˈxɔ ˈn̥o.lər/ — "she speaks"
tat tàlarr /ˈtat ˈto.lər/ — "it/they (sg) speak(s)"
vit tòlu /vʲɪt tˠo.ɫɤ/ — "we speak"
it tòlud /ɪt tˠo.ɫɤd/ — "you (pl) speak"
tèrr tòl /ˈtʲer ˈtˠoɫ/ — "they (m/f) speaks"
tò thòl /ˈtˠo ˈθˠoɫ/ — "they (n) speak"

Orthography

(updated up to "dh")

Morphology

Nouns

A major development in nouns is the complete loss of the definite forms, being replaced by the independent "hinn", which precedes the noun, triggering nasal mutation in some forms.

Many of the forms have merged, this leads to a far stricter word order.

The nominative and accusative merged together in the mid 1700's, leading to a necessarily stricter word order. The neuter has also merged with the masculine. The masculine genitive has also fallen together, while it remains distinct in feminine nouns. The singular direct and dative have also merged, with the masculine genitive being identical to these forms as well. (see the table for ald)

The genitive singular has two endings, these are highly consistent, being a null ending in the masculine and -arr in the feminine.

The genitive has been increasingly falling out of use over the past two centuries, and is now largely superseded by constructions like "at [possessor (in dative)]".

Younger (< age 35) speakers only distinguish three forms; the singular, the direct plural, and the dative plural. The singular is split into direct vs dative when paired with an article, but it is otherwise the same for both.

Strong nouns

Masculines

These first few are a-stems.

Inflection of ald (a-stem)
indefinite definite
singular plural singular plural
nom/acc aldᶫ aldarr hi n-aldᶫ hìnarr aldarr
dative aldᶫ alduᶰ hìnu n-aldᶫ hìnu n-alduᶰ
genitive aldᶫ aldᶫ hin h-aldᶫ hinn h-aldᶫ

ᶰ: triggers nasal mutation
ᶫ: triggers lenition

Inflection of hàet (a-stem)
indefinite definite
singular plural singular plural
nom/acc hàetᶫ hàtarr hi nhàetᶫ hìnarr hàtarr
dative hàetᶫ hàtuᶰ hìnu nhàetᶫ hìnu nhàtuᶰ
genitive hàetᶫ hàetᶫ hin 'àetᶫ hinn 'àetᶫ

ᶰ: triggers nasal mutation
ᶫ: triggers lenition

Inflection of hàmar (a-stem)
indefinite definite
singular plural singular plural
nom/acc hàmarᶫ hàmararr hi nhàmarᶫ hìnarr hàmararr
dative hàmarᶫ hàmaruᶰ hìnu nhàmarᶫ hìnu nhàmaruᶰ
genitive hàmarᶫ hàmarᶫ hin 'àmarᶫ hinn 'àmarᶫ

ᶰ: triggers nasal mutation
ᶫ: triggers lenition

The masculine i-stem has also merged with the a-stem.

Inflection of bèdh (a-stem)
indefinite definite
singular plural singular plural
nom/acc bèdhᶫ bèdharr hi mèdhᶫ hìnarr bèdharr
dative bèdhᶫ bèdhuᶰ hìnu mèdhᶫ hìnu mèdhuᶰ
genitive bèdhᶫ bèdhᶫ hin bhèdhᶫ hinn bhèdhᶫ

ᶰ: triggers nasal mutation
ᶫ: triggers lenition

As has the u-stem.

Inflection of bòegh (a-stem)
indefinite definite
singular plural singular plural
nom/acc bòeghᶫ bògharr hi mòeghᶫ hìnarr bògharr
dative bòeghᶫ bòghuᶰ hìnu mòeghᶫ hìnu mòghuᶰ
genitive bòeghᶫ bòeghᶫ hin bhòeghᶫ hinn bhòeghᶫ

ᶰ: triggers nasal mutation
ᶫ: triggers lenition

The following were originally neuter, but various changes have merged them with the masculine.

Inflection of màel (a-stem)
indefinite definite
singular plural singular plural
nom/acc màelᶫ màlarr hi màelᶫ hìnarr màlarr
dative màelᶫ màluᶰ hìnu màelᶫ hìnu màluᶰ
genitive màelᶫ màelᶫ hin mhàelᶫ hinn mhàelᶫ

ᶰ: triggers nasal mutation
ᶫ: triggers lenition

Inflection of poest (a-stem)
indefinite definite
singular plural singular plural
nom/acc poestᶫ postarr hi mhoestᶫ hìnarr postarr
dative poestᶫ postuᶰ hìnu mhoestᶫ hìnu mhostuᶰ
genitive poestᶫ poestᶫ hin phoestᶫ hinn phoestᶫ

ᶰ: triggers nasal mutation
ᶫ: triggers lenition

Feminines
Inflection of arrv (ō-stem)
indefinite definite
singular plural singular plural
nom/acc arrv arrvarr hi n-arrv hìnarr arrvarr
dative arrv orrvuᶰ hinn h-arrv hìnu n-orrvuᶰ
genitive arrvarr arrvᶫ hinarr arrvarr hinn h-arrvᶫ

ᶰ: triggers nasal mutation
ᶫ: triggers lenition

Adjectives

As with nouns, the definiteness distinction has been lost in adjectives, though it was lost far earlier than in nouns, this is attributed to the increasing reliance on the noun for definiteness. (Which itself too eventually fell to the use of "hi")

The forms of adjectives quickly began falling together, with the nominative/accusative distinction being lost quite early on.

Declension of sèl
singular plural
masculine feminine
nom/acc sèlᶫ sèl sèlar
dative sèluᶰ sèlarr sèluᶰ
genitive sèlᶫ sèlarr sèlarr

ᶰ: Triggers nasal mutation
ᶫ: Triggers lenition


Prepositions

Scots Norse has a very, very simple system of inflected prepositions, only inflecting for person and number, but never for case or gender, likely because it can usually be told through context.

A large amount of speakers simply don't use inflected prepositions, though the majority does.

Inflection of in
1st 2nd 3rd
singular inᶫ ionhᶫ inhᶰ
plural imat int inharr

ᶫ: causes aspirate
ᶰ: causes nasal


Inflection of til
1st 2nd 3rd
singular tilᶫ tiolhᶫ tilhᶰ
plural tilvat tilt tilharr

ᶫ: causes aspirate
ᶰ: causes nasal


Verbs

Many significant changes have happened to the verb system since Old Norse, notably both the mood and voice distinctions have been lost. The active indicative has descended into the present and past tense, while the active subjunctive was lost entirely. The oppositive happened in the mediopassive, with the subjunctive becoming the future and stative, while the indicative was lost.

The stative doesn't exist for every verb, but the forms are still displayed for convenience's sake.

The original mediopassive indicative only remains in a small set of verbs acting as a reciprocal, typically physical actions taken towards others, like [Term?] ("to fight"), slà ("to hit"), [Term?] ("to embrace"), as well as a few abstract verbs, such as [Term?] ("to love"). Otherwise it's been replaced by hìnu n-onaru

Strong verbs

Strong verbs have survived rather well into Scots Norse, at times weak verbs have been made strong (though the opposite has also happened).

Class 1
Class 2
Class 3
Class 4
Class 5
Class 6
Class 7

Weak verbs

Class 1

Class 1 has entirely been lost, having shifted to class 2.

Class 2
Conjugation of tàel (weak class 2)
present past future stative
infinitive tàelᶫ tòludhᶫ tòlust tòludhust
participle tàlannᶫ tàladhᶫ tàlanist tàlast
finites present past future stative
1sg. tàelᶫ tàladhᶫ tòlunnᶫ tòludhunnᶫ
2/3sg. tàlarr tàladharr tàlist tàladhist
1pl. tòluᶰ tòludhuᶰ tàlinst tàladhinst
2pl. tòlud tòludhud tàlist tàladhist
3pl. tòlᶫ tòludhᶫ tàlist tàladhist



Conjugation of mèl (weak class 2)
present past future stative
infinitive mèlᶫ mèludhᶫ mèlust mèludhust
participle mèlannᶫ mèladhᶫ mèlanist mèlast
finites present past future stative
1sg. mèlᶫ mèladhᶫ mèlunnᶫ mèludhunnᶫ
2/3sg. mèlarr mèladharr mèlist mèladhist
1pl. mèluᶰ mèludhuᶰ mèlinst mèladhinst
2pl. mèlud mèludhud mèlist mèladhist
3pl. mèolᶫ mèoludhᶫ mèlist mèladhist


mèl was originally a class 1 verb.

Class 3

Suppletive verbs

Syntax

Texts

UDHR Article 1

Original (English)

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Old Norse (modern translation)

Allir menn eru bornir frjálsir ok jafnir at virðingu ok réttum. Þeir eru allir viti gœddir ok samvizku, ok skulu gøra hvárr til annars bróðurliga.

Scots Norse

alarr ma n-èor bhorrnarr friàlsarr o hiavnarr, hàevn vhirrdhing h-o rhèot h-atharr. tèrr èor h-alarr vìt gaèdarr o shanviosc, o shcùl gaèr vhàrr til anarr bhròdhorrligh.

alarr ma n-èor bhorrnarr friàlsarr o hiavnarr, hàevn vhirrdhing h-o rhèot h-atharr. tèrr èor h-alarr vìt gaèdarr o shanviosc, o shcùl gaèr vhàrr til anarr bhròdhorrligh.
English translation
lit: "all men are born free and equal, being dignity and rights at them. they are all endowed to reason and to conscience, and should act each to others to brotherly(ness)"
"all men are born free and equal, having dignity and rights. they are all endowed with reason and conscience, and should act to eachother as a brotherhood"

Deor

Old English

Welund him be wurman
wræces cunnade,
anhydig eorl
earfoþa dreag,
hæfde him to gesiþþe
sorge and longaþ,
wintercealde wræce,
wean oft onfond
siþþan hine Niðhad on
nede legde,
swoncre seonobende
on syllan monn.
Þæs ofereode,
þisses swa mæg.

Scots Norse

Vòluenn shi, thur ròvnirr
cvàlarr cenn,
ànar iall
arrvidh thoeld,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
ta h-oevgangtirr,
tash thil mègh.

(lines with "-" are yet to be translated)

Lexical comparison

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