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:[[Roshterian/Swadesh list]]
:[[Roshterian/Swadesh list]]
:[[Roshterian/Lexicon]]
:[[Roshterian/Lexicon]]
 
:[[Roshterian/Giatiroxṯer|Funcumi di giatiroxṯer (This page in Roshterian)]]
==Introduction==
'''Roshterian''' (from rāSTra) is an Indian language isolate of the Lõis timeline.
{{quote box
|width=25%
|quote=The Roshterian tongue is truly a marvel to behold, an infinite trove of jewels for the student of languages ... While its words and affixes display some affinity to our own language, they are even more akin to the ancient [[Thensarian]] language, indeed to such a degree that its Talmic provenance cannot be doubted. Curiously, the Roshterian speech in particular is pronounced with consonants with tongue-curling not unlike those of the Gulyasj language ... noit has a proclivity towards using lengthy words for single utterances where a multitude of smaller words and prefixes combine in a quite volatile manner, reminding one of the language of Old Tíogall texts ... I think it proper to further study this language, for surely it will yield a great wealth of information concerning the common forebear of Talmic languages.
|source=Panzux, Sjameu, from the preface of ''Liythfal yae wifrutnae meo vaeyghnae Rosjtaereon'' (An introduction to the grammar of the Roshterian language)
}}
 
'''Roshterian''' /rɒʃˈtɛriən/ (native name: ''eṟbiros̱ṯerim'' /ɛɻbɪɾɔʂʈɛˈɾɪm/ 'The Roshterian language', ''ros̱ṯer'' from older ''*rosker-'' 'front, east'; [[Clofabosin]]: ''rosterosin'') is a [[Talmic languages|Talmic language]] spoken in Northeastern Cuadhlabh, inspired partly by Welsh and Tamil. It is head-initial and polysynthetic; verbs use bipersonal conjugation, evidentials, applicative constructions and noun incorporation.
 
==Todo==
*Suffixed copula for predicatives.
*''func'' = page
*''eṟbitamiṟim'' = Tamil language (not used in Hussmauch)
*''caamu'' 'wife'
*''ooxus'' /oːˈɬus/ 'wave'
*''roṉḏ, roṉḏo-'' /rɔɳɖ/ = man (male) ({{recon|''rondwom''}}?)
*''breit, breity-'' /brɛɪt/ (< ''boni-teit'' 'AGT-child') = woman
*''bo-'' = profession
**''bopenicili-, bopenicili'' /bopɛnikiˈli/ = ''penicillin'' player
*''nys̱-, henys̱'' /hɛˈnəʂ/ = water, liquid
**''nys̱ṉoq'' = sauce (''noqa-, noq'' = 'top')
**''nys̱oox̱i'' = fruit juice
*''viip'' = eye
**''nys̱viip'' = tears
*''qeqeqeqeqe...'' = (laughter or snickering)
*''hox̱i-, hoox̱i'' = fruit
*''qaaṟan'' = laugh
 
==Numbers==
==Numbers==
TODO: Combining forms, ordinals, distributives
TODO: Combining forms, ordinals, distributives
*1: ''peem''
*1: ''peem, peemy-''
*2: ''tixu''
*2: ''ṯitu, ṯitu-''
*3: ''naṟg''
*3: ''naaṟ, naṟ-''
*4: ''loob''
*4: ''loob, loo-''
*5: ''helix'', ''lix-'' (regular reflex ''*holix'')
*5: ''helit'', ''lit-''
*6: ''ṯiam''
*6: ''ṯiam''
*7: ''ruad''
*7: ''ruad''
*8: ''lored''
*8: ''loṟ''
*9: ''baṟ''
*9: ''baṟ''
*10: ''ḡir''
*10: ''ḡiṟ''
*11: ''hunai''
*11: ''huplai''
*12: ''nai''
*12: ''plai''


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
Among Talmic languages, Roshterian is notable for having retroflex consonants, uvular consonants and multiple liquids.
===Consonants===
===Consonants===
Roshterian uses the following consonants:
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" |
Line 97: Line 70:
| '''f''' /f/
| '''f''' /f/
| '''s''' /s̪/
| '''s''' /s̪/
| '''x''' /ɬ/
|  
| '''s̱''' /ʂ/
| '''x''' /ʂ/
| '''x̱''' /ɬʵ/
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 105: Line 78:
|-
|-
! |<small>voiced</small>
! |<small>voiced</small>
| '''v''' /v/
| '''w''' /w/
| '''r''' /ɾ~ɽ/
| '''r''' /r/
| '''l''' /l/
| '''l''' /l̪/
| '''ṟ''' /ɻ/ || '''ḻ''' /ɭ/
| '''ṟ''' /ɻ/ || '''ḻ''' /ɭ/
|  
|  
Line 114: Line 87:
|}
|}


'''j''' /j/ and '''z''' /z/ are used in loanwords.
Palatals and aspirated stops are used in loanwords from Indic.


;Notes
;Notes
*The voiceless stops /p t̪ ʈ k q/ are unaspirated.
*/n̪ t̪ d̪ l̪/ are dental; /s̪/ is dentalized alveolar (transcribed /n t d s l/ for sake of convenience).
*[ŋ] and [ɴ] are allophones of /n̪/ before velar and uvular consonants, respectively.
*[ŋ] and [ɴ] are allophones of /n̪/ before velar and uvular consonants, respectively.
*Northeastern dialects fail to distinguish /ɭ/ from /ɬʵ/.
*/r/ can be an alveolar flap [ɾ], an apical retroflex flap [ɽ], or trilled [r].
*The retroflex consonants are subapical or apical.
*/ɳ ʈ ɖ ɭ/ can be realized as apical-postalveolar (like Hindi retroflexes) or subapical-palatal (like Tamil retroflexes). The apical realization dominates in casual speech, while the subapical realization occurs in careful or formal speech. After /ʂ/, /ʈ/ is always apical.
**Colloquial Roshterian often merges /ɖ/ and /ɭ/.
*/ʂ/ is laminal post-alveolar [s̠] or sometimes [ɧ].
*/ɻ/ can be post-alveolar [ɹ̠] or truly retroflex [ɻ].
*/ʁ/ is a voiced uvular fricative [ʁ] or a trill [ʀ].
*/w/ is [v] in some dialects.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
ɪ i: ʊ u:
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
ɛ e: ə ə: ɔ o:
! rowspan="2" style=" "|
a a:
! colspan="2" style=" " |Front
aɪ ɛɪ iə ɛʊ uə ɔɪ ɪʊ
! colspan="2" style=" " |Central
! colspan="2" style="" |Back
|-
!style=" "|<small>short</small>
!style=" "|<small>long</small>
!style=" "|<small>short</small>
!style=" "|<small>long</small>
!style=" "|<small>short</small>
!style=" "|<small>long</small>
|-
! style="" |Close
| '''i''' /ɪ/
| '''ii''' /iː/
|
|
| '''u''' /ʊ/
| '''uu''' /uː/
|-
! style="" |Mid
| '''e''' /ɛ/
| '''ee''' /eː/
| '''y''' /ə/
| '''yy''' /əː/
| '''o''' /ɔ/
| '''oo''' /oː/
|-
! style="" |Open
|
|
| '''a''' /a/
| '''aa''' /aː/
|
|
|}


{{angbr|'''i i u uu e ee y yy o oo a aa ai ei ia au ua oi iu'''}}
In addition, the following diphthongs are used: {{angbr|'''ai ei ia au ua oi iu'''}} /aɪ ɛɪ iə ɛʊ uə ɔɪ ɪʊ/
 
;Notes:
*/ɪ, iː/ are centralized after retroflex consonants to [ɪ̈, ɨː]; for example, ''ṉii'' 'big' is pronounced [ɳɨː]
*/eː, oː/ are lowered to [ɛː, ɔː] before retroflexes and uvulars.


===Stress===
===Stress===
There is no phonemic stress or tone; however, all words are pronounced with word-final stress.
There is no phonemic stress or tone; all words are pronounced with word-final stress.


===Phonotactics===
===Phonotactics===
Roshterian allows relatively few clusters compared to e.g. [[Thensarian]], but more clusters than [[Nurian]].
Roshterian allows fewer clusters than [[Talmic|Proto-Talmic]]. Only two-consonant clusters are permitted, obstruent + nasal and fricative + sonorant clusters are prohibited. However, final clusters are allowed.
 
Here are the allowed clusters:
*Not allowed finally: /pl bl pr br tr dr ʈr ɖr kl kr/ {{angbr|''pl bl pr br tr dr ṯr ḏr cl cr''}}
**Some dialects may have /ʈɻ ɖɻ/ for /ʈr ɖr/.
**Some dialects always use [Cɭ] or [Cɻ] for /Cr/.
*Not allowed initially: /mp nt ɳʈ ŋk ɴq mb nd ɳɖ ŋg ɴʁ ns ɳʂ lp lt ɭʈ lk ɭq lb ld ɭɖ lg ɭʁ rp rt ɻʈ rk rq rb rd ɻɖ rg rʁ rm rn ɻb ɻg ɻm ɻɳ sp st ʂʈ sk ʂq/ {{angbr|''mp nt ṉṯ nc nq mb nd ṉḏ ng nḡ ns ṉx lp lt ḻṯ lc ḻq lb ld ḻḏ lg ḻḡ rp rt ṟṯ rc rq rb rd ṟḏ rg rḡ rm rn ṟb ṟg ṟm ṟṉ sp st xṯ sc xq''}}
In addition, ''s'' and ''ṟ'' are not allowed initially.
====Sandhi====
 
==Morphology==
 
===Verbs===
Each verb has 3 principal parts: the progressive stem, the habitual stem and the preterite stem.
====Object incorporation====
All verb stems have a ''combining form'', also called the ''incorporating form'', which is used in the presence of an object marker, negative prefix or an ''incorporandum'' (incorporated object). Any noun stem can be incorporated, including proper nouns.


Allowed clusters:
''hootiixyn'' 'eat fruit' < ''hooti'' 'fruit' + ''caasyn'' 'eat'


*Not allowed initially: ''mp, mb, nt, nd, ṉṯ, ṉḏ, nc, ng, nq, nḡ, lp, lt, lc, lq, lb, ld, lg, lḡ, rp, rt, ṟṯ, rc, rq, rb, rd, rg, rgh, rm, rn, st, s̱ṯ, sv, sc, s̱q, ṟb, ṟḏ, ṟg, ts, tx, tx̱, ṟm, ṟn, ṟḻ ...''
====Verb template====
*Allowed initially: ''pl, pr, bl, br, fr, vr, tr, ṯr, dr, (ḏr), cl, cr, gl, gr''
The Roshterian verb has 8-9 slots which mark a variety of grammatical information. Slots that must obligatorily be filled are in bold.
====Sandhi====
 
*discourse - considered clitics by some
*evidentiality/interrogative
*negation
*causative person marker
*object person marker/passive marker
*STEM:
**incorporandum
**applicative
**'''ROOT'''
*one or more auxiliaries
*'''subject+aspect'''
 
=====Discourse markers=====
Discourse markers are often connecting words for clauses, or particles that display the speaker's emotional reaction to an event or state.


==Sound changes==
*''bys-'' = 'gladly', 'great!'
The most significant changes characterizing Roshterian are coalescing and altering of consonant clusters, often creating retroflex consonants.
*''boo-'' = 'alas'
*kw, gw > p, b
*''yṟ/ṟy-'' = (softening marker)
*{{recon|ā}} > ''ia'' ({{recon|nā}} > ''nia'' 'I'); {{recon|ō}} > ''ua''; {{recon|au}} > ô; {{recon|ou}} > ''û''; {{recon|ū}} > ''ii''
*{{recon|qʷ}} > /χʷ/ > /ɧ/ > ''s̱''; {{recon|ʁʷ}} > /ζ/ > ''ṟ''
**''ʁʷelinə'' ("6 parts [of 12]") > ''ṟelin'' 'half'
*{{recon|nw, tw, dw, sw, łw, lw, rw}} > ''ṉ, ṯ, ḏ, s̱, x̱, ḻ, ṟ'' /ɳ, ʈ, ɖ, ʂ, ɬ̠, ʐ~ɻ~ɭ, ʐ~ɻ~ɭ/
**''gʷałwā'' > ''bax̱i'' 'neck, throat' ~ Thn. ''gaθuā'' 'throat (also language)'
*{{recon|sl-, sm-, sn-}} > ''ḻ-, m-, ṉ-''
*{{recon|sɸ-, sr-, sw-}} > ''s̱-, ṟ-, s̱-''
*{{recon|st, sk, skʷ, sq}} > ''t-/st, ṯ-/s̱ṯ-, v-/sv-, q-/s̱q''  
**''stas-'' > ''tetsil'' 'gathering' (~ Thn. ''Stasnyssōs'')
**''skəttā'' > ''ṯyyti'' 'body' ~ Thn. ''scyttā''
**{{recon|bastom}} > ''bast'' 'king' ~ Thn. ''bastom'' 'head'
*{{recon|sb, sd, sg}} > ''ṟb, ṟḏ, ṟg''
**{{recon|nasg-}} > ''naṟg'' '3'
*{{recon|φn, tn, φl, tl}} > /ːn, s-/ts, ːɬ, tɬ/
**''łnāgin'' > ''xiagin'' 'I believe' ~ Thn. ''θnāginis''
**''oφlutsus'' > ''ooxus'' 'wave'
*{{recon|kt, qt}} > /jt, ːʈ/
**{{recon|tektə}} > ''teit'' /teit/ 'child'
**{{recon|neqtə}} > ''neeṯ'' /neːʈ/ 'cloud'
*{{recon|ks, qs}} > /js, ːʂ/
*{{recon|kn, gn, kʷn, gʷn, qn, ql, qr}} > /jn, jn, :m, :m, :ɳ, :ɻ, :ɻ/ (with **/uj/ > /uː/ )
**''sφugnus'' > ''s̱uun''  'root' ~ Thn. ''sφugnus''
**''leqnos'' > ''leeṉ'' 'river' ~ Thn. ''leānos''?
**''qrīdis'' > ''ṟiid'' 'knife' ~ Thn. ''ȝrīdis'' 'edge'
**''gʷnūnum'' > ''miin'' 'scar' ~ Thn. ''gnūnum'' 'scar', Tíogall ''gnúinte'' 'remains'
*{{recon|φj, tj, kj, qj}} > ''pt s s-/ts ḡ''
*{{recon|φ-, j-, s-}} > ''h-''
*{{recon|skj, stj}} > ''ṯ-/s̱ṯ, s-/ːs''
*final short vowels lost; final ''-m, -r, -s, -t'' lost; final long vowels shorten (''ia, ua'' > ''i, u'')
*''i''-affection: The following changes affect V1 in sequences of the form V1 + consonant cluster + ultimate (*i/*ī/*j) unless the consonant cluster after V1 contains a retroflex consonant.
**''a'' > ''e''
**''e'' > ''i''
*Stress shifts to final
*Some combining forms and combined forms are altered due to the stress shift - conjunct forms for verbs arise when there is an antepenultimate syllable


==Morphology==
=====Evidentiality affixes=====
===Nouns===
Evidentials mark the source of the speaker's information; a ''lack'' of evidential marking signals that the verb is an imperative or a purpose clause. Some other discourse affixes (which are in complementary distribution with evidentials) also go into this slot.
Nouns are marked with a singular-plural distinction, and may also take possessive suffixes. However, the lemma form of a noun is typically its combining form, which is the incorporated form of a noun and is also used to form possessed forms and compounds. Unlike in [[Thensarian]] and its descendants, the [[Proto-Talmic]] grammatical gender was lost; gendered pronouns and verb affixes no longer mark grammatical gender, but natural gender (as in [[Naquian]]).
*''i-'' (before C), ''r-'' (before V) = I witnessed or otherwise directly experienced this
*''pyn-'' = information I obtained from hearsay or am quoting
*''nar-'' = a third-party source I consider credible
*''me-'' = my own inference, assumption or subjective opinion
*''hy-'' (< PTal ''*səni φī...'' 'tell me if...') = interrogative (used for both wh-questions and yes-no questions)
*''eb-'' = if
*''ṯus-'' = (optative)


The plural form is inherited from the Proto-Talmic reduplicated collective; some irregularities may be present due to the retention of the original single consonant in the reduplicant, as opposed to the stem-initial cluster where the consonants interacted to produce new consonants and clusters.
=====Negative/focus affixes=====
Negation is marked with the negative affix ''mis-'' (before V), or ''mi-''/''N-'' (before C), which may alter the verb stem to its incorporating form.


{{col-begin}}
*Negative: ''mis-'', ''mi-'', ''N-''
{{col-break}}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style=" text-align: center;"
|+ ''veiny-'' 'brother'
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Combining
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular
!  style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
| ''veiny-'' || ''vein'' || ''vevein''
|}


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
=====Causative person markers=====
|+Possessed forms
The causative prefixes are used in causative verbs to index the agent causing the action of the object-ROOT-subject complex. The causative person marker comes from forms of the verb ''ooni'' 'to do/make' (''*oonin sy'' 'I make it that' > ''oony-'' > ''ony-'').
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>Possessor↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
|-
!|my
|''veinyn''||''veveinyn''
|-
!|thy
|''veinys''||''veveinys''
|-
!|his/her
|''veinyti''||''veveinyti''
|-
!|its
|''veinyt''||''veveinyt''
|-
!|our (exc)
|''veinym''||''veveinym''
|-
!|our (inc)
|''veinys̱''||''veveinys̱''
|-
!|your (pl)
|''veinyc''||''veveinyc''
|-
!|their
|''veinytu''||''veveinytu''
|}


{{col-break}}
For example:  
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style=" text-align: center;"
|+ ''loiro-'' 'bird'
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Combining
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular
!  style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
| ''loiro-'' || ''loir'' || ''leloir''
|}


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
:'''''Ronipicaasym.'''''  
|+Possessed forms
:/ronipikaːˈsəm/
|-
:r-ony-pi-caasy-m
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>Possessor↓
:DIR-CAUS.1SG-OBJ.4-eat-PROG.SUBJ.3SG.M
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
:''I'm feeding it to him.''  
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
|-
!|my
|''loiron''||''leloiron''
|-
!|thy
|''loiros''||''leloiros''
|-
!|his/her
|''loiroti''||''leloiroti''
|-
!|its
|''loirot''||''leloirot''
|-
!|our (exc)
|''loirom''||''leloirom''
|-
!|our (inc)
|''loiros̱''||''leloiros̱''
|-
!|your (pl)
|''loiroc''||''leloiroc''
|-
!|their
|''loirotu''||''leloirotu''
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style=" text-align: center;"
|+ ''ṟiidi-'' 'knife'
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Combining
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular
!  style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
| ''ṟiidi-'' || ''ṟiid'' || '''''qe'''ṟiid''  
|}


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 350px; text-align: center;"
|+Possessed forms
|+ Causative affixes
|-
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>Possessor↓
!style="width: 50px; "|
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px; "|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
!style="width: 100px; "|Plural
|-
|-
!|my
!|1
|''ṟiidin''||''qeṟiidin''
|''ony-''
|''ome-''
|-
|-
!|thy
!|1 + 2
|''ṟiidis''||''qeṟiidis''
|''-''
|''onty-''
|-
|-
!|his/her
!|2
|''ṟiiditi''||''qeṟiiditi''
|''ory-''
|''ofy-''
|-
|-
!|its
!|3 (male)
|''ṟiidit''||''qeṟidit''
|''omy-''
|rowspan="3"|''oty-''
|-
|-
!|our (exc)
!|3 (female)
|''ṟiidim''||''qeṟiidim''
|''osy-''
|-
|-
!|our (inc)
!|3 (inanimate)
|''ṟiidis̱''||''qeṟiidis̱''
|''oo-''
|-
|-
!|your (pl)
!|4 (obviative)
|''ṟiidic''||''qeṟiidic''
|colspan="2"|''opy-''
|-
|-
!|their
!|Who?
|''ṟiiditu''||''qeṟiiditu''
|colspan="2"|''ote-''
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style=" text-align: center;"
|+ ''qutri-'' 'blood'
|-
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Combining
!|What?
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular
|colspan="2"|''ota-''
!  style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
| ''qutri-'' || ''qutri'' || ''qequtri''
|}
|}


<center>''et sim.''</center>
=====Object person markers=====
{{col-break}}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style=" text-align: center;"
|+ ''bondi-'' 'person'
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Combining
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular
!  style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
| ''bondi-'' || ''bondi'' || ''bebondi''
|}
{{col-end}}
 
===Demonstrative suffixes===
===Verbs===
====Object incorporation====
Verb stems have a ''combining form'', also called ''incorporating form'', used with object markers, negation or incorporated objects.
 
''hoox̱iis̱yn'' 'eat fruit' < ''hoox̱i'' 'fruit' + ''caasyn'' 'eat'
 
====Verb template====
 
====Evidentiality affixes====
Evidentials mark the source of the speaker's information; evidential marking is mandatory for all verbs. Other discourse affixes also go into this slot.
*''co-'' (PTal ''*kosən''): I witnessed or otherwise directly experienced it
*''pyn-'': Information I obtained from hearsay or am quoting
*''dre-'': a third-party source I consider credible
*''mei-'': my own inference or assumption
*''hy-'' (< 'pray tell'): interrogative
 
====Negative/focus affixes====
Negation is marked with the negative affix ''mis-'' or ''mi-'', which may alter the verb stem to its incorporating form.
 
There's also focused affirmative ("yes, X is true") and focused negative ("no, X isn't true") affixes, used e.g. when answering questions.
 
====Object affixes====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 350px; text-align: center;"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 350px; text-align: center;"
|+ Object affixes
|+ Object affixes
Line 368: Line 265:
|-
|-
!|1
!|1
|''ni-''
|''in-''
|''mee-''
|''mee-''
|-
|-
!|1 + 2
!|1 + 2
|''-''
|''-''
|''xee-''
|''bee-''
|-
|-
!|2
!|2
Line 393: Line 290:
|}
|}


====Subject+TAM affixes====
=====Applicatives=====
*''di-'' = at, in, by
*''hee-'' = about
*''hu-'' = benefactive
*''lengy-'' = malefactive
 
=====Subject+TAM markers=====
Roshterian tenses: present, perfect, imperfect, future
 
{{col-begin}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="bluetable"
{| class="bluetable"
|+ Progressive indicative
|+ Present indicative
|-
|-
! Person !! Affix !! ''-ḡaiman'' 'I fly' !! ''-caasyn'' "I eat"
! Person !! Affix !! ''-ḡaimian'' 'I fly' !! ''-caasyn'' "I eat"
|-
|-
| 1SG || ''-n'' || ''-ḡaiman'' || ''-caasyn''
| 1SG || ''-n'' || ''-ḡaimian'' || ''-caasyn''
|-
|-
| 2SG || ''-r'' || ''-ḡaimar'' || ''-caasyr''
| 2SG || ''-r'' || ''-ḡaimiar'' || ''-caasyr''
|-
|-
| 3SG.M || ''-m'' || ''-ḡaimam'' || ''-caasym''
| 3SG.M || ''-m'' || ''-ḡaimiam'' || ''-caasym''
|-
|-
| 3SG.F || ''-s'' || ''-ḡaimas'' || ''-caasys''
| 3SG.F || ''-s'' || ''-ḡaimias'' || ''-caasys''
|-
|-
| 3SG.N || ''-0'' || ''-ḡaima'' || ''-caas''
| 3SG.N || ''-0'' || ''-ḡaimi'' || ''-caas''
|-
|-
| 1EX || ''-me'' || ''-ḡaimame'' || ''-caasyme''
| 1EX || ''-me'' || ''-ḡaimiame'' || ''-caasyme''
|-
|-
| 1IN || ''-nt'' || ''-ḡaimant'' || ''-caasynt''
| 1IN || ''-nt'' || ''-ḡaimiant'' || ''-caasynt''
|-
|-
| 2PL || ''-f'' || ''-ḡaimaf'' || ''-caasyf''
| 2PL || ''-f'' || ''-ḡaimiaf'' || ''-caasyf''
|-
|-
| 3PL || ''-tu'' || ''-ḡaimatu'' || ''-caasytu''
| 3PL || ''-tu'' || ''-ḡaimiaw'' || ''-caasyw''
|-
|-
| 4 || ''-p'' || ''-ḡaimap'' || ''-caasyp''
| 4 || ''-p'' || ''-ḡaimip'' || ''-caasyp''
|-
|-
| Who? || ''-te'' || ''-ḡaimate'' || ''-caasyte''
| Who? || ''-te'' || ''-ḡaimite'' || ''-caasyte''
|-
|-
| What? || ''-ta'' || ''-ḡaimata'' || ''-caasyta''
| What? || ''-ta'' || ''-ḡaimita'' || ''-caasyta''
|}
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-break}}
Habitual indicative:  
Habitual indicative:  


''Reduplicate the progressive indicative with Ce-.'' (can be irregular)
''Reduplicate the progressive indicative with Ce-.'' (the reduplicant can be irregular)
{{col-break}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="bluetable"
{| class="bluetable"
|+ Perfective indicative
|+ Past indicative
|-
|-
! Person  !! ''-ḡaiman'' "I fly" || ''-caasyn'' "I eat"
! Person  !! ''-ḡaimian'' "I fly" || ''-caasyn'' "I eat"
|-
|-
| 1SG || ''-ḡaimane'' || ''-ceesyne''
| 1SG || ''-ḡaimidi'' || ''-ceesti''
|-
|-
| 2SG || ''-ḡaimare''  || ''-ceesyre''
| 2SG || ''-ḡaimivi''  || ''-ceesyvi''
|-
|-
| 3SG.M || ''-ḡaimami'' || ''-ceesymi''
| 3SG.M || ''-ḡaimimi'' || ''-ceesymi''
|-
|-
| 3SG.F || ''-ḡaimast'' || ''-ceesyst''
| 3SG.F || ''-ḡaimiast'' || ''-ceesyst''
|-
|-
| 3SG.N || ''-ḡaimaa'' || ''-ceesyy''
| 3SG.N || ''-ḡaimias'' || ''-ceesys''
|-
|-
| 1EX || ''-ḡaimamer'' || ''-ceesymer''
| 1EX || ''-ḡaimimer'' || ''-ceesymer''
|-
|-
| 1IN || ''-ḡaimanter'' || ''-ceesynter''
| 1IN || ''-ḡaiminter'' || ''-ceesynter''
|-
|-
| 2PL || ''-ḡaimafer'' || ''-ceesyfer''
| 2PL || ''-ḡaimifer'' || ''-ceesyfer''
|-
|-
| 3PL || ''-ḡaimater'' || ''-ceesyter''
| 3PL || ''-ḡaimiaw'' || ''-ceesyw''
|-
|-
| 4  || ''-ḡaimaap'' || ''-ceesyyp''
| 4  || ''-ḡaimiap'' || ''-ceesyyp''
|-
|-
| Who? || ''-ḡaimaate'' || ''-ceesyyte''
| Who? || ''-ḡaimiate'' || ''-ceesyyte''
|-
|-
| What? || ''-ḡaimaata'' || ''-ceesyyta''
| What? || ''-ḡaimiata'' || ''-ceesyyta''
|}
|}
{{col-end}}
{{col-end}}
=====Voice affixes=====
*''ṯy-'' = mediopassive (< "body, self")
*''ab/aa-'' = reciprocal
=====Auxiliaries=====
*''-dunqan'': 'I must/have to' (negated: 'I don't have to')
*''-peren'': 'I can/I'm able to'
*''-ṯysin'': 'I may/I have permission to' (negated: 'I must not')
*''-xan'': 'I will' (future tense)
*''-dawan'': 'I want to' (future tense)
====Copula====
To express "is a [NOUN]" or "is [ADJ]", the copula ''-(l)uan'' is suffixed to the bare stem of X; X plus the copula then goes to the normal stem slot for purposes of verb inflection. The noun itself doesn't go into the plural even when the subject is plural.
:'''''Lamebaaṯuu.'''''
:la-me-baaṯ-uu
:merely-INFERRED-child-COP.PRES.3PL
:''In my opinion, they are mere children.''
:'''''Hyroṉḏuar, hyteituar?'''''
:hy-roṉḏ-uar, hy-teit-uar
:Q-man-COP.2SG, Q-child-COP.PRES.2SG
:''Are you a man or a boy?''
When the copula is added on nouns without an evidential, it emphasizes the noun or simply indicates the tense of an action (either past or non-past).
:'''''Metuumi bastaim.'''''
:me-tuu-mi bast-aim
:INFERRED-do-3SG.M.PFV king-COP.PST.3SG.M
:''It was apparently the king who did it.'' / ''The king apparently did it.''
=====Inflection=====
The copula is suppletive; it also has only non-past indicative and past indicative forms.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="bluetable"
{| class="bluetable"
|+ Progressive subjunctive
|+ Non-past copula
|-
|-
! Person !! ''-ḡaiman'' "I fly" || ''-caasyn'' "I eat"
! Person !! Affix
|-
|-
| 1SG || ''-ḡaimanai''  || ''-caasynai''
| 1SG || ''-(l)uan''  
|-
|-
| 2SG || ''-ḡaima''  || ''-caasyy''
| 2SG || ''-(l)uar''  
|-
|-
| 3SG.M || ''-ḡaimamur''  || ''-caasymur''
| 3SG.M || ''-(l)uam''  
|-
|-
| 3SG.F || ''-ḡaimasur''  || ''-caasysur''
| 3SG.F || ''-(l)uas''  
|-
|-
| 3SG.N || ''-ḡaimaar''  || ''-caasyyr''
| 3SG.N || ''-(l)ua''  
|-
|-
| 1EX || ''-ḡaimamai''  || ''-caasymai''
| 1EX || ''-(l)umec''  
|-
|-
| 1IN || ''-ḡaimante'' || ''-caasynte''
| 1IN || ''-(l)uant''  
|-
|-
| 2PL || ''-ḡaimafe'' || ''-caasfe''
| 2PL || ''-(l)uaf''  
|-
|-
| 3PL || ''-ḡaimatur'' || ''-caasytur''
| 3PL || ''-(l)uu''  
|-
|-
| 4 || ''-ḡaimaarip'' || ''-caasyyrip''
| 4 || ''-(l)uap''  
|-
|-
| Someone || ''-ḡaimaarte'' || ''-caasyyrte''
| Who? || ''-(l)ute''  
|-
|-
| Something || ''-ḡaimaarta'' || ''-caasyyrta''
| What? || ''-(l)uta''  
|}
|}
{{col-break}}
Habitual subjunctive:
''Reduplicate the progressive subjunctive with Ce-.'' (can be irregular)
{{col-break}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="bluetable"
{| class="bluetable"
|+ Perfective subjunctive
|+ Past copula
|-
|-
! Person !! ''-ḡaiman'' "I fly" || ''-caasyn'' "I eat"
! Person !! Affix
|-
|-
| 1SG || ''-ḡaimateen'' || ''-caasyteen''
| 1SG || ''-(q)ain''  
|-
|-
| 2SG || ''-ḡaimateer'' || ''-caasyteer''
| 2SG || ''-(q)air''  
|-
|-
| 3SG.M || ''-ḡaimateem'' || ''-caasyteem''
| 3SG.M || ''-(q)aim''  
|-
|-
| 3SG.F || ''-ḡaimateesi'' || ''-caasyteesi''
| 3SG.F || ''-(q)ais''  
|-
|-
| 3SG.N || ''-ḡaimatee'' || ''-caasytee''
| 3SG.N || ''-(q)ai''  
|-
|-
| 1EX || ''-ḡaimateeme'' || ''-caasyteeme''
| 1EX || ''-(q)aimec''  
|-
|-
| 1IN || ''-ḡaimateent'' || ''-caasyteent''
| 1IN || ''-(q)aint''  
|-
|-
| 2PL || ''-ḡaimateef'' || ''-caasyteef''
| 2PL || ''-(q)aif''  
|-
|-
| 3PL || ''-ḡaimateetu'' || ''-caasyteetu''
| 3PL || ''-(q)aitu''  
|-
|-
| 4 || ''-ḡaimateef'' || ''-caasyteef''
| 4 || ''-(q)aip''  
|-
|-
| Someone || ''-ḡaimateete'' || ''-caasyteete''
| Who? || ''-(q)aite''  
|-
|-
| Something || ''-ḡaimateeta'' || ''-caasyteeta''
| What? || ''-(q)aita''  
|}
|}
{{col-end}}
{{col-end}}


====Voice affixes====
===Nouns===
*''-ron'' = passive suffix
Nouns are marked with a singular-plural distinction, and may also take possessive suffixes. However, the lemma form of a noun is typically its combining form, which is the incorporated form of a noun and is also used to form possessed forms and compounds. Unlike [[Thensarian]], Roshterian lost the Proto-[[Talmic]] grammatical gender; gendered pronouns and verb affixes no longer mark grammatical gender, but natural gender (as in [[Naquian]]). There is no definite or indefinite article.
*''-stan'' = causative suffix
====Modal auxiliaries====


===Copula===
The plural form is inherited from the Proto-Talmic reduplicated collective, and is often formed by reduplication. Example: ''bleit'' /blɛit/ 'woman', ''bebleit'' /bɛˈblɛit/ 'women'. Some irregularities may be present due to the retention of the original single consonant in the reduplicant, as opposed to the stem-initial cluster where the consonants interacted to produce new consonants and clusters.
To express "is an X", the copula ''-puan'' is suffixed to the bare stem of X; X plus the copula then goes to the normal stem slot for purposes of verb inflection. The noun itself doesn't go into the plural even when the subject is plural.


:'''''Laiteitutu.'''''
{{col-begin}}
:la-co-teit-utu
{{col-break}}
:merely-DIR-child-3PL.PRED.PRES
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style=" text-align: center;"
:''They are mere children.''
|+ ''weiny-'' 'brother'
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Combining
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular
!  style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
| ''weiny-'' || ''wein'' || ''uwein''
|}


:'''''Hyroṉḏuar, hybreituar?'''''
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
:''Are you a man or a woman?''
|+Possessed forms
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>Possessor↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
|-
!|my
|''weinyn''||''uweinyn''
|-
!|thy
|''weinys''||''uweinys''
|-
!|his (3)
|''weinyty''||''uweinyty''
|-
!|her (3)
|''weinytii''||''uweinytii''
|-
!|its (3)
|''weinyt''||''uweinyt''
|-
!|our (exc)
|''weinym''||''uweinym''
|-
!|our (inc)
|''weinyx''||''uweinyx''
|-
!|your (pl)
|''weinyc''||''uweinyc''
|-
!|their (3)
|''weinytu''||''uweinytu''
|-
!|(4)
|''weinypi''||''uweinypi''
|}


However, the copula may be added on nouns to emphasize them or simply to indicate the tense of an action.
:'''''Xuumi bastaim.'''''
:do-3SG.M.PFV king-COP.3SG.M
:''It was the king who did it.'' / ''The king did it.''
====Inflection====
The copula is suppletive; it also has only present indicative and past indicative forms.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="bluetable"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style=" text-align: center;"
|+ Present
|+ ''doiro-'' 'bird'
|-
|-
! Person !! Affix
! style="width: 100px;" | Combining
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
|-
| 1SG || ''-uan''  
| ''doiro-'' || ''doir'' || ''ledoir''
|}
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
|+Possessed forms
|-
|-
| 2SG || ''-uar''
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>Possessor↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
|-
|-
| 3SG.M || ''-uam''  
!|my
|''doiron''||''ledoiron''
|-
|-
| 3SG.F || ''-uas''  
!|thy
|''doiros''||''ledoiros''
|-
|-
| 3SG.N || ''-ua''  
!|his
|''doiroty''||''ledoiroty''
|-
|-
| 1EX || ''-ume''  
!|her
|''doirotii''||''ledoirotii''
|-
|-
| 1IN || ''-uant''  
!|its
|''doirot''||''ledoirot''
|-
|-
| 2PL || ''-uaf''  
!|our (exc)
|''doirom''||''ledoirom''
|-
|-
| 3PL || ''-utu''  
!|our (inc)
|''doirox''||''ledoirox''
|-
|-
| 4 || ''-uap''  
!|your (pl)
|''doiroc''||''ledoiroc''
|-
|-
| Who? || ''-ute''  
!|their
|''doirotu''||''ledoirotu''
|-
|-
| What? || ''-uta''  
!|(4)
|''doiropi''||''ledoiropi''
|}
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="bluetable"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style=" text-align: center;"
|+ Past
|+ ''ṟiidi-'' 'knife'
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Combining
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular
!  style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
| ''ṟiidi-'' || ''ṟiid'' || ''qeṟiid''
|}
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
|+Possessed forms
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>Possessor↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
|-
!|my
|''ṟiidin''||''qeṟiidin''
|-
|-
! Person !! Affix
!|thy
|''ṟiidis''||''qeṟiidis''
|-
|-
| 1SG || ''-(q)ain''  
!|his
|''ṟiidity''||''qeṟiidity''
|-
|-
| 2SG || ''-(q)air''  
!|her
|''ṟiiditii''||''qeṟiiditii''
|-
|-
| 3SG.M || ''-(q)aim''  
!|its
|''ṟiidit''||''qeṟidit''
|-
|-
| 3SG.F || ''-(q)ais''  
!|our (exc)
|''ṟiidim''||''qeṟiidim''
|-
|-
| 3SG.N || ''-(q)ai''  
!|our (inc)
|''ṟiidix''||''qeṟiidix''
|-
|-
| 1EX || ''-(q)aime''  
!|your (pl)
|''ṟiidic''||''qeṟiidic''
|-
|-
| 1IN || ''-(q)aint''  
!|their
|''ṟiiditu''||''qeṟiiditu''
|-
|-
| 2PL || ''-(q)aif''  
!|(4)
|''ṟiidipi''||''qeṟiidipi''
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style=" text-align: center;"
|+ ''qutri-'' 'blood'
|-
|-
| 3PL || ''-(q)aitu''
! style="width: 100px;" | Combining
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular
!  style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
|-
| 4 || ''-(q)aip''  
| ''qutri-'' || ''qutri'' || ''qequtri''
|}
 
<center>''et sim.''</center>
{{col-break}}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style=" text-align: center;"
|+ ''bondi-'' 'person'
|-
|-
| Who? || ''-(q)aite''
! style="width: 100px;" | Combining
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular
!  style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
|-
| What? || ''-(q)aita''  
| ''bondi-'' || ''bondi'' || ''bebondi''
|}
|}
{{col-end}}
{{col-end}}


===Independent pronouns===
====Demonstrative suffixes====
Deixis or demonstratives (such as 'this' or 'that') are marked with a suffix added to the combining form of the noun.
 
*this: ''-ma''
*that: ''-pa''
 
===Adjectives===
The class of adjectives is actually a small, closed subclass of nouns, usually relating to concrete properties of objects such as shape, color, size, and texture, and relatively permanent characteristics of people. Note that most English adjectives, like "cozy", "active", "incendiary", ..., are expressed in Roshterian by other means such as inflected verbs or verb phrases.
 
Predicative adjectives work the same way as predicative nouns in that they must take the copula.
 
Attributive adjectives are compounded after the noun.
 
A more analytic construction can also be used: the 3rd person singular inanimate possessive suffix is added to the noun, and the adjective comes after.
 
*''bryn'' 'red': ''Ibrynua hoget.'' 'The apple is red.'; ''hootibryn'' or ''hootit bryn'' 'red apple'
*''pant'' 'big': ''Ipantua huaryn.'' 'My house is big.'; ''huarypant'' or ''huaryt pant'' 'big house'
 
===Prepositions===
Prepositions are inflected for person similarly to nouns. [Should they be cliticized? Probably]
 
*''di-'' = 'in'
*''bel-'' = 'from'
*''en'' = for
*''bar'' = towards
*''nai'' = with (instrumental)
 
===Pronouns===
====Personal pronouns====
Independent pronouns are not used except for emphasis.
Independent pronouns are not used except for emphasis.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 350px; text-align: center;"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 350px; text-align: center;"
Line 626: Line 677:
!|1
!|1
|''nia''
|''nia''
|''caam''
|''iam''
|-
|-
!|1 + 2
!|1 + 2
|
|
|''pyd''
|''pynd''
|-
|-
!|2
!|2
|''veer''
|''weer''
|''hyvi''
|''typi''
|-
|-
!|3 (masculine)
!|3 (masculine)
|''hiim''
|''hum''
|rowspan="3"|''sia''
|rowspan="3"|''sia''
|-
|-
Line 644: Line 695:
|-
|-
!|3 (inanimate)
!|3 (inanimate)
|''han''
|''ha''
|-
|-
!|4 (obviative)
!|4 (obviative)
|colspan="2"| ''pii''
|colspan="2"| ''pii''
|}
|}
====Demonstrative pronouns====
Independent demonstratives look like:
*this: ''amac''
*that: ''apac''
====Interrogatives====
===Derivational morphology===
*''bo-'' = associated person
**''bopenicili-, bopenicili'' /bɔpɛnɪkɪˈlɪ/ = ''penicillin'' player
**''blei-'' = -ess, feminine counterpart to ''bo-'' (not common in modern Roshterian)
*''-ait'' (not productive) = forms adjectives
*''[NOUN]-ṯobyn'' = to resemble a NOUN (the noun is incorporated)


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
<!--
Roshterian is a verb-initial, head-marking polysynthetic language. Verbs take both subject and object affixes, and features complex morphophonemic alternations [much of which is inherited from [[Old Roshterian]]]. Where Roshterian deviates from typical Talman typology are features such as obviation, noun incorporation and evidential marking, making Roshterian resemble Native American languages such as Blackfoot or Ojibwe.
{{quote box
|width=25%
|quote=Your first thought when seeing a glossed Roshterian sentence might be, "How can these people talk so fluently backwards?"
|source=A Roshterian textbook for Clofabians
}}
-->


Roshterian is a head-initial, head-marking polysynthetic language. Verbs take both subject and object affixes, and complex morphophonemic alternations are common. Where Roshterian deviates from typical Cuadhlabh (or even Talmic) typology are features such as obviation, noun incorporation and evidential marking, making Roshterian resemble Native American languages such as Blackfoot or Ojibwe.
:'''''Itiraḏan.'''''
 
:I-ti-raḏa-n
:'''''Cotiraḏan.'''''
:/kɔt̪ɪraˈɖan/
:co-ti-raḏa-n
:EVID_DIR-2SG.OBJ-love-1SG.SUBJ
:EVID_DIR-2SG.OBJ-love-1SG.SUBJ
:''I love you.''
:''I love you.''


===Possession===
===Possession===
"X of Y" = X-3SG Y or X-Y (e.g. ''veinyti clofabim'' 'the Clofabian's brother' or ''xafut huar'' = 'the color of the house')
"X of Y" = X-3SG Y or X-Y (e.g. ''weinyti boclofabim'' 'the Clofabian's brother' or ''ganut huar'' = 'the color of the house')
 
===Obviation===
 
===Applicatives===
Applicative affixes make a verb's prepositional or oblique object into its direct object (cf. ''be-'' in English ''bemoan'' 'to complain about'). Applicatives are as much a stylistic or pragmatic choice as syntactic (see below) or lexical. Some verbs may use multiple applicative prefixes, when they do so is difficult to predict.
 
Examples:
:'''''Iheeditaicyn raḏi am ḡiaf.'''''
:''I'm talking about love and hate.'' (lit. I bespeak love and hate)
 
Sometimes not using applicatives is preferred, sometimes vice versa:
 
:''Ixoorin di Qaaroxṯerim.''
:'I live in Roshteria.' (lit. I live in Roshteria)
 
:''Idixoorin ḡeeliaṉ.''
:'I live in a city.' (lit. I inhabit a city)
 
 
Applicatives are not only useful for emphasizing or topicalizing the oblique argument but in fact are necessary for certain syntactic constructions (and for just sounding natural). When an applicative is used, the original direct object (when used) takes the instrumental preposition ''nai''.
 
For example:
 
:'''''Ṯimylt impubri pergofaaṟidi nai maaqex?'''''
:''Where is the shelf where I put the spices?'' [lit. that I beput with the spices]
 
:'''''Apacua rymbi peteehoḏidi nai ṯas.'''''
:/apaˈkuə rəmˈbi pɛteːhoɖɪˈdɪ nai ˈʈas/
:apac-ua rymbi ped-hee-hoḏia-di nai ṯas
:that-COP.3SG.N forest NMLZ-APPL.about-draw-1SG.PERF INS picture
:''That is the forest I drew a picture of.'' [lit. the forest that I bedrew with a picture]
 
===Clause types===
====Time clauses====
====Relative clauses====
There are no relative pronouns or resumptive pronouns in Roshterian. Only the gap strategy is available, and only a subject or an object of the relative clause can be a head. This is where applicatives come in handy, as applicatives promote oblique arguments to direct objects, thus allow oblique arguments of a verb to used as relative clause heads.
 
The relative clause is marked by a nominalizing affix ''ped-''.
 
:'''''Meiḻicort ḡeeliaṉ pedidixoorin.'''''
:me-eiḻi-cort-0 ḡeeliaṉ ped-i-di-xoor-in
:EVID_SUBJ-heart-embrace-3SG.N city NMLZ-EV.DIR-APP.LOC-live-PRES.1SG
:''The city that I live in is cozy.'' (lit. The city that I inhabit embraces the heart.)
 
====Complement clauses====
====Reason clauses====
====Purpose clauses====


==Sample texts==
==Sample texts==
"I don't want to move on from/grow out of simple pleasures."
===Tower of Babel===
===Snake Lemma===
:''Professor Kate Gunzinger proves the Snake Lemma in the film ''It's My Turn'' (1980). I'll omit the proof, which is less linguistically interesting. [Most Roshterians prefer to use [[Eevo]] terms when discussing higher mathematics anyway.]''
:'''''Haxupimyṯrut yṟonypinoofer ''binróþ'' s, beṉṯylaḡilcoma peeṯypryṉifiaqolip, ḻe?'''''
:haxu-pi-myṯru-t yṟ-ony-pi-noo-fer binróþ s ben-ṯy-laḡ-ilcom-a pee-ṯypr-yṉif-iaqoli-ip ḻe
:way-4-build-CONST DISC_SOFTEN-CAUS.1SG-4-see-2PL.SUBJ.PERF mathematical_function s, DISC_"should be obvious"-PASS-APPL_TELIC-sow-3SG.N NOMZ-PASS-examine-show-at_first-4 TAG
:''Let me just show you how to *construct* the map s, which is the fun of the lemma anyhow, okay?''
[[Category:Talmic languages]]
[[Category:Talmic languages]]
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