Nankôre: Difference between revisions
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|name = Nankôre | |name = Nankôre | ||
|nativename = Nankôre | |nativename = Nankôre | ||
|pronunciation = | |pronunciation = nan.'ko:re | ||
| | |setting = [[wikipedia:Pacific Northwest|Pacific Northwest]] | ||
|states = | |states = Nanhoska Kôya /nan'hoʃka 'ko:ja/ | ||
|speakers = | |ethnicity = Nanhoska people | ||
|speakers = 2,324 | |||
|date = 2014 | |date = 2014 | ||
|familycolor = panlaffic | |familycolor = panlaffic | ||
|fam1 = Nahenic | |fam1 = Nahenic | ||
|fam2 = Nankoric | |fam2 = Shakhtabaric | ||
|fam3 = Nankoric | |||
|nation = Koya Island | |nation = Koya Island | ||
| | |script1 = Latn | ||
| | |creator = User:Anyar | ||
}} | }} | ||
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== | ==Introduction== | ||
Nankôre, from the words ''nan'' ("man, human") and ''kôre'' ("speech"), is spoken by the Nanhoshka people of Kôya Island. There are two main dialects, the Konishmak, located in the Northeastern Coastal Mountains, and the Sapshira, encompassing the western and southern parts of the country. The dialects differ chiefly in pronunciation and differences in certain lexical items, but are otherwise mutually intelligible. | Nankôre, from the words ''nan'' ("man, human") and ''kôre'' ("speech"), is spoken by the Nanhoshka people of Kôya Island. There are two main dialects, the Konishmak, located in the Northeastern Coastal Mountains, and the Sapshira, encompassing the western and southern parts of the country. The dialects differ chiefly in pronunciation and differences in certain lexical items, but are otherwise mutually intelligible. | ||
For a little over a century the origins of the language and its people remain clouded in mystery. Physically, the Nanhoshka people look distinct from the Northwest Pacific Native Americans just 862 kilometers from the eastern shore, but their physical features bear a strikingly close resemblance to the [[Minhast]] people of the | For a little over a century the origins of the language and its people remain clouded in mystery. Physically, the Nanhoshka people look distinct from the Northwest Pacific Native Americans just 862 kilometers from the eastern shore, but their physical features bear a strikingly close resemblance to the [[Minhast]] people of the Minhastim Karak, who live much further away on the other side of the Pacific Ocean close to Japan and Moshir Ainu. Because of these physical resemblances, both anthropologists and linguists started exploring a possible relationship between the two peoples. Recent genetic research uncovered that both the Nanhoshka and Minhast belong to the haplogroup C-M212, indicating a common ancestry. Linguists had a more difficult task in establishing a relationship. Finally Benson et. al. compiled an extensive Swadesh list and internally consistent sound correspondences between the two languages. Most importantly, a set of affixes that were quite conservative were revealed, notably the Causative affix, and a set of fossilized affixes which are prefixed to body parts to derive verbs. In addition, a third language, [[Nahónda]], also previously classified as a language isolate, was discovered to contain common vocabulary and affixes which it shared with both Nankôre and Minhast. Therefore, both Nankôre and Minhast, along with Nahónda, are now recognized as belonging to the same language family, which has been named the Nahenic language family. | ||
==Typology and Grammatical Overview== | |||
Like Minhast and Nahónda, Nankôre is an SOV language. However, unlike its relatives, Nankôre is not a polysynthetic language but is relatively sparse in terms of affixes for determining syntactic relations. Nouns do not receive case or number marking, nor are they marked for gender. Word order within the verb complex is rather strict, but core, patient, and obliques may occur in various orders. The verb complex consists minimally of a main verb, which possesses suffixes for marking evidentiality, and the auxiliary, which contain a rich set of affixes to mark the core arguments for various syntactic features: number, tense, voice, agency, etc. | |||
Nankôre displays a mixed morphosyntactic alignment. Particularly noticeable is the Hierarchical alignment in its transitive verbs, which employ [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct–inverse_alignment Direct-Inverse marking] to indicate core argument roles. The nominal hierarchy is complex; at least ten noun classes based on animacy can be identified, and within those classes sub-hierarchies are observed based on semantic features, although discourse processes (e.g. the introduction of new arguments that are roughly equal in animacy with previously established arguments, or a previous argument that serves as the topic over extended discourse) may affect how direct-inverse marking is expressed. Thus hierarchical relations are primarily dependent on the semantics of the core argument and the verb class, although other factors are at play; native speakers intuit the hierarchy based on a complex interaction between the both the noun and verb classes, discourse patterns, and context. | |||
The language also displays an Active-Stative alignment of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active–stative_alignment Split-S subtype] in its intransitive verbs. As in its relative Nahónda, Nankôre intransitive verbs are split into two categories, one that requires an Agent as the sole core argument, and another that takes only Patients. Two different auxiliary paradigms are used for intransitive verb roots, the [[Nankôre#Intransitive-Active_Paradigm|''itá'']] paradigm for agentive verbs, and the [[Nankôre#Intransitive-Stative_Paradigm|''iná'']] paradigm for stative verbs. | |||
==Phonology== | ==Phonology== | ||
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<!--Explain your conlang's alphabet. Use the International Phonetic Alphabet to describe the sounds of your language. If you are unsure on how to use IPA then visit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet and read up. --> | <!--Explain your conlang's alphabet. Use the International Phonetic Alphabet to describe the sounds of your language. If you are unsure on how to use IPA then visit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet and read up. --> | ||
The Nankôre orthography is based on the Allen-Mills system, derived from the Latin alphabet. However, a second system, the American Media system, has started displacing the Allen-Mills system. Although based on the Allen-Mills system, the American Media system uses the | The Nankôre orthography is based on the Allen-Mills system, derived from the Latin alphabet. However, a second system, the American Media system, has started displacing the Allen-Mills system. Although based on the Allen-Mills system, the American Media system uses the the digraphs <ch> and <sh> to make transcription of the language more accessible to American readers. | ||
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" | {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" | ||
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| ʔ | | ʔ | ||
|- | |- | ||
| a,ā, â | | a,ā, â | ||
| a,ā,â | | a,ā,â | ||
| a, a: | | a, a: | ||
|- | |- | ||
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| s, s̺, ʃ | | s, s̺, ʃ | ||
|- | |- | ||
| š | | ś, š<ref>Found mostly in older linguistic texts before 1965. The character has largely fell into disuse afterwards.</ref> | ||
| sh | | sh | ||
| ʃ | | ʃ | ||
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| h | | h | ||
| h | | h | ||
| | | ɦ | ||
|- | |- | ||
| k | | k | ||
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Note that the grapeme <s> in the Allen-Mills system is pronounced /ʃ/ or /s̺/ when followed by [i] (e.g. ''sinkokah'' /ʃin'kokah/ "orca"), or in coda position (''Nanhoska'' /nan'hoʃka/ "the True People"). A few decades after the Allen-Mills transcription system was developed, a sound shift in the northwestern Hoyampe dialect, whereby /s/ shifted to the voiceless apico-alveolar fricative /s̺/ when followed by /i/ or in coda position. A similar sound shift occurred at around the same time in the northeastern Konishmak dialect (possibly the result of the Hoyampe sound shift), but it was the voiceless palato-alveolar fricative /ʃ/ that appeared. It was this sound shift that spread out through most of the country, although there are some remote regions of the country that have not been affected by either sound shift. As a result in foreign transcriptions <sh> is often used in words where the /s/ >> /ʃ/ has already occurred, e.g. ''akôsh'' vs. the original ''akôs'' transcription | Note that the grapeme <s> in the Allen-Mills system is pronounced /ʃ/ or /s̺/ when followed by [i] (e.g. ''sinkokah'' /ʃin'kokah/ "orca"), or in coda position (''Nanhoska'' /nan'hoʃka/ "the True People"). A few decades after the Allen-Mills transcription system was developed, a sound shift appeared in the northwestern Hoyampe dialect, whereby /s/ shifted to the voiceless apico-alveolar fricative /s̺/ when followed by /i/ or in coda position. A similar sound shift occurred at around the same time in the northeastern Konishmak dialect (possibly the result of the Hoyampe sound shift), but it was the voiceless palato-alveolar fricative /ʃ/ that appeared. It was this sound shift that spread out through most of the country, although there are some remote regions of the country that have not been affected by either sound shift. As a result in foreign transcriptions <sh> is often used in words where the /s/ >> /ʃ/ has already occurred, e.g. ''akôsh'' vs. the original ''akôs'' transcription. The grapheme <ô> is used to indicate vowel length for /o:/, and <ā> for /ɑ:/. | ||
Although the American Media orthography system is the most widely used system, the Allen-Mills has long been used in academic publications, and will be used throughout the rest of this article, unless otherwise noted. | |||
===Consonants=== | ===Consonants=== | ||
Nankôre has a small inventory of consonants, only | Nankôre has a small inventory of consonants, only thirteen in number. Noteworthy is the paucity of voiced consonants which contributes to the limited number of consonants in the Nankôre language. The following table contains the entire consonantal inventory: | ||
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;" | {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;" | ||
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| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | t͡ʃ | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
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| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | ɦ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="" |Approximant | ! style="" |Approximant | ||
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| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | ɾ | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
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===Prosody=== | ===Prosody=== | ||
====Stress==== | ====Stress==== | ||
===Phonotactics=== | ===Phonotactics=== | ||
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. --> | <!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. --> | ||
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===Nouns=== | ===Nouns=== | ||
====Number ==== | |||
Nouns do not inflect for number, which is usually determined by context, but a numeral joined by the Connective ''si='' to its head noun can be used to indicate plurality, eg: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = ôhi sikurasno. | |||
| IPA = /'o:ɦi ʃi ku'raʃno/ | |||
| morphemes = ôhi si=kurasno | |||
| gloss = two CONN girl | |||
| translation = two girls | |||
}} | |||
If the noun is a core argument, then the [[Nankôre#The_Auxiliary|auxiliary ]] obligatorily marks for number. Number is indicated on the auxiliary by the affix ''-n-''. For plural Agents, it is infixed, and for plural Patients, it is suffixed. Additionally, if the auxiliary is marked with the Inverse prefix, the prefix redundantly encodes number by vowel length, eg ''ta-'' for the singular, and ''tā='' for the plural. Some examples are given below: | |||
Example of a HA singular Agent acting on a LA singular Patient: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = kurasno rompóy rayrokor nitá'. | |||
| IPA = /ku'raʃno rom'poɪ 'raɪrokor nɪ'taʔ/ | |||
| morphemes = kurasno rompóy Ø-rayro=kor Ø-ni-Ø-itá-ʔ | |||
| gloss = girl.HA dog.LA DIR=play=EVID.HEAR DIR-PST-HS-COP-LS | |||
| translation = I heard that the girl played with the dog recently. | |||
}} | |||
Example of a HA plural Agent acting on a LA singular Patient: | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {{Gloss | ||
|+ '''Table of Nominal Animacy hierarchy''' | |phrase = kurasno rompóy rayrokor nintá'. | ||
|- | | IPA = /ku'raʃno rom'poɪ 'raɪrokor nɪn'taʔ/ | ||
! | | morphemes = kurasno rompóy Ø-rayro-kor Ø-ni-n-itá-' | ||
! colspan=" | | gloss = girl.HA dog.LA play-EVID.HEAR DIR-PST-HP-COP-LS | ||
|- | | translation = I heard that the girls played with the dog recently. | ||
! rowspan="2" | Level | }} | ||
! rowspan="2" | Supernatural &<br/>Phenomonological | |||
Example of a LA singular Agent acting on a HA plural Patient: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = rompóy kurasno tarayrokor tānintá'. | |||
| IPA = /romp'oɪ ku'raʃno ta'raɪrokor 'ta:nɪntáʔ/ | |||
| morphemes = rompóy kurasno ta=rayro=kor tā-ni-n-itá-ʔ | |||
| gloss = dog.LA girl.HA INV=play-HEAR INV.LS-PST-HP-COP-LS | |||
| translation = I heard that the dog played with the girls recently. | |||
}} | |||
Example of a LA plural Agent acting on a HA plural Patient: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = rompóy kurasno tarayrokor tānintan. | |||
| IPA = /romp'oɪ ku'raʃno ta'raɪrokor 'ta:nɪntan/ | |||
| morphemes = rompóy kurasno ta=rayro=kor tā-ni-n-itá-n | |||
| gloss = dog.LA girl.HA INV=play=EVID.HEAR INV.PL-PST-HP-COP-LP | |||
| translation = I heard that the dogs played with the girls recently. | |||
}} | |||
==== The Nominal Hierarchy ==== | |||
Nankôre nouns, at first glance, appears very simple. They are not inflected for case, number, or gender, nor do adpositions indicate their directional or positional relationships. Number is distinguished only in pronouns. Nevertheless, the nominal system has a complex hierarchy of animacy, which although unmarked, is a semantic feature of the noun and pronoun. This hierarchy of animacy is used to determine the syntactic roles of the core arguments of a clause, namely that of Agent and Patient. Arguments that are higher in the Animacy Hierarchy are by default considered Agents, whereas lower animacy arguments are considered Patients. If the syntactic roles of two core arguments are reversed, namely a lower animacy argument acts as an Agent on a higher animacy Patient argument, a special construction known as the Inverse Voice, involving the prefix ''tā-/ta-'', is added to both the first verb in the verb phrase and the auxiliary verb ''itá'''. Thus, the Inverse Voice is doubly-marked. | |||
Where a given NP falls within the animacy hierarchy must be memorized in order to use the verbal inverse prefix ''tā-/ta-'' correctly (see section on [[Nankôre#Verbs|Verbs]] for additional details regarding inverse marking). | |||
The Nankôre nominal hierarchy has been traditionally classified along two axes, the first marking the noun class, and the second marking levels of hierarchy within a given class. Animacy along classes decrease as one traverses from Supernatural/Phenomonological onwards towards the Ephemeral. Animacy decreases as one goes down the Level axis. The following table illustrates the animacy relations between the noun hierarchies, although in reality, '''animacy is more complex than the table would suggest''', as discourse and other contextual elements may influence a native speaker's expression of the hierarchy in a given utterance. | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|+ '''Table of Nominal Animacy hierarchy''' | |||
|- | |||
! | |||
! colspan="11" |Noun Class | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" | Level | |||
! rowspan="2" | Supernatural &<br/>Phenomonological | |||
! rowspan="2" | Human | ! rowspan="2" | Human | ||
! colspan="2" | Animals | ! colspan="2" | Animals | ||
! rowspan="2" | | ! rowspan="2" | Lower Animals | ||
! rowspan="2" | | ! rowspan="2" | Riverine | ||
! rowspan="2" |Weather | |||
! rowspan="2"| Plants | ! rowspan="2"| Plants | ||
! rowspan="2"|Geophysical | ! rowspan="2"|Geophysical | ||
! rowspan="2"|Material | ! rowspan="2"|Material | ||
! rowspan="2" |Ephemeral | ! rowspan="2" |Ephemeral | ||
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| Adults >> Children | | Adults >> Children | ||
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center"| predator >> prey | | colspan="2" style="text-align:center"| predator >> prey | ||
| Reptiles (excluding snakes) | | Reptiles (excluding snakes) | ||
| Rushing rivers | |||
| Clouds | |||
| Forests | | Forests | ||
| | | Mountains | ||
| | | Liquid, usually in a container | ||
| Magic | | Magic | ||
|- | |- | ||
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| Older >> Younger | | Older >> Younger | ||
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center"| wild >> domesticated | | colspan="2" style="text-align:center"| wild >> domesticated | ||
| Slow-moving rivers | |||
| Rain | | Rain | ||
| Snakes | | Snakes | ||
| Large Trees | | Large Trees | ||
| | | Glaciers | ||
| Food | | Food | ||
| Actions | | Actions | ||
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| Male >> Female | | Male >> Female | ||
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center"| Pet (usually carnivorous) >> Non-Pet (usually raised for food) | | colspan="2" style="text-align:center"| Pet (usually carnivorous) >> Non-Pet (usually raised for food) | ||
| Amphibians | |||
| Streams <br/> Brooks <br/> Springs | |||
| Snow | | Snow | ||
| Small Trees | | Small Trees | ||
| | | Cliffs<br/> Jagged outcroppings <br/> Tumuli <br/> Boulders | ||
| | | Fabrics<br/> Fibers <br/> Skins <br/> Clothing | ||
| | | Emotions | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 4 | ! 4 | ||
| Destructive Forces of Nature | | Destructive Forces of Nature | ||
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center"| Large >> Small | | colspan="3" style="text-align:center"| Large >> Small | ||
| Fish | |||
| rowspan="5" style="text-align:center"|Lakes | |||
| Wind | | Wind | ||
| Fruit/Nut Trees | | Fruit/Nut Trees | ||
| | | rowspan="5" style="text-align:center"| Flat land <br/> Gently rolling landscape <br/> Plains | ||
| Wood | | Wood | ||
| Thoughts | | Thoughts | ||
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| Breeze | | Breeze | ||
| Crustaceans | | Crustaceans | ||
| Bushes/Shrubs | | Bushes<br/>Shrubs | ||
| Buildings | | Buildings | ||
| Disease | | Disease | ||
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| Ocean | | Ocean | ||
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center"| Quick >> Slow | | colspan="3" style="text-align:center"| Quick >> Slow | ||
| Insects | | Insects | ||
| Moving Water | |||
| Prairie grass | | Prairie grass | ||
| Metals | | Metals | ||
| States | | States | ||
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| Intelligent >> Unintelligent | | Intelligent >> Unintelligent | ||
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center"| Carnivore >> Herbivore >> Carrion Eater | | colspan="2" style="text-align:center"| Carnivore >> Herbivore >> Carrion Eater | ||
| Worms | |||
| Air | | Air | ||
| Leafy plants | | Leafy plants | ||
| Jewels and gemstones | | Jewels and gemstones | ||
| Abstractions | | Abstractions | ||
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| style="text-align:center"|Stud >> Gelded | | style="text-align:center"|Stud >> Gelded | ||
| style="text-align:center"|Flight >> Flightless | | style="text-align:center"|Flight >> Flightless | ||
| Mollusks | |||
| Muggy weather | | Muggy weather | ||
| Mushrooms <br/>Fungi<br/>Mosses<br/>Gelatinous sea invertebrates | |||
| Mushrooms/Fungi/Mosses | |||
| Stones, rocks, pebbles | | Stones, rocks, pebbles | ||
| Death | | Death | ||
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If two nouns with equal animacy but different number appear as core arguments, the plural noun is assigned a higher animacy status than the singular noun. However, if animacy and number are equal, the most recently introduced noun, providing it was introduced as a core argument, is assigned the higher animacy status. | If two nouns with equal animacy but different number (obtained either through pronominal referents or context) appear as core arguments, the plural noun is assigned a higher animacy status than the singular noun. However, if animacy and number are equal, the most recently introduced noun, providing it was introduced as a core argument, is assigned the higher animacy status. | ||
In situations were two nouns have equal animacy ''and'' equal number, the rules for assigning the position each core argument in the hierarchy is as follows: | In situations were two nouns have equal animacy ''and'' equal number, the rules for assigning the position each core argument in the hierarchy is as follows: | ||
# If one of the nouns is | # If one of the nouns is newly introduced information, it is considered less animate because the older noun has been presumably been the center of discourse and at least during part of the previous discourse it was agent. SOV order is usually used, particularly if pragmatics and other contextual cues cannot disambiguate the syntactic roles | ||
# HOWEVER, if the new noun is topicalized with the clitic = | # HOWEVER, if the new noun is topicalized with the clitic ''=si'', it is considered the agent. | ||
# Another pattern, where a new noun is introduced | # Another pattern, where a new noun is introduced as a Patient argument, it is regarded as the less animate argument once the older noun is reintroduced back into the discourse in a transitive construction. | ||
# If the animacy level of each argument cannot be resolved, then the unmarked SOV word order is used when context can't disambiguate syntactic roles. | # If the animacy level of each argument cannot be resolved, then the unmarked SOV word order is used when context can't disambiguate syntactic roles. | ||
==== | ==== Derivational ==== | ||
* -no: Diminutive suffix, e.g. ''kuras'' (woman), ''kurasno'' (girl) | |||
* -CV(C) reduplication: Augmentive, e.g. ''kurasras'' (big woman); analogous to Minhast augmentation | |||
* -rV-CV(C) infixation + reduplication: Augmentive-Deprecative: ''nahón'' -> ''nannarohono'', from ''na~na~ro-hón-ho'' (big/fat ugly man); similar to Minhast ''-ra-'' infixation and reduplication of first syllable, e.g. Minhast ''kas~ka~ra-slub'' "large dog, hunting hound" < ''kaslub'' "dog" | |||
==== | ==== Adjectival Suffixes ==== | ||
Nankôre lacks a separate word class for adjectives. They may be expressed as attributive verbs, e.g. ''Aryak neshkak itá'', "Aryak is smart", ''Kanko shoykar sip'itá''', "Kanko (an indigenous vegetable) makes good" (for your health), or a suffix may be attached to the noun it modifies. These suffixes are called adjectival suffixes. Some of these suffixes are etymologically derived from an attributive verb, e.g. ''karyak itá'' > ''-kerek'' >, as in ''Kurasnokerek '' "the girl is red" (i.e. the girl is blushing). Others appear to be derived from separate roots, c.f. "''Aryak-arku''", ("clever Aryak") vs ''"Aryak neshkak itá"'' ("Aryak is clever"). Theoretically an unlimited number of suffixes may be appended to the noun, but in practice the number of adjectival suffixes seldom exceeds three. The suffixes may appear in any order, so long as the meaning is comprehensible. Scope ordering determines the position of the suffixes relative to each other, with those of wider scope appearing towards the end, as in the following example: | |||
- | {{Gloss | ||
|phrase = Kenenkorpitasnune iná'. | |||
| IPA = /kɛnɛnkorpɪtaʃ'nunɛ ɪ'naʔ/ | |||
| morphemes = kenenkor-pita-snu-ne iná | |||
| gloss = bed-plush-red-soft-very COP | |||
| translation = It is a very soft, red and plush bed. | |||
}} | |||
While the number of adjectival suffixes are considerable, they remain for the most part a closed class. Moreover, with a few exceptions, each adjectival suffix may be expressed by a corresponding stative verb. | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Hosiari sikenenkorpitasnune iná torocak ta'itāhi. | |||
| IPA = /ho'ʃari sɪkɛnɛnkorpɪtaʃ'nunɛ ɪ'naʔ torot͡ʃak taʔɪt'a:hi/ | |||
| morphemes = hosiari si-kenenkor-pita-snu-ne iná ta-horoci=ak ta-itá'-hi | |||
| gloss = PROX.DEM CONN-bed-plush-red-soft-very COP INV-sleep=1S+3S INV-AUX-CAUS | |||
| translation = This very soft, red and plush bed makes me sleep (well). | |||
}} | |||
There are seven observed categories of adjectival | There are seven observed categories of adjectival suffixes: | ||
# Quality | # Quality | ||
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# Other Attributes | # Other Attributes | ||
===== | ===Demonstratives and Deictics=== | ||
===== Spatial ===== | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Type !! | ! Type !! Independent !! Clitic !! Translation !! Example || Nahenic Cognates | ||
|- | |- | ||
! '''Proximal ''' | |||
| hosiairi <br/> /ho'ʃjaɪɾi/ | |||
| =skoro | |||
| | |||
* this one near me | |||
* now | |||
| | |||
* ''hosiari sinán <br/>nan=iskoro'' "this man here" | |||
* ''oriyat=hepi'' "today" | |||
| | |||
* Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: <br/>''-nussar-'' | |||
* Nahónda: ''nótsalo'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! '''Medio-Proximal''' | |||
| yaiyairi | |||
| =hori <br/> =ori | |||
| | |||
* that one by you | |||
* just awhile ago | |||
| | |||
* ''yaiyairi sinán<br/> nan=hori'' "that man next to you" | |||
| | |||
* Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: <br/>''-eyyar-, -yyar-'' | |||
* Nahónda: ''iyáyalo'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! '''Distal''' | |||
| paipairi | |||
| =nko <br/> =kekori | |||
| | |||
* yonder, that one near him/her/them | |||
* yesterday, a few days ago | |||
| | |||
*''paipairi sinán'' <br/>''nan=inko'' "yonder man" | |||
| | |||
* Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: <br/>''-ppeyyar-'' | |||
* Nahónda: ''pʼáyalo | |||
|- | |- | ||
! '''Invisible''' | |||
|} | | rosiairi <br/> /ɾoʃ'jaɪɾi/ | ||
| | |||
=nanak | |||
| | |||
* that one beyond the horizon, <br/>or occluded by a distant object | |||
| | |||
* ''rosiairi sinán <br/> nan=nanak'' "that man <br/>(e.g. on the other side <br/> of the mountain)" | |||
| | |||
* Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: <br/>''-ruššar-'' | |||
|} | |||
<!-- | <!-- | ||
Line 393: | Line 511: | ||
| Proximal || =shkoro || =hepi || this one near me; now || nan=ishkoro "this man here"; oriyat=hepi "today" | | Proximal || =shkoro || =hepi || this one near me; now || nan=ishkoro "this man here"; oriyat=hepi "today" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Medio-Proximal || =hori || =enmosh || that one by you; just awhile ago|| nan=hori "that man next to you" | | Medio-Proximal || =hori || =enmosh || that one by you; just awhile ago|| nan=hori "that man next to you" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Distal || =nko || =kekori || yonder, that one near him/her/them; yesterday, a few days ago|| nan=inko "yonder man"; oriyat=kekori "yesterday", ono=kekori "a few days ago" | | Distal || =nko || =kekori || yonder, that one near him/her/them; yesterday, a few days ago|| nan=inko "yonder man"; oriyat=kekori "yesterday", ono=kekori "a few days ago" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Invisible || =nanak || =sinkar || a long time ago|| nan=nanak "that man (e.g. on the other side of the mountain)"; oriyat=sinkar "a long time ago" | | Invisible || =nanak || =sinkar || a long time ago|| nan=nanak "that man <br/>(e.g. on the other side of the mountain)"; oriyat=sinkar "a long time ago" | ||
|} | |} | ||
--> | --> | ||
==== | ===== Temporal ===== | ||
The Temporal Deitic particles usually occur at the head of a sentence, e.g. ''Antak Anut Amerika san-kamuk hitá' '', "A year ago, Anut flew to America". In multiclausal sentences, the clause in which they appear have scope over the all other clauses following it. At least one, ''yorai'', cannot appear after the initial clause. Some particles also have a clitic form which can attach to the main verb, as in ''Anut Amerika san-kamuk-entak hitá'''. | |||
<!-- | |||
, and in the process replace the auxiliary's tense affixes of the Direct Voice, as in ''Anut America ta=san-kamuk=inkát itá' '' "Several years ago Anut flew to America" (note that the Temporal Deictic clitic ''=inkát'' has replaced the past tense affix ''tā-'' in ''tā'itá' ''). The absence of these particles contrasts with the Direct Voice Distal Past form ''suphitá' '', in ''Anut America san-kamuk suphitá' '', "Anut went to America a while back". Also note that the other verb voices do not lose their tense markers, as in ''Otok erashi ta-karok=inkat ta'itá''' (boy crab INV-eat=several.years.ago INV.PST-COP) "The crab ate the boy." | |||
--> | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | !type | ||
! Independent | |||
! Clitic | |||
! Meaning | |||
! Example | |||
! Nahenic Cognates | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! rowspan="7"| Past | ||
| | | yoráy || =yoráy || Once upon a time; back then || Example || | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| inkát ||=(i)nkát || Several years ago || Example || | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| šeyhori || =šeyhor || A few years ago || Example || | |||
| | |- | ||
| | | antak || =(e)ntak ||A year ago || Example || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| kake || =(e)kak || Several days ago, last week || Example || | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| nateha || =nate || The day before yesterday || Example || | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| kirá || =kira || Yesterday || Example || | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! rowspan="4" | Diurnal | ||
| | | yohori || =ho || Earlier this morning || Example || | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| tantori || =tora || Just awhile ago || Example || | |||
|- | |- | ||
| yot || =(e)yót || Now || Example || | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| nas || =(e)nas || Soon || Example || | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! rowspan="3" | Future | ||
| | | kesór || =k(e)sor || Tomorrow || Example || | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| nekós || =n(i)kos || In the next few days || Example || | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| nankóy || =n(a)koy || In the indeterminate future || Example || | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
===Quantifiers=== | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
! Quantifier | |||
! Substantive | |||
! Attributive | |||
|- | |||
! All | |||
| kamun | |||
| kamun si= | |||
|- | |||
! Most | |||
| toman | |||
| | | toman si= | ||
| | |||
All | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Some | ||
| cene <!-- cf Minhast 'ikyem' --> | |||
| cisi=<br/> cis= | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! Many | ||
| | | eco | ||
| ecisi=<br/> eci=<br/>ec= | |||
|- | |||
! Both | |||
| hani | |||
| hanisi=<br/>hansi=<br/>has= | |||
|- | |||
| | ! Each | ||
|- | | nune | ||
! | | nisi=<br/>nis= | ||
|- | |||
! Few | |||
| cato | |||
| caci=<br/>cac= | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Another/Other | ||
| hane <!-- cf Minhast 'xani' --> | |||
| hanesi=<br/>hanse= | |||
|- | |||
| | |||
|} | |} | ||
=== Interrogatives === | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Header text | ||
! | ! Header text | ||
! | ! Notes | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Who | ||
| | | ra', rā | ||
| Possibly cognate with Minhast ''redad'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! What | ||
| | | pôh | ||
-- | | c.f. Minhast ''bak'' | ||
| | |- | ||
| | ! When | ||
|- | | tu'a | ||
! | | | ||
| | |- | ||
| | ! Where | ||
| nahí' | |||
| | | c.f. Minhast ''nakki''. Also, note dialectal variant ''enket'' (Sapshira dialect) | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Why | ||
| | | penóh | ||
| | | | ||
| | |- | ||
|- | ! Which | ||
| yôri- | |||
| C.f. ''yôhori'', to choose, Minhast ''yāhuran'' (to make a turn at an intersection of a path, road) | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" | Polarity | |||
| aní | |||
| Used for yes-no questions, occurs in sentence-final position.<br/> | |||
Cognate with Minhast ''ni'' (Classical, Horse Speaker, and Salmonic dialects) | |||
|- | |||
| =yo | |||
| Like ''ani'', used for yes-no questions. However, it cliticizes to the first word of the clause. | |||
|} | |} | ||
The Interrogatives manifest WH-movement, appearing immediately before the auxiliary ''itá' '' with rising intonation and a slight pause after the main VP. The Irrealis suffix ''-hi'' often accompanies WH-words but is often dropped, as in the second example, especially among younger speakers. However, it is required for polar questions, i.e. questions marked with ''aní'', in which case its allmorph ''-ha'' is used. | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase =Okep nari ayrarke, penóh hô'itáhi? | |||
| IPA = 'okɛp 'na:ɾi aɪ'ɾaɾke pe'noɦ ɦo:ʔɪ'taɦi | |||
| morphemes = Okep nari ayrarke, penóh Ø-hô-Ø-'itá-ʔ-hi | |||
| gloss = PN child spank why DIR-HOD-HS-COP-LS-IRR | |||
| translation = Why did Okep spank (her) child earlier this morning? | |||
}} | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase =Kā tahône, ra' tasip'itá'? | |||
| IPA = ka: ta'ɦo:nɛ ɾaʔ taʃɪpʔ'ɪta | |||
| morphemes = kā ta=hone, ra' ta-sip-Ø-itá-ʔ | |||
| gloss = 2S INV.SG=cry who INV-CAUS-HS-COP-LS | |||
| translation = Who is making you cry? | |||
}} | |||
= | The following two sentences are polarity questions, with no difference in meaning. The third sentence, containing both polarity markers ''=yo'' and sentence-final particle ''aní'', implies incredulity: | ||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Koykâre cori yoskara sip'itáha' aní? | |||
| IPA = /koɪ'ka:ɾɛ 'tʃoɾi 'joʃkaɾa ʃɪpʔɪtaɦa a'ni/ | |||
| morphemes = koykâre cori yoskara sip-Ø-itá-ʔ-hi aní | |||
| gloss = boy house burn CAUS-DIR.PRS.HS-COP-LS-IRR Q | |||
| translation = Did the boy burn the house (down)? | |||
}} | |||
==== | {{Gloss | ||
|phrase = Koykâryo cori yoskara sip'itáhi? | |||
| IPA = /koɪ'ka:ɾjo 'tʃoɾi 'joʃkaɾa ʃɪpʔɪ'taɦi/ | |||
| morphemes = koykâre=yo cori yoskara sip-Ø-itá-ʔ-hi | |||
| gloss = boy=Q house burn CAUS-DIR.PRS.HS-COP-LS-IRR | |||
| translation = Did the boy burn the house (down)? | |||
}} | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Koykaryo cori yoskara sip'itáha aní? | |||
| IPA = /koɪ'kaɾjo 'tʃoɾi 'joʃkaɾa ʃɪpʔɪ'taɦa 'ani/ | |||
| morphemes = koykâre=yo cori yoskara sip-Ø-itá-ʔ-hi ani | |||
| gloss = boy=Q house burn CAUS-DIR.PRS.HS-COP-LS-IRR Q | |||
| translation = Did the boy burn the house (down)? | |||
}} | |||
With the exception of the polarity particle ''aní'', interrogatives can also serve as conjunctions, provided that the interrogatives is joined to the dependent clause with the connective ''si='': | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Horyák kosno nitá' penóh si-Okep nari ayrarkekór ho'itá'. | |||
| IPA = | |||
| morphemes = hôri=ák kosno Ø-n-Ø-itá-ʔ penóh si=Okep nari ayrarke-kór Ø-ho-Ø-'itá-ʔ | |||
| gloss = NEG=1S hear DIR-PST-HS.COP-LS why CONN=PN nephew spank-HEAR DIR-HOD-HS-COP-LS | |||
| translation = I did not hear/receive the news why Okep spanked (her) nephew early this morning. | |||
}} | |||
Neither a pseudo-incorporated noun or adjunct may appear between the Interrogative and the auxiliary. The next sentence is well-formed, with the pseudo-incorporated noun appearing before the interrogative ''penóh'' (why), whereas the next sentence is unfelicitous, since PINs are barred from appearing between the WH-word and the auxiliary: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Koykâre yoskara cori penóh itá'? | |||
| IPA = | |||
| morphemes = koykâre yoskara cori penóh Ø-itá-ʔ | |||
| gloss = boy burn house why DIR.PRS.HS-COP-LS | |||
| translation = Why did the boy burn the house (down)? | |||
}} | |||
{| | {{Gloss | ||
|phrase = *Koykâre yoskara penóh cori sip'itá'? | |||
| | | IPA = | ||
| | | morphemes = koykâre yoskara penóh cori sip-Ø-itá-ʔ | ||
| gloss = boy house burn why CAUS-DIR.PRS.HS-COP-LS | |||
| translation = Why did the boy burn the house (down)? | |||
| | }} | ||
| | |||
Interrogatives can also serves as Conditionals by a ''=si'' Topicalization structure: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
| | |phrase = Ra'si karámpo taneknek ta'itá', siakos tamáko itá' | ||
| IPA = 'raʔʃi ka'ɾampo ta'nɛknɛk 'taʔɪtaʔ 'ʃakoʃ ta'mako ʔɪ'taʔ | |||
| morphemes = Ra'=si karampo ta=neknek ta-Ø-itá-Ø, si=akos tamakó Ø-Ø-itá-ʔ | |||
| gloss = Who=TOP bear INV=kill INV-HS-COP-LS CONN=1P danger.liability DIR-HS-COP-LS | |||
| translation = Whoever slaughtered the bear (in this manner) is a danger to us all. | |||
}} | |||
The Topic marker ''=si'' should not be confused with the Connective ''si='' that is linking the embedded clause to the matrix clause. The former is an enclitic, whereas the latter is a proclitic. | |||
! | |||
| | Among the Interrogative pronouns, ''ra' '' ranks the highest in animacy; nevertheless, Interrogative pronouns are lower than non-Interrogative nouns in the animacy hierarchy. | ||
''Yôri-'' is always prefixed to the noun it modifies and can never appear as an independent word. It can be prefixed to ''pôh'' and ''ra' '', i.e. ''yôripoh'' and ''yôra''<nowiki>'</nowiki> where it takes the meaning "which one", ''yôripoh'' for Noun Classes II and III, the sentient members of Class I, and ''yôra''<nowiki>'</nowiki> for the rest. | |||
<!-- | |||
=== Demonstratives === | |||
| | Attributive | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
| | ! | ||
| | ! Pronominal !! Attributive<ref>The attributive forms derive from the pronominal + ''si-'' connective. Note that the connective cliticizes to the demonstrative, not the noun head as expected.</ref> !! Adverbial <ref>The adverbial ''-e'' suffix derives from a putative ''*e='' (c.f. Minhast ''eyha'' "there is/are") that cliticized to the pronominal form.</ref> !! Minhast Cognates | ||
! | |- | ||
|- | ! Proximal | ||
| | || hāpe || hapsi || hāpe, hape || sappu | ||
|- | |||
! Medioproximal | |||
|| nas || napsi || nāse, nase || naš | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! Distal | ||
| | || yas || yapsi ||yāse, yase || wašia | ||
! | |- | ||
! | ! Invisible | ||
! | || ucce, ucca || ucci || ucce || suxta <!-- from *husta, c.f. Minhast suxta "thither", x(Minhast) vs h/0(Nan.), št(Min.) vs cc(Nan.) | ||
! | |} | ||
|- | |||
! | --> | ||
| | === Pronouns === | ||
| | Nankôre pronouns distinguish animacy, number, and transitivity. The transitive forms are portmanteaus, which in combination with the presence or absence of the verb's inverse marker, encodes both the agent and patient. | ||
| | |||
| | Animacy in Nankôre is arranged in the following hierarchy: | ||
|- | |||
! | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
| | |- | ||
| | ! Pronominal hierarchy | ||
| | |- | ||
| | | style="text-align:center"|1st > 2nd > 3rd > 4th | ||
| | |} | ||
|- | Plurality generally does not affect the animacy level across persons. However, if two 3rd person arguments have the same animacy and one of the arguments is plural, then the plural argument is assigned a higher animacy level. | ||
| | |||
| | The paradigm for the transitive pronouns are as follows: | ||
! | |||
|- | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
| | |+ '''Transitive Portmanteau Pronouns''' | ||
| | |- | ||
! colspan="5"| Singular | |||
! colspan="6"| Plural | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! | ||
| | ! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 4S !! 1P.INC || 1P.EXCL !! 2P !! 3P || 4P | ||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
! | | -- || ekká' || ekenko || enkár || -- || -- || kamme || enka ||nerá | ||
|- | |||
|- | ! 2S | ||
! | | ekká' <br/> kā <br/> ka || --|| kanko <br/> kā <br/> ka || korí || kanná || kanné || -- || kanenko || kâre | ||
|- | |||
| | ! 3S | ||
| | | ekenko|| kanko <br/> kā <br/> ka || -- || enkará || enko || nenko || kanenko || -- || kankór | ||
| | |- | ||
| | ! 4S | ||
|- | | enkár || korí || enkará || -- || ánkare || nénkare || kánnare || eranka || -- | ||
! | |- | ||
| | ! colspan="11"| Plural x Plural | ||
| | |- | ||
| | ! colspan="5"| 1P.INCL | ||
| | | -- || -- || ánkame || ananka || ánnahi | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! colspan="5"| 1P.EXCL | ||
| | | -- || -- || nékkame || nenka || énnahi | ||
|- | |||
|- | ! colspan="5"| 2P | ||
| ánkame || nékkame || -- || nekákkame || nákkame | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="2" | ! colspan="5"| 3P | ||
! | ||ananka || nenka || nekákkame || -- || nékkahi | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! colspan="5"| 4P | ||
| | || ánnahi || énnahi|| nákkame || nékkahi || -- | ||
! | |- | ||
! | |} | ||
Transitive verbs take two NPs as core arguments. The case relations of the two arguments are determined by the position of the noun in the animacy hierarchy; the core argument that is higher in the animacy hierarchy is assigned the Agent role, and the other argument is assigned the Patient role. However, an inverse affix ''tā=/tāh=/ta=/t='' is prefixed to the primary verb, as well as a redundant ''ta-'' affix that is added to the auxiliary to alter the argument structure and promote the lower-animacy argument to Agent role. | |||
|- | |||
! | The intransitive forms consist of both independent and cliticized forms, as illustrated in the following table: | ||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
| | |+ '''Intransitive Pronouns''' | ||
| | |- | ||
! rowspan ="2"| Person | |||
! colspan="2" | Singular | |||
! colspan="2" | Plural | |||
! | |- | ||
! Independent !! Clitic !! Long Form !! Clitic | |||
|- | |||
! 1 | |||
| style="text-align:center"| eyak || =yak <br/> =ak || aná || =na | |||
|- | |||
! 2 | |||
| style="text-align:center"| eká || =ka || kamme || =kamme | |||
|- | |||
| | ! 3 | ||
! | | style="text-align:center"| enko || =ko <br/>=na || enká || =enká <br/> =nka <br/> =ka | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 4 | ||
| | | style="text-align:center"| erá || =ra || nami || =nami | ||
|} | |||
| | If used as a core argument, the intransitive singular forms and the plural '''short''' forms may appear just before the clause-final auxiliary ''itá'',e.g. ''Nitori kā 'itá!'' (You are a fool); or the clitic form of the pronoun attaches to the main verb, e.g. ''Nitoriká 'itá!''. They may also be used to emphasize a noun, in which case the pronoun precedes the noun linked with the connective ''si='', as in ''tā si=naho'' (She/Her, the mother). | ||
| | |||
| | As earlier stated, nouns in Nankôre are not inflected, and the same is true for pronouns. Moreover, oblique pronominal arguments cannot be inserted into the verb phrase, but instead must appear before it. If oblique arguments appear outside their clause, particularly in topic-comment structures, they must be joined to it with the connective clitic ''si=''. Context alone determines the semantic role of the oblique. To illustrate, the sentence ''Maska si=ohipna koykare ekán itá'' (anthill=CONN twig boy twist COP.PST), i.e. "The boy inserted the twig into the anthill", the oblique noun ''maska'' (anthill is marked with the clitic ''si='' to join it to the rest of the sentence. | ||
! | |||
! | ===Verbs=== | ||
The verb phrase in Nankôre requires at a minimum an initial verb, plus one of the clause-final auxiliaries, '' 'itá' '' for transitive clauses or intransitive clauses where the subject's theta-role is that of Agent, and '' 'iná'' ' for all other intransitive clauses. A sort of division of labor exists between these components; one set of clitics or affixes may attach to one of the components, and another set to the other component. | |||
The following set of markers cliticize to the first verb of the VP, which may be either the main verb, or a coverb. All preverbal clitics attach to the the initial verb: | |||
#Inverse | |||
| | #Aspect | ||
| | |||
| | However, a set of bound morphemes, occurring as suffixes, attach exclusively to the main verb, regardless of whether the verb occurs initial position in the verb phrase or not: | ||
| | |||
#Evidentials | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
| | |- | ||
! Evidentials !! Meaning !! Example | |||
|- | |||
| | | -kor || hearsay || Example | ||
| | |- | ||
| Example || Example || Example | |||
| | |- | ||
! | | Example || Example || Example | ||
|- | |} | ||
| | |||
| | Modal verbs, when they occur, follow the main verb, displaying leftward scope-ordering, e.g. ''Kôreak képorih iná'!'' "I am trying to speak!". | ||
! | |||
Finally, the auxiliary '' 'iná'/'itá' '' hosts the following set of affixes: | |||
|- | |||
| | #Inverse | ||
| | #Tense | ||
! | #Number | ||
#Voice | |||
#Irrealis | |||
! | |||
|- | |||
! | |||
====The Verb Phrase Structure ==== | |||
| | |||
| | The following example demonstrates a complex verb predicate, with the Inverse marker ''ta='' cliticizing to the coverb ''yam'' (accompany) in the Imperfect aspect, followed by the main verb ''yayak'' (go up a mountain) with the Hearsay Evidential suffix ''-kor'', and finally the auxiliary marked with the redundent Inverse clitic ''ta'=''. | ||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Rompóy kurasno tayampo yayak hosmakór ta'nitá'. | |||
| IPA = /rom'poɪ ku'raʃno ta'yampo 'yayak hoʃma'kor taʔnɪt'aʔ/ | |||
| morphemes = Rompóy kurasno ta-yam-po yayak hosma-kor ta'-∅-nitá-ʔ. | |||
| gloss = dog.LA girl.HA INV-accompany-IMPF go.up.mountain-EVID.HEAR INV-HS-PST.COP-LS | |||
| translation = The dog was going up the mountain with the girl, I heard. | |||
}} | |||
| | |||
The verbal elements follow a relatively strict order. The required elements for a VP to be well-formed are the Main Verb and the Auxiliary. Adjuncts are unbound morphemes, and exhibit rather free order; however, they are barred from appearing between the Inverse Marker and any following verb, be it the Coverb or the Main Verb. If a Coverb appears between the Inverse Marker and Main Verb, an adjunct may appear between the Coverb and Main Verb. However, if the Inverse Marker is not followed by a Coverb, then an adjunct may not appear between the Inverse Marker and the Main Verb. Moreover, if Pseudo-Noun Incorporation (PNI) takes place, an adjunct may not intervene between the Main Verb and the Pseudo-incorporated noun (PIN). | |||
|- | |||
| | Although Nankôre is not a polysynthetic language, templatic representations like those of its polysynthetic cousins | ||
| | Minhast and Nahónda, provide a useful visual tool to demonstrate the Nankôre verb phrase structure: | ||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
| | |+ '''Verb Conjugation Table''' | ||
| | |- | ||
! Position !! Type !! Subtype !! Realization | |||
|- | |||
! -3 | |||
| | | Inverse Marker 1 | ||
| | | style="background-color:black"| | ||
| ta= | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3"| -2 | |||
| rowspan="3"| Coverbs | |||
|- | |- | ||
| Directionals/Positionals || | |||
|- | |||
| Modals || | |||
|- | |||
! 1 | |||
| Aspect | |||
| rowspan="3" style="background-color:black"|x | |||
| Examplexxx | |||
|- | |||
! 0 | |||
| Primary Verb | |||
| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! +1 | ||
| | | Quasi-Incorporated Noun | ||
! | | Examples | ||
| | |- | ||
| | ! +2 | ||
| | | rowspan="4"| Auxiliary | ||
| Inverse Marker 2 | |||
| ta- | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! +3 | ||
| | | Inchoative | ||
|- | |||
! | ! +4 | ||
| Causative | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! +5 | ||
! | | Irrealis | ||
| | | | ||
| | |} | ||
| | |||
| | ====Coverbs==== | ||
|- | [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coverb Coverbs] in Nankôre formal grammar are auxiliary verbs that serve to provide additional syntactic information to the main verb itself, or to the core arguments. Although several types of coverbs exist, the Directionals-Positionals coverbs are the most prominent. Directional and positional coverbs serve as a way of indicating case relations of the core arguments, somewhat like Applicatives in other languages, such as those of its distant cousin [[Minhast]]. In fact the older linguistic literature often refers to these coverbs as "Applicative Verbs". The Directionals-Positionals coverbs always precede all other modal verbs, which are scope-ordered. | ||
| | =====Directional-Positional Coverbs===== | ||
| | Directional and positional coverbs have both a long and short form. The long form, also called the Independent Form, may serve as a bona fide standalone verb, or it may serve as a coverb provided that no clitics attach to it. Thus the coverb ''sanha'', in its long form, means "to go towards, to approach" as an independent verb, but its short form, ''san'', always indicates motion towards an entity; this sort of syntactic relation is usually handled by the Allative case in languages which indicate case marking on the noun. Clitics that otherwise attach to the main verb, such as the Inverse marker and and aspect markers, move to and attach to the first occurring coverb of the VP. Clitics attach only to the short form. Additionally, morphophonemic alternations may take place when the Inverse marker ''ta='' cliticizes to the coverb, such as in the Subessive ''cor-''. | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
|+ style="font-weight:bold"| Goal Coverb Forms | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! !! Long !! Short !! Coverb + Inverse | ||
| | |- | ||
! | ! Goal | ||
| | | sanha || san || tasan | ||
| | |} | ||
| | |||
! | {{Gloss | ||
|phrase = Anut America sanha kamukkor itáʔ. | |||
| IPA = | |||
|- | | morphemes = anut america sanha kamuk-kor itáʔ | ||
! | | gloss =PN.HA PN.LA going.towards fly-EVID.HEAR COP.DIR | ||
| translation = Anut supposedly flew to America. | |||
| | }} | ||
| | |||
| | {{Gloss | ||
| | |phrase = Rompóy sikatti yacor pitasi san yapokor itáʔ. | ||
|- | | IPA = | ||
! | | morphemes = rompóy si=katti yacor san yapo-kor itáʔ | ||
| | | gloss = dog CONN=PN.HA ball.LA going.towards throw-EVID.HEAR COP.DIR | ||
| | | translation = Kathy tossed the ball towards the dog. | ||
| | }} | ||
| | |||
|- | {{Gloss | ||
| | |phrase = Katti yacor san yapokor rompóy itáʔ. | ||
| | | IPA = | ||
| morphemes = Katti yacor san yapokor rompóy itáʔ | |||
|- | | gloss = PN.HA ball.LA going.towards throw-EVID.HEAR dog COP.DIR | ||
| | | translation = Kathy tossed the ball towards the dog. | ||
| | }} | ||
! | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|- | |phrase = Kurasno siyacor rompóy tasan nahoyra ayorkor ta'itáʔ. | ||
| IPA = | |||
| | | morphemes = Kurasno siyacor rompóy ta-san nahoyra ayor-kor ta-ʔitáʔ | ||
! | | gloss = girl CONN=ball.LA dog.HA INV-going.towards do.repeatedly bring-EVID.HEAR dog INV-COP | ||
! | | translation = The dog repeatedly brought back the ball to the girl. | ||
! | }} | ||
|- | *Benefactive | ||
! | |||
| | <!-- | ||
| | As an example, the auxiliary ''kohán'' passivizes the clause, resulting in a one-argument clause containing only the logical Patient. Since there is only one core argument, the need for inverse marking no longer exists, and in fact the presence of both the passive auxiliary ''kohán'' and the inverse marker ''tā-/tāh-''' in the same sentence is ungrammatical. The same is true for the antipassive auxilliary ''norhe''/''norhâ'', that is the logical Patient is deleted leaving only the agent, and so once again, the presence of the inverse ''tā-/tāh-'' is ungrammatical. When either the Agent or the Patient has been deleted by the passive or antipassive auxiliaries, one thing that must be noted is that the demoted arguments are fully deleted. In other languages that have passives and/or antipassives, demoted core arguments need not be deleted, in fact in many languages the demoted argument may still be retained in the sentence, but this time as an oblique argument. Such is not the case in Nankôre; the former core argument cannot appear in the sentence. | ||
| | |||
| | The applicative verbs promote an Oblique argument to core status, thereby creating a derived Patient. This results in a transitive sentence, and the inverse marker ''tā-/tāh-'' once again can be used to disambiguate the roles of the core arguments if a lower-animacy argument is an Agent. Interestingly, unlike passivation and antipassivation, the demoted core argument, which is always the former Patient, can still appear in the clause as an Oblique argument, marked with the connective ''si-'' There are several of these auxiliaries, listed in the following table: | ||
|- | --> | ||
! | |||
| | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible" | ||
| | |+ style="font-weight:bold"| Directional and Positional Coverbs | ||
| | |- | ||
| | ! !! Long !! Short !! Coverb + Inverse !! Sample Sentence !! Translation !! Comment | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Goal | |||
| sanha || san || tasan || Anut America sanha kamuk-kor itá. || Anut supposedly flew to America. || ''-kor'' = HEARSAY.EVID, is suffixed to the main verb. | |||
|- | |||
| | ! Dative | ||
! | | tohta || toht || tatóh || Anut nanna tatóh ittáh tanno ta'itá. || Anut gave his mother water. || c.f Minhast dative applicative ''-dut-'', ''menā''' "mother", ''hittu'' "give", ''dannua'' "water" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! Benefactive | ||
| | | nasko|| nas || tanas || Nanhoska karen tā-nas eynakor itá. || It is said the (sacred) tree gave (life) for the people.|| c.f. Minhast postposition ''=nī, =ni'' | ||
! | |- | ||
! | ! Comitative | ||
|- | | yampe || yam || tam || Anut yam temenkor itá || Anut walked beside the river with him.|| ''temen'' = to perform an activity by a river | ||
| | |- | ||
| | ! Instrumental | ||
! | | makôr || mak || tamak || Ehok mak-nahoyra yurasnanetkor itá. || The adolescent struck (it) repeatedly with a club.|| <br/> | ||
|- | |||
! Ablative | |||
| risa || ris || tars || Šôni Nan Kamun Koryas ris mankor itá || First Man emerged from (out of) the snow. || c.f. Minhast applicative ''-raħk-''<br/> ''Šôni Nan'' = "the First Man" <br/>''Kamun Koryas'' "All Snow" (the birthplace of First Man) | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Locative | ||
! | | neyhi || ne || tan || Yonka asrok ta-n akunkor hô'itá. || I heard that a fly buzzed inside Yonka('s mouth) this morning.|| ''asrok'' = fly, insect | ||
| | |- | ||
| | ! Vialis | ||
| | | nahke || nak, nahk || tanak, tanahk || Ka pohak ta-nahke šokor-nui itá' || I saw the river take you through the cave. || c.f. Minhast applicative ''-naħk-, -ni-''<br/> ''pohak'' = cave <br/>''šokor'' = to flow<br/> ''-nui-'' = VIS.EVID | ||
| | |- | ||
|- | ! Prolative | ||
! | | roskar || ros || taros|| Ak piri roskar hô'itá'. || I crossed the street earlier this morning || ''piri'' = street, road, path | ||
| | |- | ||
| | ! Superessive | ||
| oros || or || tor || Ayôhe arupenrô or yaunkekor hô'itá.|| The airplane flew over Ayôhe township earlier this morning.|| ''arupenrô'' = airplane <br/> ''yaunke'' = to fly | |||
|- | |||
! Subessive | |||
| | | yorha || yor || toyor, cor || Ekurki saska yor-ro kahorokor itá. || The turtle swam underneath the ice.|| ''ekurki'' = turtle <br/>''saska'' = ice<br/>''kahoro'' = to swim | ||
| | |- | ||
! Ablative-Superessive | |||
| isuk || suk, su || task, tasku || (Example)|| (Example)|| | |||
| | |- | ||
! Ablative-Subessive | |||
| royna || roy || taroy || (Example)|| (Example)|| | |||
|- | |||
! Riverine | |||
| temen|| tem || tatem || No si-kurasno tem rohnaskor itá.|| The girls supposedly were playing by the river.|| | |||
| | |- | ||
! Montaigne | |||
| yayak|| yay || tay || Kahno côri yay cire/ciri itá' || The old man went up the mountain.|| | |||
|} | |||
====Aspect==== | |||
The verb, in contrast to the auxiliary, encodes aspect with clitics that attach to the end of the word. If a coverb appears, the aspect marker will cliticize to the coverb, otherwise it will cliticize to the main verb. Nankôre possesses several aspect markers, as illustrated in the following table: | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|- | |||
! !! Aspect Marker!! Meaning | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Perfect | |||
| -Ø|| | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Semelfactive | |||
| =no|| completed in one single motion/act, e.g. hit | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Simple Imperfect | |||
| =ro|| | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Durative/Repetitive | |||
| =nahoyra, =noyra|| several times | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Habitative | |||
| =(h)osma, =sma|| often | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Factive | |||
| =yosir|| (general truth statement, e.g. "The sun rises in the east") | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Continuative | |||
| =namporo|| to continue | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Cessative | |||
| =ciri|| to stop | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Terminative | |||
| =ruykáno|| to finish | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Incipient | |||
| =kara|| about to | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Approximative | |||
| =tontoro|| almost, nearly | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Frequentative | |||
| =nokori, -(o)nkori|| often | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
====Main Verb ==== | |||
The main verb is believed to be descended from a verbal noun and carries the main semantic meaning of the verb phrase. The main verb hosts the Inverse Marker ''tā-/ta-'', aspect, and evidential/modal markers. As mentioned earlier, the Inverse and aspect markers may detach from the main verb and attach to a converb, while the modal/evidential suffixes remain tightly bound to the main verb. | |||
===== Moods and Evidentials===== | |||
The Mood and Evidential markers occur as bound suffixes of the main verb. Unlike the Inverse and aspect markers, they do not detach from the main verb but remain bound to the main verb. | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="2"|Evidentials | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Neutral | |||
| -∅ | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Emphatic-Factual | |||
| -mas <br/> -masne | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Hearsay | |||
| -kor | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Visual | |||
| -nui | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Inferential | |||
| -yay | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Intentive | |||
| -neat, -ne | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Dubitative | |||
| -anene | |||
|} | |||
=====Modals===== | |||
Modal verbs follow the main verb. Modals include a wide range of expressions, such as ability, potentiality, similitude, desire, inclination, etc. | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|- | |||
! !! Modal!! Meaning !! Nahenic Cognates | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Potential | |||
| makán|| be able to, can | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Necessitive | |||
| nehái|| need to | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Desiderative | |||
| tasmi|| want to | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Conative | |||
| si <br/> s=|| to try to, attempt | |||
| Cognate with Minhast ''sunep-'' (to push) | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Inceptive | |||
| yári|| begin to | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| Resumptive | |||
| kenóy|| again | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
Examples of usage of the modal verbs follow: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Ekenko tuas sitá', yankór<ref>From reconstructed P-Nahenic *''wa=man=kor'' (CONN=SEQ=and.yet).</ref> seskoro sioykar ináka. | |||
| IPA = Ekenko tuaʃ 'ʃi'taʔ yan'koɾ 'ʃɛʃkoɾo 'ʃoɪkaɾ ɪ'naka | |||
| morphemes = ekenko tuas s-itá' yankór se=skoro sioykar iná-ka. | |||
| gloss = 1S.3S wash.out CON-AUX.TRN however reed=DEM.PROX good be-NEG. | |||
| translation = I'm trying to wash (the stain) out, but this reed brush isn't good. | |||
}} | |||
====The Auxiliary ==== | |||
In terms of morphological complexity, the auxiliary hosts more affixes and clitics than the main verb; in addition to redundantly marking the Inverse voice, it also encodes tense, number, irrealis, inchoativity, and causation through a complex series of affixation. | |||
The auxiliary serves two purposes: | |||
* To links noun phrases to their predicates: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Nan konkekma yoriká ináhi? | |||
| IPA = /nan kon'kekma 'yo:riká ɪn'ahi/ | |||
| morphemes = nan konkekma, yôri-ká ∅-iná-ʔ-hi | |||
| gloss = human snake which-2S DIR-PRS.COP.STAT-S-IRR | |||
| translation = Are you man or snake? | |||
}} | |||
* To serve as a host for tense, number, animacy, and voice markers to the verb phrase. | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Kanro kacekák hôsipnitá'. | |||
| IPA = /'kanro ka't͡ʃekák ho:sipnɪ'taʔ/ | |||
| morphemes = kanro kacek=ák ∅-hô-sip-nitá-ʔ | |||
| gloss = old.man hide=1S DIR-HOD-HS-PST.COP.TRN-LS | |||
| translation =I hid the old man yesterday. | |||
}} | |||
{{Gloss | {{Gloss | ||
|phrase = | |phrase = Ea? Kacek ka, yôrikani hôsipnitáhi? | ||
| IPA = / | | IPA = /ea 'kat͡ʃek ka, yo:ri'kani ho:ʃɪpni'tahi/ | ||
| morphemes = | | morphemes =ea kacek ka yôri-kani ∅-hô-sip-nitá-ʔ-hi | ||
| gloss = | | gloss = MIR hide 2S which-place DIR-HOD-CAUS-HS-PST.COP.TR-LS-IRR | ||
| translation = | | translation =Really? Where did you hide him? | ||
}} | }} | ||
The Inverse marker ''ta'-'' indicates a lower animate NP is the Agent acting on a higher animate NP whose role is that of Patient. The marker occurs in two locations: as a clitic to the first verb of the VP, and as a bound prefix to the auxiliary ''itá''': | |||
= | {{Gloss | ||
|phrase = kattí <u>ta</u>rayrokor <u>ta</u>'itá'. | |||
| IPA = /ka't:i ta'raɪrokor taʔɪ'taʔ/ | |||
| morphemes = kattí ta-rayro-kor ta-itá-ʔ | |||
| gloss = 2S+3S INV-play-HEAR INV.LS-PST-COP-LS | |||
| translation = I heard that he played with you recently. | |||
}} | |||
Number is marked on both core arguments: for transitive clauses, singular HA arguments are null-marked, and LA arguments are marked with the suffix ''-ʔ''. For plurality, plural HA arguments are marked with a prefixed or infixed ''-n-'', while the LA argument is marked with the suffix ''-n'' for plurality. Additionally, the vowel of the Inverse marker lengthens when the LA argument is plural; for example, the singular LA argument of the present tense auxiliary is ''ta'ita<nowiki>'</nowiki>'', whereas the plural form of the verb is ''t<u>ā</u>'inta'''. The Hodiernal tense is an exception: the vowel of the Inverse marker neither undergoes vowel lengthening, nor does it receive compensatory stress; the form *''tāhô'intá<nowiki>'</nowiki>'' is ungrammatical, the form ''tahô'intá<nowiki>'</nowiki>'' instead. This is presumably because the vowel of the tense marker, ''-ô-'', suppresses lengthening of a preceding vowel according to Nankôre phonological rules, thus moving the stress rightward. | |||
-- | |||
The Inchoative consists of a the prefix ''yis-'', which frequently occurs as a circumfix, ''y''- + ''-s-'', for certain conjugations. The affix causes the Inverse affix ''ta(h)-'' to palatize; the ''-s-'' segment of the circumfixal form may occur before or after a pluralizing ''-n-'' affix, or the tense-bearing prefix of a given conjugation. Knowing which form of the Inchoative, and where the ''-s-'' segment occurs is unpredictable and requires memorization. When used in transitive sentences, it serves to mark the Inceptive aspect. The ''-s-'' component has been shown to be cognate with the Minhast inchoative affix ''-saxt-''. | |||
The Causative is marked with the affixes ''sip-'' or ''-sp-'', which is cognate with the Causatives in Minhast ''-šp-'' and Nahónda ''-ps-''. As Causatives typically increase the valency in a clause's argument structure, the Causee is typically the Patient argument, and the target of the Causee is a ''si-'' marked argument phrase that follows the matrix clause; a slight pause usually occurs before the ''si-'' connective. The construction suggest the Causee's target is an anti-topic, although it may be fronted at the beginning of its governing clause by the ''si-'' connective for topicalization. | |||
The | The Irrealis ''-hi'' is suffixed to the auxiliary. It is obligatory for all Future tenses. It also surfaces in imperatives, yes-no questions which are marked with the ''=yo'' marker cliticizing to the first or second word of a sentence, as in ''Cire=yo tā'itá'-hi?'' "Did he die?", and in WH-questions when the event actually happening has not yet been established as having occurred; for example, ''Enket cire tā'itá'?'', "Where did he die?" implies that the person's death is a fact, and it is only the location that is being inquired, versus ''Enket cire tā'itá'-hi?'' implies that not only is the location unknown, but the person's actual death happening still remains to be established. An interesting structure, called the "double interrogative", is a combination of a WH-word followed by a word bearing the ''=yo'' clitic, which also turns the question into yes-no question: ''Enket cire=yo tā'itá'-hi?'', "Did he die, and if so, where?" The ''-hi'' suffix is believed to be cognate with the Minhast Irrealis clitic ''=š''. | ||
=====Transitive Paradigm ===== | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg sortable mw-collapsible" | ||
! rowspan="10" style="width:64.01pt; " | Present | |||
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | |||
! colspan="6" style="width:64.01pt; " | Low Animate Patient | |||
|- | |||
| | ! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Indicative | ||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Inchoative | |||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Causative | |||
|- | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
! style=""| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | High Animate Agent | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | itá' | ||
! | | style="width:64.01pt; " | itá'ita' | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yistá' | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yistá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | sip'itá' (pis'itá') | |||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | sip'itá'ita (pis'itá'ita') | ||
! style=""| | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | nitá'ita' | |||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá' | ||
! style=""| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá'ita' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnitá' (pisnitá') | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnitá'ita' (pisnitá'ita') | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | |||
! style=""| | ! colspan="6" style="width:64.01pt; " | High Animate Patient | ||
| | |- | ||
| | ! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Indicative | ||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Inchoative | |||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Causative | |||
|- | |||
! style=""| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
! style=""| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| | |- | ||
! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Low Animate Agent | |||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’itá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’itá'ita | |||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | castá' | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | castá'ita | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | taspitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | taspitá'ita | |||
|- | |||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tānitá' | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tānitá'ita | ||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitá' | ||
! style=""| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitá'ita | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnitá'ita | |||
| | |- | ||
| | ! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Hodiernal Past ‡ | ||
|- | |||
| | | colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | ||
| | ! colspan="6" style="width:64.01pt; " | Low Animate Patient | ||
| | |- | ||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Indicative | |||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Inchoative | |||
| | ! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Causative | ||
|- | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | High Animate Agent | |||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'itá' | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'itá'ita | ||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsitá' | ||
! style=""| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsitá'ita | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipnitá' | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipnitá'ita | ||
| | |- | ||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'intá' | |||
== | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'intá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsintá' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsintá'ita | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipnintá' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipnintá'ita | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | |||
| | ! colspan="6" style="width:64.01pt; " | High Animate Patient | ||
|- | |||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Indicative | |||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Inchoative | |||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Causative | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
! style=""| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| = | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
|- | |||
| = | ! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Low Animate Agent | ||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô'itá' | |||
| = | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô'itá'ita | ||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | costá' | ||
! style=""| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | costá'ita | ||
| = | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhópsintá' | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhópsintá'ita | ||
|- | |||
| = | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô'intá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô'intá'ita | |||
| = | | style="width:64.01pt; " | cosnitá' | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | cosnitá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhópsintá' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhópsintá'ita | |||
|- | |- | ||
! style=""| | ! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Past | ||
| | |- | ||
| | | colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | ||
! colspan="8" style="width:64.01pt; " | Low Animate Patient | |||
|- | |||
| | ! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Indicative | ||
! style=""| | ! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Inchoative | ||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Causative | |||
|- | |- | ||
! style=""| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
|- | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
= | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | High Animate Agent | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | nitá' | |||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nitá'ita | ||
! | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá'ita | |||
! style=""| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnitá'ita | |||
| | |- | ||
! style=""| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | nintá' | |||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nintá'ita | ||
! style=""| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá'ita | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnintá' | |||
! style=""| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnintá'ita | ||
| | |- | ||
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | |||
! colspan="8" style="width:64.01pt; " | High Animate Patient | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Indicative | |||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Inchoative | |||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Causative | |||
== | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
== | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Low Animate Agent | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’nitá' | |||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’nitá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitá' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitá'ita | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tasipnitá' | |||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tasipnitá'ita | ||
|- | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tānintá' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tānintá'ita | |||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casnintá' | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casnintá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnintá' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnintá'ita | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Medio-Distal Past | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | |||
! colspan="8" style="width:64.01pt; " | Low Animate Patient | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Indicative | |||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Inchoative | |||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Causative | |||
|- | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
= | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | High Animate Agent | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hitá' | ||
! rowspan="2" | | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hitá'ita | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yistá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yistá'ita | |||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hispitá' | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hisiptá'ita | ||
| | |- | ||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hintá' | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hintá'ita | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisintá' | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisintá'ita | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipnitá' | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipnitá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | ||
|- | ! colspan="8" style="width:64.01pt; " | High Animate Patient | ||
| | |- | ||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Indicative | |||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Inchoative | |||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Causative | |||
|- | |||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
|- | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
|- | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| | |- | ||
| | ! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Low Animate Agent | ||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tahitá' | ||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tahitá'ita | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | castá' | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | castá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tasiphitá' | |||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tasiphitá'ita | ||
| | |- | ||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhintá' | ||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhintá'ita | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casintá' | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casinta'ita | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsiphintá' | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsiphintá'ita | ||
|- | |||
! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Distal Past | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | |||
! colspan="6" style="width:64.01pt; " | Low Animate Patient | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Indicative | |||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Inchoative | |||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Causative | |||
|- | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | High Animate Agent | |||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
! | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pitá' | ||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pitá'ita | ||
! ! | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsitá' | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsitá'ita | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | pisiptá' | |||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipta'ita | ||
| | |- | ||
! style=""| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pintá' | ||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pintá'ita | ||
! style=""| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsintá' | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsintá'ita | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipnitá | ||
! style=""| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipnitá'ita | ||
| | |- | ||
| | | colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | ||
! style=""| | ! colspan="6" style="width:64.01pt; " | High Animate Patient | ||
| | |- | ||
| | ! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Indicative | ||
! style=""| | ! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Inchoative | ||
| | ! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Causative | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style=""| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
|- | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
! style=""| | |- | ||
| | ! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Low Animate Agent | ||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’pitá' | |||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’pitá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | caspitá | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | casipnitá'ita | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitá' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitá'ita | |||
|- | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsintá' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsintá'ita | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | casipnitá | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | casipnitá'ita | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitá' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitá'ita | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Medio-Proximal Future | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | |||
- | ! colspan="8" style="width:64.01pt; " | Low Animate Patient | ||
|- | |||
===== | ! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Indicative | ||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Inchoative | |||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Causative | |||
==== | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | High Animate Agent | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nitáh | ||
! | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nitahá'ita | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitáh | ||
! | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | nisiptáh | |||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nisiptahá'ita | ||
! | |- | ||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nintáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | nintahá'ita | |||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitahá | ||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitahá'ita | ||
! | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nisipnitáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | nisipnitahá'ita | |||
| | |- | ||
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | |||
| | ! colspan="8" style="width:64.01pt; " | High Animate Patient | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Indicative | |||
| | ! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Inchoative | ||
|- | ! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Causative | ||
! | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
|- | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
! | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
|- | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
! | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| | |- | ||
| | ! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Low Animate Agent | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’nitáh | ||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tantahá'ita | ||
! | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitáh | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitahá'ita | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tasipnitáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tasipnitahá'ita | |||
| | |- | ||
|- | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
! | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tānintáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tānintahá'ita | |||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | casnintáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | casnintáha'ita | |||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnitáh | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnintahá'ita | ||
|- | |||
! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Immediate Future | |||
|- | |||
=== | | colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | ||
! colspan="8" style="width:64.01pt; " | Low Animate Patient | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Indicative | |||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Inchoative | |||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Causative | |||
| | |- | ||
|- | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
! | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
|- | |||
| | ! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | High Animate Agent | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hitáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hitahá'ita | |||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yistáh | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yistahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipitáh | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hisiptahá'ita | |||
|- | |||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hintáh | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hintahá'ita | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitáh | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitahá'ita | ||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hispintáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipnitahá'ita | |||
| | |- | ||
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | |||
! colspan="8" style="width:64.01pt; " | High Animate Patient | |||
| | |- | ||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Indicative | |||
|- | ! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Inchoative | ||
! | ! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Causative | ||
| | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
|- | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
! | |- | ||
! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Low Animate Agent | |||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tahitáh | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tahitahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | castáh | |||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | castáh | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tahisipitáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tahisiptahá'ita | |||
=== | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhintáh | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhintahá'ita | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | cahsintáh | |||
! | | style="width:64.01pt; " | cahsintahá'ita | ||
! | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhispintáh | ||
! | | style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhisipnitahá'ita | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! rowspan="12" style="width:64.01pt; " | Distal Future | ||
| | |- | ||
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | |||
| | ! colspan="8" style="width:64.01pt; " | Low Animate Patient | ||
! | |- | ||
| | ! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Indicative | ||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Inchoative | |||
| | ! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Causative | ||
! | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
! | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | High Animate Agent | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pitáh | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pitahá'ita | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsitáh | |||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsitahá'ita | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pisiptáh | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pisiptahá'ita | ||
|- | |||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pintáh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | pintahá'ita | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsiptáh | |||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsiptahá'ita | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipnitáh | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipnitahá'ita | ||
|- | |||
| | | colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " | | ||
| | ! colspan="7" style="width:64.01pt; " | High Animate Patient | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Indicative | ||
! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Inchoative | |||
| | ! colspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Causative | ||
| | |- | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| | |- | ||
! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | High Animate Agent | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’pitáh | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | taptahá'ita | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | capsitáh | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | capsitaháh | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tapsiptáh | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tapsiptahá'ita | |||
|- | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāpintáh | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāpintahá'ita | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | capsintáh | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | capsintahá'ita | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitáh | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitahá'ita | |||
|} | |||
‡ Note the irregular Indicative Hodiernal tense form; the Inverse marker does ''not'' lengthen as it does for the rest of the paradigm. | |||
=====Intransitive-Active Paradigm ===== | |||
The paradigm for the ''itá'' auxiliary with intransitive verbs is not as elaborate as its transitive counterpart, nevertheless it still displays a great deal of complexity. As in the transitive paradigm, an Agent is required as a core argument, but unlike the transitive paradigm, the ''ta-'' inverse marker never appears in the Intransitive-Active paradigm. | |||
This use of the ''itá'' auxiliary demonstrates an underlying split intransitive morphosyntactic alignment, specifically of the Split-S subtype: only verbs that indicate agency can license the ''itá'' auxiliary, whilst non-volitional verbs are restricted to the ''iná'' auxiliary. | |||
<!-- | |||
There is no overt marking on either the main verb or the auxiliary indicating that the NP is an Agent or Patient. Instead, there are intransitive verbs that take only Agents as their core argument, e.g. ''temen'' "to walk downstream" [Agent] vs ''oacir'' "to be carried downriver" [Patient]. The semantic properties of the main verb, rather than morphology, indicate the proper meaning. | |||
--> | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible" | |||
! rowspan="1" style="width:64.01pt; " | Tense | |||
! rowspan="1" style="width:64.01pt; " | Number | |||
! rowspan="1" style="width:64.01pt; " | Indicative | |||
! rowspan="1" style="width:64.01pt; " | Inchoative | |||
! rowspan="1" style="width:64.01pt; " | Causative | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Present | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | itá' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yistá' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | sip'itá' (pis'itá') | |||
|- | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | itán | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitán | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnitán (pisnitán) | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Hodiernal Past | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'itá' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsitá' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipnitá' | |||
|- | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hônitán | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsintán | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipnintán | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Past | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | nitá' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnitá' | |||
|- | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | nintán | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitán | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnintán | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Medio-Distal Past | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hitá' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yistá' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hispitá' | |||
|- | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hintán | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisintán | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipnitán | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Distal Past | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | pitá' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsitá' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipta | |||
|- | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | pintán | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsintán | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipnitán | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Medio-Proximal Future | ||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nitáh | ||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitáh | ||
! | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nisiptáh | ||
| | |- | ||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nintahán | ||
! | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitahán | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nisipnitahán | ||
| | |- | ||
|- | ! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Immediate Future | ||
! | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hitáh | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yistáh | ||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hisiptahán | ||
! | |- | ||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hintáhan | ||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitahán | ||
! | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipnitahán | ||
| | |- | ||
| | ! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Distal Future | ||
|- | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
! | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pitáh | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsitáh | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pisiptáh | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pintáhan | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsiptahán | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipnitahán | |||
|} | |||
===== Intransitive-Stative Paradigm===== | |||
Intransitive verb structures involve pairing a semantically stative or non-agentive verb with the auiliary ''iná''', a root cognate with the Minhast intransitive verbal ending ''-an''. | |||
The intransitive paradigm of the auxiliary is listed in the table below: | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible" | |||
! rowspan="1" style="width:64.01pt; " | Tense | |||
! rowspan="1" style="width:64.01pt; " | Number | |||
! rowspan="1" style="width:64.01pt; " | Indicative | |||
! rowspan="1" style="width:64.01pt; " | Inchoative | |||
! rowspan="1" style="width:64.01pt; " | Causative | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Present | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | iná' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | inán | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | sip'iná' (pis'iná') | |||
|- | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | niná' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisniná' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | sipniná' (pisniná') | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Hodiernal Past | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'iná' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsiná' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipniná' | |||
|- | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hônniná' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsinniná' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipnininá' | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Past | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | niná' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisniná' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | sipniná' | |||
|- | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | ninnininá' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisninniná' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | sipninniná' | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Medio-Distal Past | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hiná' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisná' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hispiná' | |||
|- | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hinniná' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisninniná' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipninniná' | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Distal Past | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | piná' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsiná' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipná' | |||
|- | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | pinniná' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsininniná' | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipninniná' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Medio-Proximal Future | ||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nináh | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnináh | ||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | nisipnáh | |||
| | |- | ||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nininnináh | ||
! | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisninnninahá | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | nisipninnináh | ||
| | |- | ||
|- | ! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Immediate Future | ||
! | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hináh | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnáh | ||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipináh | ||
! | |- | ||
| | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hinnináh | ||
|- | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yisninnináh | ||
! | | style="width:64.01pt; " | hispinnináh | ||
| | |- | ||
| | ! rowspan="2" style="width:64.01pt; " | Distal Future | ||
|- | ! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG | ||
! | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pináh | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsináh | ||
| | | style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipnáh | ||
|- | |||
! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | pinninnináh | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsipninnináh | |||
| style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipninnináh | |||
|} | |} | ||
=== | ===== Nominalization ===== | ||
Nankôre has a rich set of clitics and suffixes that serve as nominalizers. They are, in order of frequency: | |||
* ''-pe'': Clausal relativizer, cognate with Minhast ''=naft'' | |||
==== | {{Gloss | ||
|phrase = Nan issiah pinninnináh'''pe''' pirút taporé ta'itá'. | |||
| IPA = | |||
| morphemes = nan issiah pinninnináh-pe pirút ta-poré ta-'itá' | |||
| gloss = man come COP.FUT-NMLZ sasquatch INV-vanquish INV-COP | |||
| translation = The (next) man who comes here shall defeat the Sasquatch. | |||
}} | |||
* ''-hi''<ref>Not to be confused for Irrealis ''-hi'', which suffixes to the ''itá'/iná' '' auxiliaries.</ref><ref>Cognate with Minhast gerundial ''-x-''</ref>: attaches directly to a verb root to derive participles | |||
* ''-hici'': Derives instruments from verb roots, a compound of ''-hi-'' and a submorpheme ''-ci'', possibly derived from ''kaci'' "path" | |||
* ''-rē''<ref>Cognate with Minhast ''redad'' "man/male/person</ref> : Derives occupation | |||
* ''-ssiak'' <ref> Derived from ''siriak'', "appointed time". Cognate with Minhast ''saħrap'' "today"</ref> Derives temporal adverbs from verbs, e.g. ''petissiak'' "time of/for standing", as well as creating adverbial clauses when attached to ''itá '' or ''iná '', e.g. | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Ak saraka nitássiak, sissioyenki kai pohráp niná' | |||
| IPA = | |||
| morphemes = ak saraka n-itá-ssiak, si=sioyenki kai pohráp n-iná' | |||
| gloss = 1S see PST-AUX.TRN CONN=heart down fall PST-INTR | |||
| translation = When I saw him, I became crestfallen. | |||
}} | |||
The adverbial clause and its matrix may be inverted, e.g.: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Sioyenki kai pohráp ninássiak', siak saraka nitá. | |||
| IPA = | |||
| morphemes = sioyenki kai pohráp n-iná'-ssiak' si=ak saraka n-itá. | |||
| gloss = heart down fall PST-INTR CONN=1S see PST-AUX.TRN CONN= | |||
| translation = I became crestfallen, having seen him. | |||
}} | |||
The Connective ''si='' obligatorily surfaces to link the adverbial clause with its matrix, regardless of the position of the two clauses. | |||
====Derivation ==== | |||
Nankôre has a set of verbalizing prefixes that when attached to nominal roots, often body parts, create verbs. These prefixes are most likely the remnants of Proto-Nahenic noun incorporation, based on comparisons with Nankôre's distant relatives, Minhast and Nahónda; similar or even identical fossilized affixes have been found in these languages that likewise attach to nominal roots for body parts to derive verbs.<ref> C.f. Minhast ''kirim'' (from ''k-erum'', literally "make sound with the mouth) and Nahónda ''teloma'' (from ''t-loma''). Both are cognates of Nankôre's ''kôre'' "speech". </ref> <!--Note that Minhast /k/ maps to Nahónda /t/). ''kirim'' is the Minhast cognate of Nankôre ''kôre''. --> | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
|+ '''Verbalizing Prefixes''' | |||
|- | |||
! | |||
! Prefix | |||
! Sample Noun | |||
! Example | |||
! Meaning | |||
! Nahenic Cognates | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Sound | ||
| k- | |||
| ore "mouth" | |||
|- | | k-ore | ||
| = | | to speak | ||
| | | Common Minhast ''k-irim'' "to speak" (NB: Nankôre ''ôre'' = "mouth" is cognate with Minhast ''erum'' = "mouth") | ||
| | |- | ||
|- | ! Striking | ||
| | | ya- | ||
| sipa "hand" | |||
| ya-spa | |||
| to punch | |||
| Minhast, Horse Speaker dialect: ''wi-šnu'' "to strike, hit" (Minhast ''išna'' "fist", "knuckles") | |||
|- | |||
! Movement | |||
| ho-<br/>ha- | |||
| nake "foot" | |||
| ha-nake | |||
| to scoot along the floor with one's foot; to kick around | |||
| Nahónda: ''ho-shishpa'' "to give" ''shishp'' = hand; c.f. Minhast ''sespir'' = hand, Nankôre ''sipa'' = hand | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Stability | |||
| pa- | |||
| are "eye" | |||
| p-are | |||
| to stare | |||
| Common Minhast ''p-uħta'' "to stand up" (from ''yuħta'' = "sole of the foot", cognate with Nankôre ''yohíhita'' = "flat surface") | |||
|- | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Removal | |||
| ro- | |||
| ampe "body" | |||
| ro-yampe | |||
| to remove one's clothes | |||
| Common Minhast ''ruyyamb'' "to take off clothing" (but note that Minhast lost the original ''*yambet'' (body), replacing it with ''tarti'' (body) | |||
|- | |||
|} | |} | ||
=== Numbers === | |||
The Nankôre number system is dozenal, i.e. base-12. The numbers thirteen through twenty-three are modified compounds consisting of the unit numbers ''siori'' (1) through ''siktas'' (11) compounded to ''sin'' (12). The number twenty-four ''hanosin'' can be analyzed as ''han-o-sin'', where the affix ''-o-'' signifies "multiplied by", so ''hanosin'' literally means "two times twelve". The multiplicative pattern continues until the number 144, which is called ''nakpa''. The number 100 (''nenanosin >> nena ān-o-sin'') is literally "four (and) eight times twelve". The ordinals for the numbers 1-7 are the cardinal numbers suffixed by ''-ak'' or ''-ok''. Numbers 8-11 are the cardinal numbers suffixed with the ending ''-u''. The ordinal for the number 12 is again suffixed with ''-ok'', and the higher numbers with ''-nok''. If the ''-nok'' affix is preceded by a consonant followed by ''-i-'', the ''-i-'' may be dropped, provided that this does not form the impermissible consonant cluster -CCC- sequence. | |||
-- | |||
= | {|class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
! Number | |||
! Cardinal | |||
! Ordinal | |||
|- | |||
! one | |||
| siôri | |||
| sioriak | |||
|- | |||
! two | |||
| hani, ôhi | |||
| hanyak | |||
|- | |||
! three | |||
| tusta, tak | |||
| tustak | |||
|- | |||
! four | |||
| nena, kayoka | |||
| nenak | |||
|- | |||
! five | |||
| sisiak | |||
| catak | |||
|- | |||
! six | |||
| sirisio | |||
| siirsiok | |||
|- | |||
! seven | |||
| kerisio | |||
| kirsiok | |||
|- | |||
! eight | |||
| ān | |||
| anku | |||
|- | |||
! nine | |||
| karu | |||
| karku | |||
|- | |||
! ten | |||
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. --> | | kase /'kaʃɛ/ | ||
| kasku | |||
|- | |||
! eleven | |||
| siktas | |||
| sistu | |||
|- | |||
! twelve | |||
<!-- | | sin | ||
| sinok | |||
|- | |||
! thirteen | |||
==(Phrases and terms from FB - To be incorporated later) == | | siorsin | ||
| siorsinok | |||
|- | |||
1) "tak orâshim kot": 3 Orashim trees hands" (i.e. the number 300). The length of the trunk of an orâshim tree is the length of approximately 100 hand-lenghths, from heel of the hand to tip of the middle finger. | ! fourteen | ||
| hansin | |||
2) "koytan karásh", meaning "lava lizard", a scarlet colored giant salamander with venomous glands scattered across its skin. It lives in certain mountain rivers in Kôya Island | | hanisnok, hanisnok | ||
|- | |||
! fifteen | |||
| tusin | |||
| tusnok | |||
|- | |||
! sixteen | |||
| ninsin | |||
| ninsinok, nisnok | |||
|- | |||
! seventeen | |||
| casin | |||
| casinok,casnok | |||
|- | |||
! eighteen | |||
| sirsin | |||
| sirsinok, sirisnok | |||
|- | |||
! nineteen | |||
| kirsin | |||
| kirisnok | |||
|- | |||
! twenty | |||
| ansin | |||
| asnok | |||
|- | |||
! twenty-one | |||
| karusin | |||
| karushnok | |||
|- | |||
! twenty-two | |||
| kasmin | |||
| kasminok | |||
|- | |||
! twenty-three | |||
| siksin | |||
| siksinok | |||
|- | |||
! twenty-four | |||
| hanosin | |||
| hanosnok | |||
|- | |||
! thirty-six | |||
| tustosin | |||
| tustosnok | |||
|- | |||
! one hundred | |||
| nenanosin | |||
| nenanosnok | |||
|- | |||
! one hundred forty-four | |||
| nakpa | |||
| nakpanok | |||
|} | |||
===Clitics and Particles=== | |||
==== Connective ''si='' ==== | |||
Throughout all the Nahenic languages, connectives are used to bind dependents to their heads. Minhast has ''min'', Neina the cognate ''mɯn'', and Nahónda ''na'', to join two or more noun phrases into one cohesive unit. Minhast has one additional connective, ''wa='', which joins non-verbal adjuncts, which may be a single word or an entire NP and/or adverbial phrase. | |||
Nankóre's connective ''si='' has no known cognates, and unlike its sister languages, ''si='' is not restricted to joining NPs or complex, non-verbal phrases. While the dependency relation in a ''si='' construction may be discernible, often the directionality is ambiguous and thus context must be used to disambiguate, or other morphosyntactic devices, such as the co-occurrence of the inverse marker ''ta' '' in possessive phrases. | |||
<!-- | |||
Interestingly, some NP phrases where one would expect a connective to appear are absent. A notable example is ''Hôkun Pe' '', literally "long house", rather than the expected ''hokun si-Pe' '', which is uncommon. The expected form is ''Pe' hokun iná' '', lit. "The house (that) is long". | |||
--> | |||
====Other Particles==== | |||
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" | |||
|- | |||
! style="width: 100px;" | Particle | |||
! Meaning | |||
! Cognates | |||
|- | |||
! ea<br/>ira | |||
| yes | |||
| Upper Minhast ''ēlā'' | |||
|- | |||
! ecá'<br/> icá' | |||
| no | |||
| Common Minhast ''hatā' | |||
|- | |||
! na | |||
| and <br/> so, therefore | |||
| Nahónda ''máma'' "also", Common Minhast ''=mā'' "and then" | |||
|- | |||
! piya | |||
| but | |||
| Neina ''(hi)yo'' | |||
|- | |||
! kusur | |||
| then | |||
| Neina ''kisero'' "afterwards" | |||
|- | |||
! ritá'a | |||
| however | |||
| Neina ''riha'' "to turn", Nahónda ''letsaya'' "to twist", Upper Minhast ''ruttakšuran'' "to seduce" (from Classical Minhast ''ruttay-gurra-ša'ra-ana'' "to swing one's hips") | |||
|} | |||
<!-- | |||
tak orâshim kot "3 Orashim trees" = 3 hundred. An orashim tree is apporximately the length of 100 hand lengths (from heel of wrist to the tip of the longest, i.e. 3rd, finger). An orashim is also 100. | |||
--> | |||
==Syntax== | |||
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. --> | |||
====Word Order==== | |||
Nankôre's canonical word order SOV, more specifically, SOV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub>, where V<sub>2</sub> represents the auxiliary ''itá''. Although the core argument NPs do not take any overt case marking, the animacy hierarchy and direct-inverse system of marking usually provide enough information to identify the Agent from the Patient. Thus, OSV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub>, SVO<sub>1</sub> V<sub>2</sub>, and other orders are found, both in speech and text. When pronouns appear as core arguments, they usually appear before the main verb, but they may cliticize to the end of the main verb: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Minhaste kôryak itá' | |||
|IPA = /'minɦaʃte 'ko:rjak ɪt'aʔ/ | |||
| morphemes = minhast kôre=ak ∅-∅-itá-ʔ | |||
| gloss = Minhast.language speak=1S DIR-HS-COP-LS | |||
| translation = I speak the Minhast language. | |||
}} | |||
Nevertheless, for all word order variants, the only restriction is the auxiliary is restricted to clause-final position. | |||
Fronting a constituent is used for emphasis, as in the following sample, where the O argument has been fronted before the S argument. Fronted constituents are typically followed by an audible pause, as in the following example: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Makse, rihat kakno itá | |||
|IPA = /'makʃɛ̯ ɾi'hat 'kakno ɪt'aʔ/ | |||
| morphemes = makse rihat kak=no ∅-∅-itá-ʔ | |||
| gloss = mouse.LA falcon.HA seize=SEM DIR-HS-COP-LS | |||
| translation = It was the mouse the falcon seized in one fell swoop. | |||
}} | |||
As in many SOV languages, modifiers precede their heads: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Sirkos sirohpa | |||
|IPA = /'ʃirkos ʃiroɦpa/ | |||
| morphemes = sirkos si=rohpa | |||
| gloss = foreigner fine.cloth | |||
| translation = This fine foreign cloth | |||
}} | |||
====The Noun Phrase==== | |||
=====Possession===== | |||
Possession is indicated by joining the possessor to the possessum with the connective ''si='', followed either by the verb ''ras'' to indicate inalienable possession e.g. ''Koykare si=naho ras'', "The boy's mother", or ''ocité'' for alienable possession, e.g. ''Koykare si=maska ocité''. If the possessor is lower in the animacy heirarcy, the inverse marker ''ta'/tah'' is prefixed to the verb, as in the improbable ''Maska si=koykare tah-ocité'', "The anthill's boy". | |||
====The Verb Phrase==== | |||
The verb phrase is made up of the [[Nankôre#The_Verb_Complex|verb complex]], and its predicate. The verb complex must end with the appropriate form of the auxiliary ''itá''. ''Itá'' was originally a auxiliary but later on accreted voice, tense, and the pleonastic ''ta-'' Inverse marker. The main verb precedes the auxiliary and may be separated from it by a de-focused noun or by one or more adjuncts. De-focused nouns appear immediately after the main verb, and adjuncts cannot be inserted between the two (see "Quasi-Incorporation" below). Coverbs appear before the main verb. The primary ''ta-'' Inverse marker cliticizes to the first verb of the verb complex, which may be either a coverb, or the main verb. | |||
=====Quasi-Noun Incorporation===== | |||
Nankôre canonical word order is SOV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub>, but under certain circumstances, the O-argument may occur between V<sub>1</sub> and V<sub>2</sub>, i.e. SV<sub>1</sub>OV<sub>2</sub>. The O-argument becomes backgrounded, thereby assuming a peripheral role; as a result, the clause is effectively detransitivized. As a result, the Inverse marker ''ta-'' cannot occur in these derived intransitive clauses; it must be omitted for the clause to remain grammatical. This operation is called ''quasi-noun incorporation'', and occurs cross-linguistically in unrelated languages, e.g. Dutch and Hungarian. A feature of Nankôre psuedo-incorporation is that adjuncts, which typically can occur in most positions of a clause, including clause-finally, cannot occur between V<sub>1</sub> and the relocated O-argument. | |||
Quasi-incorporation may eventually evolve into full noun incorporation, as in the case of Nankôre's distant relatives, Minhast and Nahónda. Both exhibit full noun incorporation. Like Minhast and Nahónda, Nankôre adds the incorporated noun after the verb root, e.g. Minhast ''Ušnirumpakekaru'' << ''ušn-ruppumak-ek-ar-u'' (hit-face-3S.ABS+1S.ERG-PST.PFCT-TRANS) "I hit him in the face, I face-hit him", Nahónda ''klomenatsoyetolayo''<< ''kloma-natsoye-Ø-t-ola-yo'' (speak-wisdom-3S.PT-1S.AGT-PST-AGT) "I gave him counsel, I wisdom-speak to him. Most languages that exhibit noun incorporation attach the incorporated noun ''before'' the verb root; placement of the incorporated noun after the root is rare among incorporating languages. The process by which Nankôre performs pseudo-incorporation, namely by placing the O-argument ''between'' the primary verb and auxiliary verbs, may explain why Minhast and Nahónda place their incorporated nouns after the verb. Proto-Nahenic may have also placed a quasi-incorporated noun after the primary verb but before the auxiliary verb, an order which the descendant languages preserved. | |||
Quasi-Noun Incorporation serves discourse functions similar to full noun incorporation found in its Minhast and Nahónda relatives, backgrounding the incorporated NP, decreasing valency, and providing additional specificity to the semantics of the main verb. The following example of compares and contrasts the default SOV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub> word order, with that of a SV<sub>1</sub>OV<sub>2</sub>: | |||
*Default SOV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub> Order | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Makse rihat tayôreno ta'itá | |||
|IPA = /'makʃɛ̯ ɾi'hat ta'yo:reno taʔɪt'aʔ/ | |||
| morphemes = makse rihat ta=yôre=no ta-itá-ʔ | |||
| gloss = mouse.LA falcon.HA INV=bite=SEM INV-HS.COP-LS | |||
| translation = The mouse bit the falcon. | |||
}} | |||
*Quasi-Noun Incorporation, SV<sub>1</sub>OV<sub>2</sub> Order | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Makse yôreno rihat 'itá' | |||
|IPA = /'makʃɛ̯ 'yo:reno ɾi'hat taʔɪt'aʔ/ | |||
| morphemes = makse yôre=no rihat ∅-itá-ʔ | |||
| gloss = mouse.LA bite=SEM falcon DIR-COP-LS | |||
| translation = The mouse falcon-bit. | |||
}} | |||
Quasi-noun incorporation, like the full noun incorporation found in Nankôre's relatives, Minhast and Nahónda, lowers valency, transforming transitive clauses to intransitive clauses. '''The use of the Inverse marker is no longer needed''', as the incorporated noun has been reduced to an adjunct. As such, the incorporated noun no longer occupies a core position. Decreasing the clause's valency reduces the saliency of the incorporated noun. | |||
====Comparatives and Superlatives==== | |||
Degrees of comparison are formed by placing the coverb ''soyka'' (to be big, i.e. to be more) or ''hatka'' (to be small, i.e. to be less) before a stative verb. Since two arguments are involved, namely the comparer NP and the compared NP, the phrase is structurally equivalent to a transitive clause, requiring an Agent and a Patient, and follows the rules governing the nominal animacy hierarchy. In the sentence ''Joe Sara soyka inupe itá'' (Joe is stronger than Sarah; lit. "Joe bigs strongs Sara"), ''soyka'' precedes the stative verb ''inupe'' (to be strong). Joe, being male, is higher in the animacy scale and so is assigned Agent status. If Sara were stronger, the Inverse affix ''ta-/tā-/tāh-'' surfaces, as in ''Joe Sara '''ta'''-soyka inupe ta'itá'' (Sara is stronger than Joe). Other examples: | |||
1) ''Joe Sara soyka soyka ta'itá'' (Joe is taller than Sara; lit. "Joe big bigs Sara"). | |||
2) ''Joe Sara tā-hatka nahamos ta'itá'' (Sara is less tan than Joe). | |||
3) ''Joe Sara hatka hatka ta'itá'' (Joe is smaller than Sara; lit. "Joe small smalls Sara"). | |||
4) ''Natos Suhe soyka makit itá'' (Natosh [masc.] runs faster than Suhe [fem.]; lit. "Natosh big runs Suhe"). | |||
5) ''Orôyo Paul ta-soyka soyka itá'' (The volcano is bigger than Paul; note that ''orôyo'' is less animate because it is a sessile object, hence the use of the inverse marker ''ta-''). | |||
To express the superlative, the auxiliary verb ''norhe/norhâ'' appears before ''soyka'' and ''hatka'', e.g. ''Orôyo norhe soyka soyka itá'' (This is the largest mountain), or ''Sikôya orôyo norhe soyka soyka itá'' (This is the largest mountain in Kôya Island). | |||
==Example texts== | |||
=== The Tower of Babel === | |||
# Now the whole earth had one language and the same words. | |||
# And as people migrated from the east, they found a plain in the land of Shinar and settled there. | |||
# And they said to one another, "Come, let us make bricks, and burn them thoroughly." And they had brick for stone, and bitumen for mortar. | |||
# Then they said, "Come, let us build ourselves a city and a tower with its top in the heavens, and let us make a name for ourselves, lest we be dispersed over the face of the whole earth." | |||
# And the Lord came down to see the city and the tower, which the children of man had built. | |||
# And the Lord said, "Behold, they are one people, and they have all one language, and this is only the beginning of what they will do. And nothing that they propose to do will now be impossible for them. | |||
# Come, let us go down and there confuse their language, so that they may not understand one another's speech." | |||
# So the Lord dispersed them from there over the face of all the earth, and they left off building the city. | |||
# Therefore its name was called Babel, because there the Lord confused the language of all the earth. And from there the Lord dispersed them over the face of all the earth. | |||
<br/> | |||
# Saska nammanuyyi nan siôri si-kôre maskoy pintá', kor-kôre nihe pinninnináh.<br/>Now in.those.days mankind one CONN-speech have AUX.TRN+DIST.PST+HP.LS, word-word resemble AUX.INTR+DIST.PST.PL | |||
# Iape nanni hóttari pinninnináh, coy siori pintá', Sinar rima pintá', itáp pinninnináh. <br/> So horde approach.setting.sun AUX.INTR+DIST.PST.PL, forest.clearing see AUX.TRN+DIST.PST+HP.LS, Sinar call AUX.TRN+DIST.PST+HP.LS, sit.down AUX.INTR+DIST.PST.PL | |||
== Table of Abbreviations == | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg sortable mw-collapsible" | |||
!Abbreviation | |||
!Meaning | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | C | |||
| Single Consonant | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | V | |||
| Single Vowel | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | VV | |||
| Long/Geminate Vowel | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | PN | |||
| Proper Noun | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | NP | |||
| Noun Phrase | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | VP | |||
| Verb Phrase | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | OBL | |||
| Oblique argument | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | DEM | |||
| Demonym | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | AGT | |||
| Agent | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | PT | |||
| Patient | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | DIR | |||
| Direct Voice | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | INV | |||
| Inverse Voice | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | CONN | |||
| Connective | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | HA | |||
| High Animate | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | HS | |||
| High Animate Singular | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | HP | |||
| High Animate Plural | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | LA | |||
| Low Animate | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | LS | |||
| Low Animate Singular | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | LP | |||
| Low Animate Plural | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | NEG | |||
| Negator | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | CAUS | |||
| Causative | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | INCH | |||
| Inchoative | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | SEM | |||
| Semelfective | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | PNI | |||
| Pseudo-Noun Incorporation | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | PIN | |||
| Pseudo-Incorporated Noun | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | SG | |||
| Singular | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | PL | |||
| Plural | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | REM.PST | |||
| Remote Past Tense | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | HOD | |||
| Hodiurnal Past Tense | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | PST | |||
| Past Tense | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | PRS | |||
| Present Tense | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | IMM.FUT | |||
| Immediate Future Tense | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | FUT | |||
| Future Tense | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | IMPF | |||
| Imperfect Aspect | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | PRF | |||
| Perfect Aspect | |||
|- | |||
! style="text-align:left" | IRR | |||
| Irrealis | |||
|} | |||
==Other resources== | |||
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. --> | |||
<!-- | |||
==(Phrases and terms from FB - To be incorporated later) == | |||
1) "tak orâshim kot": 3 Orashim trees hands" (i.e. the number 300). The length of the trunk of an orâshim tree is the length of approximately 100 hand-lenghths, from heel of the hand to tip of the middle finger. | |||
2) "koytan karásh", meaning "lava lizard", a scarlet colored giant salamander with venomous glands scattered across its skin. It lives in certain mountain rivers in Kôya Island | |||
koytan = lava | koytan = lava | ||
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9) | 9) | ||
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[[Category:Languages]] | [[Category:Languages]] | ||
[[Category:Conlangs]] | |||
[[Category:Artlangs]] | [[Category:Artlangs]] | ||
[[Category:A priori]] | [[Category:A priori]] |
Latest revision as of 20:22, 23 March 2024
This article is a construction site. This project is currently undergoing significant construction and/or revamp. By all means, take a look around, thank you. |
Nankôre | |
---|---|
Nankôre | |
Pronunciation | [nan.'ko:re] |
Created by | Anyar |
Setting | Pacific Northwest |
Native to | Nanhoska Kôya /nan'hoʃka 'ko:ja/ |
Ethnicity | Nanhoska people |
Native speakers | 2,324 (2014) |
Nahenic
| |
Official status | |
Official language in | Koya Island |
Introduction
Nankôre, from the words nan ("man, human") and kôre ("speech"), is spoken by the Nanhoshka people of Kôya Island. There are two main dialects, the Konishmak, located in the Northeastern Coastal Mountains, and the Sapshira, encompassing the western and southern parts of the country. The dialects differ chiefly in pronunciation and differences in certain lexical items, but are otherwise mutually intelligible.
For a little over a century the origins of the language and its people remain clouded in mystery. Physically, the Nanhoshka people look distinct from the Northwest Pacific Native Americans just 862 kilometers from the eastern shore, but their physical features bear a strikingly close resemblance to the Minhast people of the Minhastim Karak, who live much further away on the other side of the Pacific Ocean close to Japan and Moshir Ainu. Because of these physical resemblances, both anthropologists and linguists started exploring a possible relationship between the two peoples. Recent genetic research uncovered that both the Nanhoshka and Minhast belong to the haplogroup C-M212, indicating a common ancestry. Linguists had a more difficult task in establishing a relationship. Finally Benson et. al. compiled an extensive Swadesh list and internally consistent sound correspondences between the two languages. Most importantly, a set of affixes that were quite conservative were revealed, notably the Causative affix, and a set of fossilized affixes which are prefixed to body parts to derive verbs. In addition, a third language, Nahónda, also previously classified as a language isolate, was discovered to contain common vocabulary and affixes which it shared with both Nankôre and Minhast. Therefore, both Nankôre and Minhast, along with Nahónda, are now recognized as belonging to the same language family, which has been named the Nahenic language family.
Typology and Grammatical Overview
Like Minhast and Nahónda, Nankôre is an SOV language. However, unlike its relatives, Nankôre is not a polysynthetic language but is relatively sparse in terms of affixes for determining syntactic relations. Nouns do not receive case or number marking, nor are they marked for gender. Word order within the verb complex is rather strict, but core, patient, and obliques may occur in various orders. The verb complex consists minimally of a main verb, which possesses suffixes for marking evidentiality, and the auxiliary, which contain a rich set of affixes to mark the core arguments for various syntactic features: number, tense, voice, agency, etc.
Nankôre displays a mixed morphosyntactic alignment. Particularly noticeable is the Hierarchical alignment in its transitive verbs, which employ Direct-Inverse marking to indicate core argument roles. The nominal hierarchy is complex; at least ten noun classes based on animacy can be identified, and within those classes sub-hierarchies are observed based on semantic features, although discourse processes (e.g. the introduction of new arguments that are roughly equal in animacy with previously established arguments, or a previous argument that serves as the topic over extended discourse) may affect how direct-inverse marking is expressed. Thus hierarchical relations are primarily dependent on the semantics of the core argument and the verb class, although other factors are at play; native speakers intuit the hierarchy based on a complex interaction between the both the noun and verb classes, discourse patterns, and context.
The language also displays an Active-Stative alignment of the Split-S subtype in its intransitive verbs. As in its relative Nahónda, Nankôre intransitive verbs are split into two categories, one that requires an Agent as the sole core argument, and another that takes only Patients. Two different auxiliary paradigms are used for intransitive verb roots, the itá paradigm for agentive verbs, and the iná paradigm for stative verbs.
Phonology
Orthography
The Nankôre orthography is based on the Allen-Mills system, derived from the Latin alphabet. However, a second system, the American Media system, has started displacing the Allen-Mills system. Although based on the Allen-Mills system, the American Media system uses the the digraphs <ch> and <sh> to make transcription of the language more accessible to American readers.
Allen-Mills | American Media | IPA |
---|---|---|
' | (n/a) | ʔ |
a,ā, â | a,ā,â | a, a: |
e | e | e |
i | i | ɪ, i |
o, ô | o, ô | o, o: |
u | u | u |
c | ch | tʃ |
s | sh | s, s̺, ʃ |
ś, š[1] | sh | ʃ |
h | h | ɦ |
k | k | k |
r | r | r |
m | m | m |
n | n | n |
p | p | p |
t | t | t |
y | y | j |
Note that the grapeme <s> in the Allen-Mills system is pronounced /ʃ/ or /s̺/ when followed by [i] (e.g. sinkokah /ʃin'kokah/ "orca"), or in coda position (Nanhoska /nan'hoʃka/ "the True People"). A few decades after the Allen-Mills transcription system was developed, a sound shift appeared in the northwestern Hoyampe dialect, whereby /s/ shifted to the voiceless apico-alveolar fricative /s̺/ when followed by /i/ or in coda position. A similar sound shift occurred at around the same time in the northeastern Konishmak dialect (possibly the result of the Hoyampe sound shift), but it was the voiceless palato-alveolar fricative /ʃ/ that appeared. It was this sound shift that spread out through most of the country, although there are some remote regions of the country that have not been affected by either sound shift. As a result in foreign transcriptions <sh> is often used in words where the /s/ >> /ʃ/ has already occurred, e.g. akôsh vs. the original akôs transcription. The grapheme <ô> is used to indicate vowel length for /o:/, and <ā> for /ɑ:/.
Although the American Media orthography system is the most widely used system, the Allen-Mills has long been used in academic publications, and will be used throughout the rest of this article, unless otherwise noted.
Consonants
Nankôre has a small inventory of consonants, only thirteen in number. Noteworthy is the paucity of voiced consonants which contributes to the limited number of consonants in the Nankôre language. The following table contains the entire consonantal inventory:
Bilabial | Dental | Alveolar | Apical | Post-alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | n | ||||||
Stop | p | t | k | ʔ | ||||
Affricate | t͡ʃ | |||||||
Fricative | s | s̻ | ʃ | ɦ | ||||
Approximant | j | |||||||
Flap | ɾ |
Vowels
Front | Near- front | Central | Near- back | Back | ||
Close |
| |||||
Near-close | ||||||
Close-mid | ||||||
Mid | ||||||
Open-mid | ||||||
Near-open | ||||||
Open |
Prosody
Stress
Phonotactics
Morphophonology
Morphology
Nouns
Number
Nouns do not inflect for number, which is usually determined by context, but a numeral joined by the Connective si= to its head noun can be used to indicate plurality, eg:
- ôhi sikurasno.
/'o:ɦi ʃi ku'raʃno/
ôhi si=kurasno
two CONN girl
two girls
If the noun is a core argument, then the auxiliary obligatorily marks for number. Number is indicated on the auxiliary by the affix -n-. For plural Agents, it is infixed, and for plural Patients, it is suffixed. Additionally, if the auxiliary is marked with the Inverse prefix, the prefix redundantly encodes number by vowel length, eg ta- for the singular, and tā= for the plural. Some examples are given below:
Example of a HA singular Agent acting on a LA singular Patient:
- kurasno rompóy rayrokor nitá'.
/ku'raʃno rom'poɪ 'raɪrokor nɪ'taʔ/
kurasno rompóy Ø-rayro=kor Ø-ni-Ø-itá-ʔ
girl.HA dog.LA DIR=play=EVID.HEAR DIR-PST-HS-COP-LS
I heard that the girl played with the dog recently.
Example of a HA plural Agent acting on a LA singular Patient:
- kurasno rompóy rayrokor nintá'.
/ku'raʃno rom'poɪ 'raɪrokor nɪn'taʔ/
kurasno rompóy Ø-rayro-kor Ø-ni-n-itá-'
girl.HA dog.LA play-EVID.HEAR DIR-PST-HP-COP-LS
I heard that the girls played with the dog recently.
Example of a LA singular Agent acting on a HA plural Patient:
- rompóy kurasno tarayrokor tānintá'.
/romp'oɪ ku'raʃno ta'raɪrokor 'ta:nɪntáʔ/
rompóy kurasno ta=rayro=kor tā-ni-n-itá-ʔ
dog.LA girl.HA INV=play-HEAR INV.LS-PST-HP-COP-LS
I heard that the dog played with the girls recently.
Example of a LA plural Agent acting on a HA plural Patient:
- rompóy kurasno tarayrokor tānintan.
/romp'oɪ ku'raʃno ta'raɪrokor 'ta:nɪntan/
rompóy kurasno ta=rayro=kor tā-ni-n-itá-n
dog.LA girl.HA INV=play=EVID.HEAR INV.PL-PST-HP-COP-LP
I heard that the dogs played with the girls recently.
The Nominal Hierarchy
Nankôre nouns, at first glance, appears very simple. They are not inflected for case, number, or gender, nor do adpositions indicate their directional or positional relationships. Number is distinguished only in pronouns. Nevertheless, the nominal system has a complex hierarchy of animacy, which although unmarked, is a semantic feature of the noun and pronoun. This hierarchy of animacy is used to determine the syntactic roles of the core arguments of a clause, namely that of Agent and Patient. Arguments that are higher in the Animacy Hierarchy are by default considered Agents, whereas lower animacy arguments are considered Patients. If the syntactic roles of two core arguments are reversed, namely a lower animacy argument acts as an Agent on a higher animacy Patient argument, a special construction known as the Inverse Voice, involving the prefix tā-/ta-, is added to both the first verb in the verb phrase and the auxiliary verb itá'. Thus, the Inverse Voice is doubly-marked.
Where a given NP falls within the animacy hierarchy must be memorized in order to use the verbal inverse prefix tā-/ta- correctly (see section on Verbs for additional details regarding inverse marking).
The Nankôre nominal hierarchy has been traditionally classified along two axes, the first marking the noun class, and the second marking levels of hierarchy within a given class. Animacy along classes decrease as one traverses from Supernatural/Phenomonological onwards towards the Ephemeral. Animacy decreases as one goes down the Level axis. The following table illustrates the animacy relations between the noun hierarchies, although in reality, animacy is more complex than the table would suggest, as discourse and other contextual elements may influence a native speaker's expression of the hierarchy in a given utterance.
Noun Class | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Level | Supernatural & Phenomonological |
Human | Animals | Lower Animals | Riverine | Weather | Plants | Geophysical | Material | Ephemeral | |
Mammals | Birds | ||||||||||
1 | Gods, the Earth, the Sun, the Sky/Heavens | Adults >> Children | predator >> prey | Reptiles (excluding snakes) | Rushing rivers | Clouds | Forests | Mountains | Liquid, usually in a container | Magic | |
2 | Demons | Older >> Younger | wild >> domesticated | Slow-moving rivers | Rain | Snakes | Large Trees | Glaciers | Food | Actions | |
3 | Human & Animal Spirits | Male >> Female | Pet (usually carnivorous) >> Non-Pet (usually raised for food) | Amphibians | Streams Brooks Springs |
Snow | Small Trees | Cliffs Jagged outcroppings Tumuli Boulders |
Fabrics Fibers Skins Clothing |
Emotions | |
4 | Destructive Forces of Nature | Large >> Small | Fish | Lakes | Wind | Fruit/Nut Trees | Flat land Gently rolling landscape Plains |
Wood | Thoughts | ||
5 | Lightning | Strong >> Weak | Breeze | Crustaceans | Bushes Shrubs |
Buildings | Disease | ||||
6 | Ocean | Quick >> Slow | Insects | Moving Water | Prairie grass | Metals | States | ||||
7 | Thunderstorms | Intelligent >> Unintelligent | Carnivore >> Herbivore >> Carrion Eater | Worms | Air | Leafy plants | Jewels and gemstones | Abstractions | |||
8 | Fire | Fertile >> Infertile | Stud >> Gelded | Flight >> Flightless | Mollusks | Muggy weather | Mushrooms Fungi Mosses Gelatinous sea invertebrates |
Stones, rocks, pebbles | Death |
If two nouns with equal animacy but different number (obtained either through pronominal referents or context) appear as core arguments, the plural noun is assigned a higher animacy status than the singular noun. However, if animacy and number are equal, the most recently introduced noun, providing it was introduced as a core argument, is assigned the higher animacy status.
In situations were two nouns have equal animacy and equal number, the rules for assigning the position each core argument in the hierarchy is as follows:
- If one of the nouns is newly introduced information, it is considered less animate because the older noun has been presumably been the center of discourse and at least during part of the previous discourse it was agent. SOV order is usually used, particularly if pragmatics and other contextual cues cannot disambiguate the syntactic roles
- HOWEVER, if the new noun is topicalized with the clitic =si, it is considered the agent.
- Another pattern, where a new noun is introduced as a Patient argument, it is regarded as the less animate argument once the older noun is reintroduced back into the discourse in a transitive construction.
- If the animacy level of each argument cannot be resolved, then the unmarked SOV word order is used when context can't disambiguate syntactic roles.
Derivational
- -no: Diminutive suffix, e.g. kuras (woman), kurasno (girl)
- -CV(C) reduplication: Augmentive, e.g. kurasras (big woman); analogous to Minhast augmentation
- -rV-CV(C) infixation + reduplication: Augmentive-Deprecative: nahón -> nannarohono, from na~na~ro-hón-ho (big/fat ugly man); similar to Minhast -ra- infixation and reduplication of first syllable, e.g. Minhast kas~ka~ra-slub "large dog, hunting hound" < kaslub "dog"
Adjectival Suffixes
Nankôre lacks a separate word class for adjectives. They may be expressed as attributive verbs, e.g. Aryak neshkak itá, "Aryak is smart", Kanko shoykar sip'itá', "Kanko (an indigenous vegetable) makes good" (for your health), or a suffix may be attached to the noun it modifies. These suffixes are called adjectival suffixes. Some of these suffixes are etymologically derived from an attributive verb, e.g. karyak itá > -kerek >, as in Kurasnokerek "the girl is red" (i.e. the girl is blushing). Others appear to be derived from separate roots, c.f. "Aryak-arku", ("clever Aryak") vs "Aryak neshkak itá" ("Aryak is clever"). Theoretically an unlimited number of suffixes may be appended to the noun, but in practice the number of adjectival suffixes seldom exceeds three. The suffixes may appear in any order, so long as the meaning is comprehensible. Scope ordering determines the position of the suffixes relative to each other, with those of wider scope appearing towards the end, as in the following example:
- Kenenkorpitasnune iná'.
/kɛnɛnkorpɪtaʃ'nunɛ ɪ'naʔ/
kenenkor-pita-snu-ne iná
bed-plush-red-soft-very COP
It is a very soft, red and plush bed.
While the number of adjectival suffixes are considerable, they remain for the most part a closed class. Moreover, with a few exceptions, each adjectival suffix may be expressed by a corresponding stative verb.
- Hosiari sikenenkorpitasnune iná torocak ta'itāhi.
/ho'ʃari sɪkɛnɛnkorpɪtaʃ'nunɛ ɪ'naʔ torot͡ʃak taʔɪt'a:hi/
hosiari si-kenenkor-pita-snu-ne iná ta-horoci=ak ta-itá'-hi
PROX.DEM CONN-bed-plush-red-soft-very COP INV-sleep=1S+3S INV-AUX-CAUS
This very soft, red and plush bed makes me sleep (well).
There are seven observed categories of adjectival suffixes:
- Quality
- Quantity
- Strength
- Size
- Color
- Tactile
- Other Attributes
Demonstratives and Deictics
Spatial
Type | Independent | Clitic | Translation | Example | Nahenic Cognates |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Proximal | hosiairi /ho'ʃjaɪɾi/ |
=skoro |
|
|
|
Medio-Proximal | yaiyairi | =hori =ori |
|
|
|
Distal | paipairi | =nko =kekori |
|
|
|
Invisible | rosiairi /ɾoʃ'jaɪɾi/ |
=nanak |
|
|
|
Temporal
The Temporal Deitic particles usually occur at the head of a sentence, e.g. Antak Anut Amerika san-kamuk hitá' , "A year ago, Anut flew to America". In multiclausal sentences, the clause in which they appear have scope over the all other clauses following it. At least one, yorai, cannot appear after the initial clause. Some particles also have a clitic form which can attach to the main verb, as in Anut Amerika san-kamuk-entak hitá'.
type | Independent | Clitic | Meaning | Example | Nahenic Cognates |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Past | yoráy | =yoráy | Once upon a time; back then | Example | |
inkát | =(i)nkát | Several years ago | Example | ||
šeyhori | =šeyhor | A few years ago | Example | ||
antak | =(e)ntak | A year ago | Example | ||
kake | =(e)kak | Several days ago, last week | Example | ||
nateha | =nate | The day before yesterday | Example | ||
kirá | =kira | Yesterday | Example | ||
Diurnal | yohori | =ho | Earlier this morning | Example | |
tantori | =tora | Just awhile ago | Example | ||
yot | =(e)yót | Now | Example | ||
nas | =(e)nas | Soon | Example | ||
Future | kesór | =k(e)sor | Tomorrow | Example | |
nekós | =n(i)kos | In the next few days | Example | ||
nankóy | =n(a)koy | In the indeterminate future | Example |
Quantifiers
Quantifier | Substantive | Attributive |
---|---|---|
All | kamun | kamun si= |
Most | toman | toman si= |
Some | cene | cisi= cis= |
Many | eco | ecisi= eci= ec= |
Both | hani | hanisi= hansi= has= |
Each | nune | nisi= nis= |
Few | cato | caci= cac= |
Another/Other | hane | hanesi= hanse= |
Interrogatives
Header text | Header text | Notes |
---|---|---|
Who | ra', rā | Possibly cognate with Minhast redad |
What | pôh | c.f. Minhast bak |
When | tu'a | |
Where | nahí' | c.f. Minhast nakki. Also, note dialectal variant enket (Sapshira dialect) |
Why | penóh | |
Which | yôri- | C.f. yôhori, to choose, Minhast yāhuran (to make a turn at an intersection of a path, road) |
Polarity | aní | Used for yes-no questions, occurs in sentence-final position. Cognate with Minhast ni (Classical, Horse Speaker, and Salmonic dialects) |
=yo | Like ani, used for yes-no questions. However, it cliticizes to the first word of the clause. |
The Interrogatives manifest WH-movement, appearing immediately before the auxiliary itá' with rising intonation and a slight pause after the main VP. The Irrealis suffix -hi often accompanies WH-words but is often dropped, as in the second example, especially among younger speakers. However, it is required for polar questions, i.e. questions marked with aní, in which case its allmorph -ha is used.
- Okep nari ayrarke, penóh hô'itáhi?
'okɛp 'na:ɾi aɪ'ɾaɾke pe'noɦ ɦo:ʔɪ'taɦi
Okep nari ayrarke, penóh Ø-hô-Ø-'itá-ʔ-hi
PN child spank why DIR-HOD-HS-COP-LS-IRR
Why did Okep spank (her) child earlier this morning?
- Kā tahône, ra' tasip'itá'?
ka: ta'ɦo:nɛ ɾaʔ taʃɪpʔ'ɪta
kā ta=hone, ra' ta-sip-Ø-itá-ʔ
2S INV.SG=cry who INV-CAUS-HS-COP-LS
Who is making you cry?
The following two sentences are polarity questions, with no difference in meaning. The third sentence, containing both polarity markers =yo and sentence-final particle aní, implies incredulity:
- Koykâre cori yoskara sip'itáha' aní?
/koɪ'ka:ɾɛ 'tʃoɾi 'joʃkaɾa ʃɪpʔɪtaɦa a'ni/
koykâre cori yoskara sip-Ø-itá-ʔ-hi aní
boy house burn CAUS-DIR.PRS.HS-COP-LS-IRR Q
Did the boy burn the house (down)?
- Koykâryo cori yoskara sip'itáhi?
/koɪ'ka:ɾjo 'tʃoɾi 'joʃkaɾa ʃɪpʔɪ'taɦi/
koykâre=yo cori yoskara sip-Ø-itá-ʔ-hi
boy=Q house burn CAUS-DIR.PRS.HS-COP-LS-IRR
Did the boy burn the house (down)?
- Koykaryo cori yoskara sip'itáha aní?
/koɪ'kaɾjo 'tʃoɾi 'joʃkaɾa ʃɪpʔɪ'taɦa 'ani/
koykâre=yo cori yoskara sip-Ø-itá-ʔ-hi ani
boy=Q house burn CAUS-DIR.PRS.HS-COP-LS-IRR Q
Did the boy burn the house (down)?
With the exception of the polarity particle aní, interrogatives can also serve as conjunctions, provided that the interrogatives is joined to the dependent clause with the connective si=:
- Horyák kosno nitá' penóh si-Okep nari ayrarkekór ho'itá'.
hôri=ák kosno Ø-n-Ø-itá-ʔ penóh si=Okep nari ayrarke-kór Ø-ho-Ø-'itá-ʔ
NEG=1S hear DIR-PST-HS.COP-LS why CONN=PN nephew spank-HEAR DIR-HOD-HS-COP-LS
I did not hear/receive the news why Okep spanked (her) nephew early this morning.
Neither a pseudo-incorporated noun or adjunct may appear between the Interrogative and the auxiliary. The next sentence is well-formed, with the pseudo-incorporated noun appearing before the interrogative penóh (why), whereas the next sentence is unfelicitous, since PINs are barred from appearing between the WH-word and the auxiliary:
- Koykâre yoskara cori penóh itá'?
koykâre yoskara cori penóh Ø-itá-ʔ
boy burn house why DIR.PRS.HS-COP-LS
Why did the boy burn the house (down)?
- *Koykâre yoskara penóh cori sip'itá'?
koykâre yoskara penóh cori sip-Ø-itá-ʔ
boy house burn why CAUS-DIR.PRS.HS-COP-LS
Why did the boy burn the house (down)?
Interrogatives can also serves as Conditionals by a =si Topicalization structure:
- Ra'si karámpo taneknek ta'itá', siakos tamáko itá'
'raʔʃi ka'ɾampo ta'nɛknɛk 'taʔɪtaʔ 'ʃakoʃ ta'mako ʔɪ'taʔ
Ra'=si karampo ta=neknek ta-Ø-itá-Ø, si=akos tamakó Ø-Ø-itá-ʔ
Who=TOP bear INV=kill INV-HS-COP-LS CONN=1P danger.liability DIR-HS-COP-LS
Whoever slaughtered the bear (in this manner) is a danger to us all.
The Topic marker =si should not be confused with the Connective si= that is linking the embedded clause to the matrix clause. The former is an enclitic, whereas the latter is a proclitic.
Among the Interrogative pronouns, ra' ranks the highest in animacy; nevertheless, Interrogative pronouns are lower than non-Interrogative nouns in the animacy hierarchy.
Yôri- is always prefixed to the noun it modifies and can never appear as an independent word. It can be prefixed to pôh and ra' , i.e. yôripoh and yôra' where it takes the meaning "which one", yôripoh for Noun Classes II and III, the sentient members of Class I, and yôra' for the rest.
Pronouns
Nankôre pronouns distinguish animacy, number, and transitivity. The transitive forms are portmanteaus, which in combination with the presence or absence of the verb's inverse marker, encodes both the agent and patient.
Animacy in Nankôre is arranged in the following hierarchy:
Pronominal hierarchy |
---|
1st > 2nd > 3rd > 4th |
Plurality generally does not affect the animacy level across persons. However, if two 3rd person arguments have the same animacy and one of the arguments is plural, then the plural argument is assigned a higher animacy level.
The paradigm for the transitive pronouns are as follows:
Singular | Plural | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1S | 2S | 3S | 4S | 1P.INC | 1P.EXCL | 2P | 3P | 4P | ||
1S | -- | ekká' | ekenko | enkár | -- | -- | kamme | enka | nerá | |
2S | ekká' kā ka |
-- | kanko kā ka |
korí | kanná | kanné | -- | kanenko | kâre | |
3S | ekenko | kanko kā ka |
-- | enkará | enko | nenko | kanenko | -- | kankór | |
4S | enkár | korí | enkará | -- | ánkare | nénkare | kánnare | eranka | -- | |
Plural x Plural | ||||||||||
1P.INCL | -- | -- | ánkame | ananka | ánnahi | |||||
1P.EXCL | -- | -- | nékkame | nenka | énnahi | |||||
2P | ánkame | nékkame | -- | nekákkame | nákkame | |||||
3P | ananka | nenka | nekákkame | -- | nékkahi | |||||
4P | ánnahi | énnahi | nákkame | nékkahi | -- |
Transitive verbs take two NPs as core arguments. The case relations of the two arguments are determined by the position of the noun in the animacy hierarchy; the core argument that is higher in the animacy hierarchy is assigned the Agent role, and the other argument is assigned the Patient role. However, an inverse affix tā=/tāh=/ta=/t= is prefixed to the primary verb, as well as a redundant ta- affix that is added to the auxiliary to alter the argument structure and promote the lower-animacy argument to Agent role.
The intransitive forms consist of both independent and cliticized forms, as illustrated in the following table:
Person | Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Independent | Clitic | Long Form | Clitic | |
1 | eyak | =yak =ak |
aná | =na |
2 | eká | =ka | kamme | =kamme |
3 | enko | =ko =na |
enká | =enká =nka =ka |
4 | erá | =ra | nami | =nami |
If used as a core argument, the intransitive singular forms and the plural short forms may appear just before the clause-final auxiliary itá,e.g. Nitori kā 'itá! (You are a fool); or the clitic form of the pronoun attaches to the main verb, e.g. Nitoriká 'itá!. They may also be used to emphasize a noun, in which case the pronoun precedes the noun linked with the connective si=, as in tā si=naho (She/Her, the mother).
As earlier stated, nouns in Nankôre are not inflected, and the same is true for pronouns. Moreover, oblique pronominal arguments cannot be inserted into the verb phrase, but instead must appear before it. If oblique arguments appear outside their clause, particularly in topic-comment structures, they must be joined to it with the connective clitic si=. Context alone determines the semantic role of the oblique. To illustrate, the sentence Maska si=ohipna koykare ekán itá (anthill=CONN twig boy twist COP.PST), i.e. "The boy inserted the twig into the anthill", the oblique noun maska (anthill is marked with the clitic si= to join it to the rest of the sentence.
Verbs
The verb phrase in Nankôre requires at a minimum an initial verb, plus one of the clause-final auxiliaries, 'itá' for transitive clauses or intransitive clauses where the subject's theta-role is that of Agent, and 'iná ' for all other intransitive clauses. A sort of division of labor exists between these components; one set of clitics or affixes may attach to one of the components, and another set to the other component.
The following set of markers cliticize to the first verb of the VP, which may be either the main verb, or a coverb. All preverbal clitics attach to the the initial verb:
- Inverse
- Aspect
However, a set of bound morphemes, occurring as suffixes, attach exclusively to the main verb, regardless of whether the verb occurs initial position in the verb phrase or not:
- Evidentials
Evidentials | Meaning | Example |
---|---|---|
-kor | hearsay | Example |
Example | Example | Example |
Example | Example | Example |
Modal verbs, when they occur, follow the main verb, displaying leftward scope-ordering, e.g. Kôreak képorih iná'! "I am trying to speak!".
Finally, the auxiliary 'iná'/'itá' hosts the following set of affixes:
- Inverse
- Tense
- Number
- Voice
- Irrealis
The Verb Phrase Structure
The following example demonstrates a complex verb predicate, with the Inverse marker ta= cliticizing to the coverb yam (accompany) in the Imperfect aspect, followed by the main verb yayak (go up a mountain) with the Hearsay Evidential suffix -kor, and finally the auxiliary marked with the redundent Inverse clitic ta'=.
- Rompóy kurasno tayampo yayak hosmakór ta'nitá'.
/rom'poɪ ku'raʃno ta'yampo 'yayak hoʃma'kor taʔnɪt'aʔ/
Rompóy kurasno ta-yam-po yayak hosma-kor ta'-∅-nitá-ʔ.
dog.LA girl.HA INV-accompany-IMPF go.up.mountain-EVID.HEAR INV-HS-PST.COP-LS
The dog was going up the mountain with the girl, I heard.
The verbal elements follow a relatively strict order. The required elements for a VP to be well-formed are the Main Verb and the Auxiliary. Adjuncts are unbound morphemes, and exhibit rather free order; however, they are barred from appearing between the Inverse Marker and any following verb, be it the Coverb or the Main Verb. If a Coverb appears between the Inverse Marker and Main Verb, an adjunct may appear between the Coverb and Main Verb. However, if the Inverse Marker is not followed by a Coverb, then an adjunct may not appear between the Inverse Marker and the Main Verb. Moreover, if Pseudo-Noun Incorporation (PNI) takes place, an adjunct may not intervene between the Main Verb and the Pseudo-incorporated noun (PIN).
Although Nankôre is not a polysynthetic language, templatic representations like those of its polysynthetic cousins Minhast and Nahónda, provide a useful visual tool to demonstrate the Nankôre verb phrase structure:
Position | Type | Subtype | Realization |
---|---|---|---|
-3 | Inverse Marker 1 | ta= | |
-2 | Coverbs | ||
Directionals/Positionals | |||
Modals | |||
1 | Aspect | x | Examplexxx |
0 | Primary Verb | ||
+1 | Quasi-Incorporated Noun | Examples | |
+2 | Auxiliary | Inverse Marker 2 | ta- |
+3 | Inchoative | ||
+4 | Causative | ||
+5 | Irrealis |
Coverbs
Coverbs in Nankôre formal grammar are auxiliary verbs that serve to provide additional syntactic information to the main verb itself, or to the core arguments. Although several types of coverbs exist, the Directionals-Positionals coverbs are the most prominent. Directional and positional coverbs serve as a way of indicating case relations of the core arguments, somewhat like Applicatives in other languages, such as those of its distant cousin Minhast. In fact the older linguistic literature often refers to these coverbs as "Applicative Verbs". The Directionals-Positionals coverbs always precede all other modal verbs, which are scope-ordered.
Directional-Positional Coverbs
Directional and positional coverbs have both a long and short form. The long form, also called the Independent Form, may serve as a bona fide standalone verb, or it may serve as a coverb provided that no clitics attach to it. Thus the coverb sanha, in its long form, means "to go towards, to approach" as an independent verb, but its short form, san, always indicates motion towards an entity; this sort of syntactic relation is usually handled by the Allative case in languages which indicate case marking on the noun. Clitics that otherwise attach to the main verb, such as the Inverse marker and and aspect markers, move to and attach to the first occurring coverb of the VP. Clitics attach only to the short form. Additionally, morphophonemic alternations may take place when the Inverse marker ta= cliticizes to the coverb, such as in the Subessive cor-.
Long | Short | Coverb + Inverse | |
---|---|---|---|
Goal | sanha | san | tasan |
- Anut America sanha kamukkor itáʔ.
anut america sanha kamuk-kor itáʔ
PN.HA PN.LA going.towards fly-EVID.HEAR COP.DIR
Anut supposedly flew to America.
- Rompóy sikatti yacor pitasi san yapokor itáʔ.
rompóy si=katti yacor san yapo-kor itáʔ
dog CONN=PN.HA ball.LA going.towards throw-EVID.HEAR COP.DIR
Kathy tossed the ball towards the dog.
- Katti yacor san yapokor rompóy itáʔ.
Katti yacor san yapokor rompóy itáʔ
PN.HA ball.LA going.towards throw-EVID.HEAR dog COP.DIR
Kathy tossed the ball towards the dog.
- Kurasno siyacor rompóy tasan nahoyra ayorkor ta'itáʔ.
Kurasno siyacor rompóy ta-san nahoyra ayor-kor ta-ʔitáʔ
girl CONN=ball.LA dog.HA INV-going.towards do.repeatedly bring-EVID.HEAR dog INV-COP
The dog repeatedly brought back the ball to the girl.
- Benefactive
Long | Short | Coverb + Inverse | Sample Sentence | Translation | Comment | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Goal | sanha | san | tasan | Anut America sanha kamuk-kor itá. | Anut supposedly flew to America. | -kor = HEARSAY.EVID, is suffixed to the main verb. |
Dative | tohta | toht | tatóh | Anut nanna tatóh ittáh tanno ta'itá. | Anut gave his mother water. | c.f Minhast dative applicative -dut-, menā' "mother", hittu "give", dannua "water" |
Benefactive | nasko | nas | tanas | Nanhoska karen tā-nas eynakor itá. | It is said the (sacred) tree gave (life) for the people. | c.f. Minhast postposition =nī, =ni |
Comitative | yampe | yam | tam | Anut yam temenkor itá | Anut walked beside the river with him. | temen = to perform an activity by a river |
Instrumental | makôr | mak | tamak | Ehok mak-nahoyra yurasnanetkor itá. | The adolescent struck (it) repeatedly with a club. | |
Ablative | risa | ris | tars | Šôni Nan Kamun Koryas ris mankor itá | First Man emerged from (out of) the snow. | c.f. Minhast applicative -raħk- Šôni Nan = "the First Man" Kamun Koryas "All Snow" (the birthplace of First Man) |
Locative | neyhi | ne | tan | Yonka asrok ta-n akunkor hô'itá. | I heard that a fly buzzed inside Yonka('s mouth) this morning. | asrok = fly, insect |
Vialis | nahke | nak, nahk | tanak, tanahk | Ka pohak ta-nahke šokor-nui itá' | I saw the river take you through the cave. | c.f. Minhast applicative -naħk-, -ni- pohak = cave šokor = to flow -nui- = VIS.EVID |
Prolative | roskar | ros | taros | Ak piri roskar hô'itá'. | I crossed the street earlier this morning | piri = street, road, path |
Superessive | oros | or | tor | Ayôhe arupenrô or yaunkekor hô'itá. | The airplane flew over Ayôhe township earlier this morning. | arupenrô = airplane yaunke = to fly |
Subessive | yorha | yor | toyor, cor | Ekurki saska yor-ro kahorokor itá. | The turtle swam underneath the ice. | ekurki = turtle saska = ice kahoro = to swim |
Ablative-Superessive | isuk | suk, su | task, tasku | (Example) | (Example) | |
Ablative-Subessive | royna | roy | taroy | (Example) | (Example) | |
Riverine | temen | tem | tatem | No si-kurasno tem rohnaskor itá. | The girls supposedly were playing by the river. | |
Montaigne | yayak | yay | tay | Kahno côri yay cire/ciri itá' | The old man went up the mountain. |
Aspect
The verb, in contrast to the auxiliary, encodes aspect with clitics that attach to the end of the word. If a coverb appears, the aspect marker will cliticize to the coverb, otherwise it will cliticize to the main verb. Nankôre possesses several aspect markers, as illustrated in the following table:
Aspect Marker | Meaning | |
---|---|---|
Perfect | -Ø | |
Semelfactive | =no | completed in one single motion/act, e.g. hit |
Simple Imperfect | =ro | |
Durative/Repetitive | =nahoyra, =noyra | several times |
Habitative | =(h)osma, =sma | often |
Factive | =yosir | (general truth statement, e.g. "The sun rises in the east") |
Continuative | =namporo | to continue |
Cessative | =ciri | to stop |
Terminative | =ruykáno | to finish |
Incipient | =kara | about to |
Approximative | =tontoro | almost, nearly |
Frequentative | =nokori, -(o)nkori | often |
Main Verb
The main verb is believed to be descended from a verbal noun and carries the main semantic meaning of the verb phrase. The main verb hosts the Inverse Marker tā-/ta-, aspect, and evidential/modal markers. As mentioned earlier, the Inverse and aspect markers may detach from the main verb and attach to a converb, while the modal/evidential suffixes remain tightly bound to the main verb.
Moods and Evidentials
The Mood and Evidential markers occur as bound suffixes of the main verb. Unlike the Inverse and aspect markers, they do not detach from the main verb but remain bound to the main verb.
Evidentials | |
---|---|
Neutral | -∅ |
Emphatic-Factual | -mas -masne |
Hearsay | -kor |
Visual | -nui |
Inferential | -yay |
Intentive | -neat, -ne |
Dubitative | -anene |
Modals
Modal verbs follow the main verb. Modals include a wide range of expressions, such as ability, potentiality, similitude, desire, inclination, etc.
Modal | Meaning | Nahenic Cognates | |
---|---|---|---|
Potential | makán | be able to, can | |
Necessitive | nehái | need to | |
Desiderative | tasmi | want to | |
Conative | si s= |
to try to, attempt | Cognate with Minhast sunep- (to push) |
Inceptive | yári | begin to | |
Resumptive | kenóy | again |
Examples of usage of the modal verbs follow:
- Ekenko tuas sitá', yankór[2] seskoro sioykar ináka.
Ekenko tuaʃ 'ʃi'taʔ yan'koɾ 'ʃɛʃkoɾo 'ʃoɪkaɾ ɪ'naka
ekenko tuas s-itá' yankór se=skoro sioykar iná-ka.
1S.3S wash.out CON-AUX.TRN however reed=DEM.PROX good be-NEG.
I'm trying to wash (the stain) out, but this reed brush isn't good.
The Auxiliary
In terms of morphological complexity, the auxiliary hosts more affixes and clitics than the main verb; in addition to redundantly marking the Inverse voice, it also encodes tense, number, irrealis, inchoativity, and causation through a complex series of affixation.
The auxiliary serves two purposes:
- To links noun phrases to their predicates:
- Nan konkekma yoriká ináhi?
/nan kon'kekma 'yo:riká ɪn'ahi/
nan konkekma, yôri-ká ∅-iná-ʔ-hi
human snake which-2S DIR-PRS.COP.STAT-S-IRR
Are you man or snake?
- To serve as a host for tense, number, animacy, and voice markers to the verb phrase.
- Kanro kacekák hôsipnitá'.
/'kanro ka't͡ʃekák ho:sipnɪ'taʔ/
kanro kacek=ák ∅-hô-sip-nitá-ʔ
old.man hide=1S DIR-HOD-HS-PST.COP.TRN-LS
I hid the old man yesterday.
- Ea? Kacek ka, yôrikani hôsipnitáhi?
/ea 'kat͡ʃek ka, yo:ri'kani ho:ʃɪpni'tahi/
ea kacek ka yôri-kani ∅-hô-sip-nitá-ʔ-hi
MIR hide 2S which-place DIR-HOD-CAUS-HS-PST.COP.TR-LS-IRR
Really? Where did you hide him?
The Inverse marker ta'- indicates a lower animate NP is the Agent acting on a higher animate NP whose role is that of Patient. The marker occurs in two locations: as a clitic to the first verb of the VP, and as a bound prefix to the auxiliary itá':
- kattí tarayrokor ta'itá'.
/ka't:i ta'raɪrokor taʔɪ'taʔ/
kattí ta-rayro-kor ta-itá-ʔ
2S+3S INV-play-HEAR INV.LS-PST-COP-LS
I heard that he played with you recently.
Number is marked on both core arguments: for transitive clauses, singular HA arguments are null-marked, and LA arguments are marked with the suffix -ʔ. For plurality, plural HA arguments are marked with a prefixed or infixed -n-, while the LA argument is marked with the suffix -n for plurality. Additionally, the vowel of the Inverse marker lengthens when the LA argument is plural; for example, the singular LA argument of the present tense auxiliary is ta'ita', whereas the plural form of the verb is tā'inta'. The Hodiernal tense is an exception: the vowel of the Inverse marker neither undergoes vowel lengthening, nor does it receive compensatory stress; the form *tāhô'intá' is ungrammatical, the form tahô'intá' instead. This is presumably because the vowel of the tense marker, -ô-, suppresses lengthening of a preceding vowel according to Nankôre phonological rules, thus moving the stress rightward.
The Inchoative consists of a the prefix yis-, which frequently occurs as a circumfix, y- + -s-, for certain conjugations. The affix causes the Inverse affix ta(h)- to palatize; the -s- segment of the circumfixal form may occur before or after a pluralizing -n- affix, or the tense-bearing prefix of a given conjugation. Knowing which form of the Inchoative, and where the -s- segment occurs is unpredictable and requires memorization. When used in transitive sentences, it serves to mark the Inceptive aspect. The -s- component has been shown to be cognate with the Minhast inchoative affix -saxt-.
The Causative is marked with the affixes sip- or -sp-, which is cognate with the Causatives in Minhast -šp- and Nahónda -ps-. As Causatives typically increase the valency in a clause's argument structure, the Causee is typically the Patient argument, and the target of the Causee is a si- marked argument phrase that follows the matrix clause; a slight pause usually occurs before the si- connective. The construction suggest the Causee's target is an anti-topic, although it may be fronted at the beginning of its governing clause by the si- connective for topicalization.
The Irrealis -hi is suffixed to the auxiliary. It is obligatory for all Future tenses. It also surfaces in imperatives, yes-no questions which are marked with the =yo marker cliticizing to the first or second word of a sentence, as in Cire=yo tā'itá'-hi? "Did he die?", and in WH-questions when the event actually happening has not yet been established as having occurred; for example, Enket cire tā'itá'?, "Where did he die?" implies that the person's death is a fact, and it is only the location that is being inquired, versus Enket cire tā'itá'-hi? implies that not only is the location unknown, but the person's actual death happening still remains to be established. An interesting structure, called the "double interrogative", is a combination of a WH-word followed by a word bearing the =yo clitic, which also turns the question into yes-no question: Enket cire=yo tā'itá'-hi?, "Did he die, and if so, where?" The -hi suffix is believed to be cognate with the Minhast Irrealis clitic =š.
Transitive Paradigm
Present | Low Animate Patient | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Indicative | Inchoative | Causative | |||||||
SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | ||||
High Animate Agent | SG | itá' | itá'ita' | yistá' | yistá'ita | sip'itá' (pis'itá') | sip'itá'ita (pis'itá'ita') | ||
PL | nitá' | nitá'ita' | yisnitá' | yisnitá'ita' | sipnitá' (pisnitá') | sipnitá'ita' (pisnitá'ita') | |||
High Animate Patient | |||||||||
Indicative | Inchoative | Causative | |||||||
SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | ||||
Low Animate Agent | SG | ta’itá' | ta’itá'ita | castá' | castá'ita | taspitá' | taspitá'ita | ||
PL | tānitá' | tānitá'ita | casnitá' | casnitá'ita | tāsipnitá' | tāsipnitá'ita | |||
Hodiernal Past ‡ | |||||||||
Low Animate Patient | |||||||||
Indicative | Inchoative | Causative | |||||||
SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | ||||
High Animate Agent | SG | hô'itá' | hô'itá'ita | yôsitá' | yôsitá'ita | hôsipnitá' | hôsipnitá'ita | ||
PL | hô'intá' | hô'intá'ita | yôsintá' | yôsintá'ita | hôsipnintá' | hôsipnintá'ita | |||
High Animate Patient | |||||||||
Indicative | Inchoative | Causative | |||||||
SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | ||||
Low Animate Agent | SG | tahô'itá' | tahô'itá'ita | costá' | costá'ita | tāhópsintá' | tāhópsintá'ita | ||
PL | tahô'intá' | tahô'intá'ita | cosnitá' | cosnitá'ita | tāhópsintá' | tāhópsintá'ita | |||
Past | |||||||||
Low Animate Patient | |||||||||
Indicative | Inchoative | Causative | |||||||
SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | ||||
High Animate Agent | SG | nitá' | nitá'ita | yisnitá' | yisnitá'ita | sipnitá' | sipnitá'ita | ||
PL | nintá' | nintá'ita | yisnitá' | yisnitá'ita | sipnintá' | sipnintá'ita | |||
High Animate Patient | |||||||||
Indicative | Inchoative | Causative | |||||||
SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | ||||
Low Animate Agent | SG | ta’nitá' | ta’nitá'ita | casnitá' | casnitá'ita | tasipnitá' | tasipnitá'ita | ||
PL | tānintá' | tānintá'ita | casnintá' | casnintá'ita | tāsipnintá' | tāsipnintá'ita | |||
Medio-Distal Past | |||||||||
Low Animate Patient | |||||||||
Indicative | Inchoative | Causative | |||||||
SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | ||||
High Animate Agent | SG | hitá' | hitá'ita | yistá' | yistá'ita | hispitá' | hisiptá'ita | ||
PL | hintá' | hintá'ita | yisintá' | yisintá'ita | hisipnitá' | hisipnitá'ita | |||
High Animate Patient | |||||||||
Indicative | Inchoative | Causative | |||||||
SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | ||||
Low Animate Agent | SG | tahitá' | tahitá'ita | castá' | castá'ita | tasiphitá' | tasiphitá'ita | ||
PL | tāhintá' | tāhintá'ita | casintá' | casinta'ita | tāsiphintá' | tāsiphintá'ita | |||
Distal Past | |||||||||
Low Animate Patient | |||||||||
Indicative | Inchoative | Causative | |||||||
SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | ||||
High Animate Agent | SG | pitá' | pitá'ita | yipsitá' | yipsitá'ita | pisiptá' | pisipta'ita | ||
PL | pintá' | pintá'ita | yipsintá' | yipsintá'ita | pisipnitá | pisipnitá'ita | |||
High Animate Patient | |||||||||
Indicative | Inchoative | Causative | |||||||
SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | ||||
Low Animate Agent | SG | ta’pitá' | ta’pitá'ita | caspitá | casipnitá'ita | tápsipnitá' | tápsipnitá'ita | ||
PL | tápsintá' | tápsintá'ita | casipnitá | casipnitá'ita | tápsipnitá' | tápsipnitá'ita | |||
Medio-Proximal Future | |||||||||
Low Animate Patient | |||||||||
Indicative | Inchoative | Causative | |||||||
SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | ||||
High Animate Agent | SG | nitáh | nitahá'ita | yisnitáh | yisnitahá'ita | nisiptáh | nisiptahá'ita | ||
PL | nintáh | nintahá'ita | yisnitahá | yisnitahá'ita | nisipnitáh | nisipnitahá'ita | |||
High Animate Patient | |||||||||
Indicative | Inchoative | Causative | |||||||
SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | ||||
Low Animate Agent | SG | ta’nitáh | tantahá'ita | casnitáh | casnitahá'ita | tasipnitáh | tasipnitahá'ita | ||
PL | tānintáh | tānintahá'ita | casnintáh | casnintáha'ita | tāsipnitáh | tāsipnintahá'ita | |||
Immediate Future | |||||||||
Low Animate Patient | |||||||||
Indicative | Inchoative | Causative | |||||||
SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | ||||
High Animate Agent | SG | hitáh | hitahá'ita | yistáh | yistahá'ita | hisipitáh | hisiptahá'ita | ||
PL | hintáh | hintahá'ita | yisnitáh | yisnitahá'ita | hispintáh | hisipnitahá'ita | |||
High Animate Patient | |||||||||
Indicative | Inchoative | Causative | |||||||
SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | ||||
Low Animate Agent | SG | tahitáh | tahitahá'ita | castáh | castáh | tahisipitáh | tahisiptahá'ita | ||
PL | tāhintáh | tāhintahá'ita | cahsintáh | cahsintahá'ita | tāhispintáh | tāhisipnitahá'ita | |||
Distal Future | |||||||||
Low Animate Patient | |||||||||
Indicative | Inchoative | Causative | |||||||
SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | ||||
High Animate Agent | SG | pitáh | pitahá'ita | yipsitáh | yipsitahá'ita | pisiptáh | pisiptahá'ita | ||
PL | pintáh | pintahá'ita | yipsiptáh | yipsiptahá'ita | pisipnitáh | pisipnitahá'ita | |||
High Animate Patient | |||||||||
Indicative | Inchoative | Causative | |||||||
SG | PL | SG | PL | SG | PL | ||||
High Animate Agent | SG | ta’pitáh | taptahá'ita | capsitáh | capsitaháh | tapsiptáh | tapsiptahá'ita | ||
PL | tāpintáh | tāpintahá'ita | capsintáh | capsintahá'ita | tápsipnitáh | tápsipnitahá'ita |
‡ Note the irregular Indicative Hodiernal tense form; the Inverse marker does not lengthen as it does for the rest of the paradigm.
Intransitive-Active Paradigm
The paradigm for the itá auxiliary with intransitive verbs is not as elaborate as its transitive counterpart, nevertheless it still displays a great deal of complexity. As in the transitive paradigm, an Agent is required as a core argument, but unlike the transitive paradigm, the ta- inverse marker never appears in the Intransitive-Active paradigm. This use of the itá auxiliary demonstrates an underlying split intransitive morphosyntactic alignment, specifically of the Split-S subtype: only verbs that indicate agency can license the itá auxiliary, whilst non-volitional verbs are restricted to the iná auxiliary.
Tense | Number | Indicative | Inchoative | Causative |
---|---|---|---|---|
Present | SG | itá' | yistá' | sip'itá' (pis'itá') |
PL | itán | yisnitán | sipnitán (pisnitán) | |
Hodiernal Past | SG | hô'itá' | yôsitá' | hôsipnitá' |
PL | hônitán | yôsintán | hôsipnintán | |
Past | SG | nitá' | yisnitá' | sipnitá' |
PL | nintán | yisnitán | sipnintán | |
Medio-Distal Past | SG | hitá' | yistá' | hispitá' |
PL | hintán | yisintán | hisipnitán | |
Distal Past | SG | pitá' | yipsitá' | pisipta |
PL | pintán | yipsintán | pisipnitán | |
Medio-Proximal Future | SG | nitáh | yisnitáh | nisiptáh |
PL | nintahán | yisnitahán | nisipnitahán | |
Immediate Future | SG | hitáh | yistáh | hisiptahán |
PL | hintáhan | yisnitahán | hisipnitahán | |
Distal Future | SG | pitáh | yipsitáh | pisiptáh |
PL | pintáhan | yipsiptahán | pisipnitahán |
Intransitive-Stative Paradigm
Intransitive verb structures involve pairing a semantically stative or non-agentive verb with the auiliary iná', a root cognate with the Minhast intransitive verbal ending -an. The intransitive paradigm of the auxiliary is listed in the table below:
Tense | Number | Indicative | Inchoative | Causative |
---|---|---|---|---|
Present | SG | iná' | inán | sip'iná' (pis'iná') |
PL | niná' | yisniná' | sipniná' (pisniná') | |
Hodiernal Past | SG | hô'iná' | yôsiná' | hôsipniná' |
PL | hônniná' | yôsinniná' | hôsipnininá' | |
Past | SG | niná' | yisniná' | sipniná' |
PL | ninnininá' | yisninniná' | sipninniná' | |
Medio-Distal Past | SG | hiná' | yisná' | hispiná' |
PL | hinniná' | yisninniná' | hisipninniná' | |
Distal Past | SG | piná' | yipsiná' | pisipná' |
PL | pinniná' | yipsininniná' | pisipninniná' | |
Medio-Proximal Future | SG | nináh | yisnináh | nisipnáh |
PL | nininnináh | yisninnninahá | nisipninnináh | |
Immediate Future | SG | hináh | yisnáh | hisipináh |
PL | hinnináh | yisninnináh | hispinnináh | |
Distal Future | SG | pináh | yipsináh | pisipnáh |
PL | pinninnináh | yipsipninnináh | pisipninnináh |
Nominalization
Nankôre has a rich set of clitics and suffixes that serve as nominalizers. They are, in order of frequency:
- -pe: Clausal relativizer, cognate with Minhast =naft
- Nan issiah pinninnináhpe pirút taporé ta'itá'.
nan issiah pinninnináh-pe pirút ta-poré ta-'itá'
man come COP.FUT-NMLZ sasquatch INV-vanquish INV-COP
The (next) man who comes here shall defeat the Sasquatch.
- -hi[3][4]: attaches directly to a verb root to derive participles
- -hici: Derives instruments from verb roots, a compound of -hi- and a submorpheme -ci, possibly derived from kaci "path"
- -rē[5] : Derives occupation
- -ssiak [6] Derives temporal adverbs from verbs, e.g. petissiak "time of/for standing", as well as creating adverbial clauses when attached to itá or iná , e.g.
- Ak saraka nitássiak, sissioyenki kai pohráp niná'
ak saraka n-itá-ssiak, si=sioyenki kai pohráp n-iná'
1S see PST-AUX.TRN CONN=heart down fall PST-INTR
When I saw him, I became crestfallen.
The adverbial clause and its matrix may be inverted, e.g.:
- Sioyenki kai pohráp ninássiak', siak saraka nitá.
sioyenki kai pohráp n-iná'-ssiak' si=ak saraka n-itá.
heart down fall PST-INTR CONN=1S see PST-AUX.TRN CONN=
I became crestfallen, having seen him.
The Connective si= obligatorily surfaces to link the adverbial clause with its matrix, regardless of the position of the two clauses.
Derivation
Nankôre has a set of verbalizing prefixes that when attached to nominal roots, often body parts, create verbs. These prefixes are most likely the remnants of Proto-Nahenic noun incorporation, based on comparisons with Nankôre's distant relatives, Minhast and Nahónda; similar or even identical fossilized affixes have been found in these languages that likewise attach to nominal roots for body parts to derive verbs.[7]
Prefix | Sample Noun | Example | Meaning | Nahenic Cognates | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sound | k- | ore "mouth" | k-ore | to speak | Common Minhast k-irim "to speak" (NB: Nankôre ôre = "mouth" is cognate with Minhast erum = "mouth") |
Striking | ya- | sipa "hand" | ya-spa | to punch | Minhast, Horse Speaker dialect: wi-šnu "to strike, hit" (Minhast išna "fist", "knuckles") |
Movement | ho- ha- |
nake "foot" | ha-nake | to scoot along the floor with one's foot; to kick around | Nahónda: ho-shishpa "to give" shishp = hand; c.f. Minhast sespir = hand, Nankôre sipa = hand |
Stability | pa- | are "eye" | p-are | to stare | Common Minhast p-uħta "to stand up" (from yuħta = "sole of the foot", cognate with Nankôre yohíhita = "flat surface") |
Removal | ro- | ampe "body" | ro-yampe | to remove one's clothes | Common Minhast ruyyamb "to take off clothing" (but note that Minhast lost the original *yambet (body), replacing it with tarti (body) |
Numbers
The Nankôre number system is dozenal, i.e. base-12. The numbers thirteen through twenty-three are modified compounds consisting of the unit numbers siori (1) through siktas (11) compounded to sin (12). The number twenty-four hanosin can be analyzed as han-o-sin, where the affix -o- signifies "multiplied by", so hanosin literally means "two times twelve". The multiplicative pattern continues until the number 144, which is called nakpa. The number 100 (nenanosin >> nena ān-o-sin) is literally "four (and) eight times twelve". The ordinals for the numbers 1-7 are the cardinal numbers suffixed by -ak or -ok. Numbers 8-11 are the cardinal numbers suffixed with the ending -u. The ordinal for the number 12 is again suffixed with -ok, and the higher numbers with -nok. If the -nok affix is preceded by a consonant followed by -i-, the -i- may be dropped, provided that this does not form the impermissible consonant cluster -CCC- sequence.
Number | Cardinal | Ordinal |
---|---|---|
one | siôri | sioriak |
two | hani, ôhi | hanyak |
three | tusta, tak | tustak |
four | nena, kayoka | nenak |
five | sisiak | catak |
six | sirisio | siirsiok |
seven | kerisio | kirsiok |
eight | ān | anku |
nine | karu | karku |
ten | kase /'kaʃɛ/ | kasku |
eleven | siktas | sistu |
twelve | sin | sinok |
thirteen | siorsin | siorsinok |
fourteen | hansin | hanisnok, hanisnok |
fifteen | tusin | tusnok |
sixteen | ninsin | ninsinok, nisnok |
seventeen | casin | casinok,casnok |
eighteen | sirsin | sirsinok, sirisnok |
nineteen | kirsin | kirisnok |
twenty | ansin | asnok |
twenty-one | karusin | karushnok |
twenty-two | kasmin | kasminok |
twenty-three | siksin | siksinok |
twenty-four | hanosin | hanosnok |
thirty-six | tustosin | tustosnok |
one hundred | nenanosin | nenanosnok |
one hundred forty-four | nakpa | nakpanok |
Clitics and Particles
Connective si=
Throughout all the Nahenic languages, connectives are used to bind dependents to their heads. Minhast has min, Neina the cognate mɯn, and Nahónda na, to join two or more noun phrases into one cohesive unit. Minhast has one additional connective, wa=, which joins non-verbal adjuncts, which may be a single word or an entire NP and/or adverbial phrase.
Nankóre's connective si= has no known cognates, and unlike its sister languages, si= is not restricted to joining NPs or complex, non-verbal phrases. While the dependency relation in a si= construction may be discernible, often the directionality is ambiguous and thus context must be used to disambiguate, or other morphosyntactic devices, such as the co-occurrence of the inverse marker ta' in possessive phrases.
Other Particles
Particle | Meaning | Cognates |
---|---|---|
ea ira |
yes | Upper Minhast ēlā |
ecá' icá' |
no | Common Minhast hatā' |
na | and so, therefore |
Nahónda máma "also", Common Minhast =mā "and then" |
piya | but | Neina (hi)yo |
kusur | then | Neina kisero "afterwards" |
ritá'a | however | Neina riha "to turn", Nahónda letsaya "to twist", Upper Minhast ruttakšuran "to seduce" (from Classical Minhast ruttay-gurra-ša'ra-ana "to swing one's hips") |
Syntax
Word Order
Nankôre's canonical word order SOV, more specifically, SOV1V2, where V2 represents the auxiliary itá. Although the core argument NPs do not take any overt case marking, the animacy hierarchy and direct-inverse system of marking usually provide enough information to identify the Agent from the Patient. Thus, OSV1V2, SVO1 V2, and other orders are found, both in speech and text. When pronouns appear as core arguments, they usually appear before the main verb, but they may cliticize to the end of the main verb:
- Minhaste kôryak itá'
/'minɦaʃte 'ko:rjak ɪt'aʔ/
minhast kôre=ak ∅-∅-itá-ʔ
Minhast.language speak=1S DIR-HS-COP-LS
I speak the Minhast language.
Nevertheless, for all word order variants, the only restriction is the auxiliary is restricted to clause-final position.
Fronting a constituent is used for emphasis, as in the following sample, where the O argument has been fronted before the S argument. Fronted constituents are typically followed by an audible pause, as in the following example:
- Makse, rihat kakno itá
/'makʃɛ̯ ɾi'hat 'kakno ɪt'aʔ/
makse rihat kak=no ∅-∅-itá-ʔ
mouse.LA falcon.HA seize=SEM DIR-HS-COP-LS
It was the mouse the falcon seized in one fell swoop.
As in many SOV languages, modifiers precede their heads:
- Sirkos sirohpa
/'ʃirkos ʃiroɦpa/
sirkos si=rohpa
foreigner fine.cloth
This fine foreign cloth
The Noun Phrase
Possession
Possession is indicated by joining the possessor to the possessum with the connective si=, followed either by the verb ras to indicate inalienable possession e.g. Koykare si=naho ras, "The boy's mother", or ocité for alienable possession, e.g. Koykare si=maska ocité. If the possessor is lower in the animacy heirarcy, the inverse marker ta'/tah is prefixed to the verb, as in the improbable Maska si=koykare tah-ocité, "The anthill's boy".
The Verb Phrase
The verb phrase is made up of the verb complex, and its predicate. The verb complex must end with the appropriate form of the auxiliary itá. Itá was originally a auxiliary but later on accreted voice, tense, and the pleonastic ta- Inverse marker. The main verb precedes the auxiliary and may be separated from it by a de-focused noun or by one or more adjuncts. De-focused nouns appear immediately after the main verb, and adjuncts cannot be inserted between the two (see "Quasi-Incorporation" below). Coverbs appear before the main verb. The primary ta- Inverse marker cliticizes to the first verb of the verb complex, which may be either a coverb, or the main verb.
Quasi-Noun Incorporation
Nankôre canonical word order is SOV1V2, but under certain circumstances, the O-argument may occur between V1 and V2, i.e. SV1OV2. The O-argument becomes backgrounded, thereby assuming a peripheral role; as a result, the clause is effectively detransitivized. As a result, the Inverse marker ta- cannot occur in these derived intransitive clauses; it must be omitted for the clause to remain grammatical. This operation is called quasi-noun incorporation, and occurs cross-linguistically in unrelated languages, e.g. Dutch and Hungarian. A feature of Nankôre psuedo-incorporation is that adjuncts, which typically can occur in most positions of a clause, including clause-finally, cannot occur between V1 and the relocated O-argument.
Quasi-incorporation may eventually evolve into full noun incorporation, as in the case of Nankôre's distant relatives, Minhast and Nahónda. Both exhibit full noun incorporation. Like Minhast and Nahónda, Nankôre adds the incorporated noun after the verb root, e.g. Minhast Ušnirumpakekaru << ušn-ruppumak-ek-ar-u (hit-face-3S.ABS+1S.ERG-PST.PFCT-TRANS) "I hit him in the face, I face-hit him", Nahónda klomenatsoyetolayo<< kloma-natsoye-Ø-t-ola-yo (speak-wisdom-3S.PT-1S.AGT-PST-AGT) "I gave him counsel, I wisdom-speak to him. Most languages that exhibit noun incorporation attach the incorporated noun before the verb root; placement of the incorporated noun after the root is rare among incorporating languages. The process by which Nankôre performs pseudo-incorporation, namely by placing the O-argument between the primary verb and auxiliary verbs, may explain why Minhast and Nahónda place their incorporated nouns after the verb. Proto-Nahenic may have also placed a quasi-incorporated noun after the primary verb but before the auxiliary verb, an order which the descendant languages preserved.
Quasi-Noun Incorporation serves discourse functions similar to full noun incorporation found in its Minhast and Nahónda relatives, backgrounding the incorporated NP, decreasing valency, and providing additional specificity to the semantics of the main verb. The following example of compares and contrasts the default SOV1V2 word order, with that of a SV1OV2:
- Default SOV1V2 Order
- Makse rihat tayôreno ta'itá
/'makʃɛ̯ ɾi'hat ta'yo:reno taʔɪt'aʔ/
makse rihat ta=yôre=no ta-itá-ʔ
mouse.LA falcon.HA INV=bite=SEM INV-HS.COP-LS
The mouse bit the falcon.
- Quasi-Noun Incorporation, SV1OV2 Order
- Makse yôreno rihat 'itá'
/'makʃɛ̯ 'yo:reno ɾi'hat taʔɪt'aʔ/
makse yôre=no rihat ∅-itá-ʔ
mouse.LA bite=SEM falcon DIR-COP-LS
The mouse falcon-bit.
Quasi-noun incorporation, like the full noun incorporation found in Nankôre's relatives, Minhast and Nahónda, lowers valency, transforming transitive clauses to intransitive clauses. The use of the Inverse marker is no longer needed, as the incorporated noun has been reduced to an adjunct. As such, the incorporated noun no longer occupies a core position. Decreasing the clause's valency reduces the saliency of the incorporated noun.
Comparatives and Superlatives
Degrees of comparison are formed by placing the coverb soyka (to be big, i.e. to be more) or hatka (to be small, i.e. to be less) before a stative verb. Since two arguments are involved, namely the comparer NP and the compared NP, the phrase is structurally equivalent to a transitive clause, requiring an Agent and a Patient, and follows the rules governing the nominal animacy hierarchy. In the sentence Joe Sara soyka inupe itá (Joe is stronger than Sarah; lit. "Joe bigs strongs Sara"), soyka precedes the stative verb inupe (to be strong). Joe, being male, is higher in the animacy scale and so is assigned Agent status. If Sara were stronger, the Inverse affix ta-/tā-/tāh- surfaces, as in Joe Sara ta-soyka inupe ta'itá (Sara is stronger than Joe). Other examples:
1) Joe Sara soyka soyka ta'itá (Joe is taller than Sara; lit. "Joe big bigs Sara").
2) Joe Sara tā-hatka nahamos ta'itá (Sara is less tan than Joe).
3) Joe Sara hatka hatka ta'itá (Joe is smaller than Sara; lit. "Joe small smalls Sara").
4) Natos Suhe soyka makit itá (Natosh [masc.] runs faster than Suhe [fem.]; lit. "Natosh big runs Suhe").
5) Orôyo Paul ta-soyka soyka itá (The volcano is bigger than Paul; note that orôyo is less animate because it is a sessile object, hence the use of the inverse marker ta-).
To express the superlative, the auxiliary verb norhe/norhâ appears before soyka and hatka, e.g. Orôyo norhe soyka soyka itá (This is the largest mountain), or Sikôya orôyo norhe soyka soyka itá (This is the largest mountain in Kôya Island).
Example texts
The Tower of Babel
- Now the whole earth had one language and the same words.
- And as people migrated from the east, they found a plain in the land of Shinar and settled there.
- And they said to one another, "Come, let us make bricks, and burn them thoroughly." And they had brick for stone, and bitumen for mortar.
- Then they said, "Come, let us build ourselves a city and a tower with its top in the heavens, and let us make a name for ourselves, lest we be dispersed over the face of the whole earth."
- And the Lord came down to see the city and the tower, which the children of man had built.
- And the Lord said, "Behold, they are one people, and they have all one language, and this is only the beginning of what they will do. And nothing that they propose to do will now be impossible for them.
- Come, let us go down and there confuse their language, so that they may not understand one another's speech."
- So the Lord dispersed them from there over the face of all the earth, and they left off building the city.
- Therefore its name was called Babel, because there the Lord confused the language of all the earth. And from there the Lord dispersed them over the face of all the earth.
- Saska nammanuyyi nan siôri si-kôre maskoy pintá', kor-kôre nihe pinninnináh.
Now in.those.days mankind one CONN-speech have AUX.TRN+DIST.PST+HP.LS, word-word resemble AUX.INTR+DIST.PST.PL - Iape nanni hóttari pinninnináh, coy siori pintá', Sinar rima pintá', itáp pinninnináh.
So horde approach.setting.sun AUX.INTR+DIST.PST.PL, forest.clearing see AUX.TRN+DIST.PST+HP.LS, Sinar call AUX.TRN+DIST.PST+HP.LS, sit.down AUX.INTR+DIST.PST.PL
Table of Abbreviations
Abbreviation | Meaning |
---|---|
C | Single Consonant |
V | Single Vowel |
VV | Long/Geminate Vowel |
PN | Proper Noun |
NP | Noun Phrase |
VP | Verb Phrase |
OBL | Oblique argument |
DEM | Demonym |
AGT | Agent |
PT | Patient |
DIR | Direct Voice |
INV | Inverse Voice |
CONN | Connective |
HA | High Animate |
HS | High Animate Singular |
HP | High Animate Plural |
LA | Low Animate |
LS | Low Animate Singular |
LP | Low Animate Plural |
NEG | Negator |
CAUS | Causative |
INCH | Inchoative |
SEM | Semelfective |
PNI | Pseudo-Noun Incorporation |
PIN | Pseudo-Incorporated Noun |
SG | Singular |
PL | Plural |
REM.PST | Remote Past Tense |
HOD | Hodiurnal Past Tense |
PST | Past Tense |
PRS | Present Tense |
IMM.FUT | Immediate Future Tense |
FUT | Future Tense |
IMPF | Imperfect Aspect |
PRF | Perfect Aspect |
IRR | Irrealis |
Other resources
- ^ Found mostly in older linguistic texts before 1965. The character has largely fell into disuse afterwards.
- ^ From reconstructed P-Nahenic *wa=man=kor (CONN=SEQ=and.yet).
- ^ Not to be confused for Irrealis -hi, which suffixes to the itá'/iná' auxiliaries.
- ^ Cognate with Minhast gerundial -x-
- ^ Cognate with Minhast redad "man/male/person
- ^ Derived from siriak, "appointed time". Cognate with Minhast saħrap "today"
- ^ C.f. Minhast kirim (from k-erum, literally "make sound with the mouth) and Nahónda teloma (from t-loma). Both are cognates of Nankôre's kôre "speech".