Ruthenian: Difference between revisions

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===Alterations===

Ruthenian has non-syllabic [ɪ̯] and [ʊ̯], as an allophone of /j/ and /w/ respectively. These semivowels are used in syllable codas: after a vowel and before a consonant, either within a word or between words:

:win ide /ˈwin iˈdɛ/ ("he is going")

:win ide / він іде /ˈwin iˈdɛ/ ("he is going")

:wona jde /wɔˈnɑ ɪ̯ˈdɛ/ ("she is going")

:wona jde / вона йде /wɔˈnɑ ɪ̯ˈdɛ/ ("she is going")

:piduczyty /piduˈt͡ʂɪtɪ/ ("to learn more")

:piduczyty / підучити /piduˈt͡ʂɪtɪ/ ("to learn more")

:wywczyty /wɪʊ̯ˈt͡ʂɪtɪ/ ("to have learnt")

:wywczyty / вивчити /wɪʊ̯ˈt͡ʂɪtɪ/ ("to have learnt")

That feature is shared with Belarusian and Ukrainian, two closely related languages with many cognates.

Unlike Ukrainian, in Ruthenian final devoicing can occure for stops, for example, in ''ďid'' "grandfather", which can be pronounced either [ˈɟiːd] or [ˈɟiːt]. Word-medially this fenomenon occures very often: ''bereza'' "birch" [bɛ.ˈrɛ.z̪ɑ] - ''berezka'' "small birch" [bɛ̝.ˈrɛ̝ːs̪.kɑ]. Voiceless obstruents are voiced when preceding voiced ones:

Unlike Ukrainian, in Ruthenian final devoicing can occure for stops, for example, in ''ďid/дїд'' "grandfather", which can be pronounced either [ˈɟiːd] or [ˈɟiːt]. Word-medially this fenomenon occures very often: ''bereza/береза'' "birch" [bɛ.ˈrɛ.z̪ɑ] - ''berezka/берêзка'' "small birch" [bɛ̝.ˈrɛ̝ːs̪.kɑ]. Voiceless obstruents are voiced when preceding voiced ones:

choc [xɔt͡s] ("though")

choc by [ˈxɔd͡z bɪ] ("at least")

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*If C2 is /l/, /m/, /r/, or /ts/, then the vowel is /ɛ/.

*The combination /-stw/ is not broken up. Instead the final /w/ is devoiced to /ʍ/ or a schwa is inserted between /t/ and /w/ - [stəʊ̯].

==Morphology==

===Nouns===

The nominal declension has seven cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative, and vocative), in two numbers (singular and plural), and a grammatical gender (masculine, feminine and neuter). The dual number markes paired objects or just two objects and is not widely used. Some nouns do not have singular forms but dual are used instead (sometimes only the dual number is possible).

There are four declension types. The first type contains most feminine nouns. The second declension is used for most masculine and neuter nouns. The third declension is used for feminine nouns ending in a consonant. The fourth declension is used for neuter nouns ending in ьи/iy (Common Slavic *ę).

Three of the types consist of two different subgroups: hard and soft. The soft subgroup consists of nouns whose roots end in a soft letter (followed by iotified vowel or soft vowel). The hard group consists of all other nouns. The fourth type contains two subgroups: those with an "n" insert, and those with a "t" insert. In Medieval times the "s" subgroup existed, but these nouns have typically become the second type.

====First declension====

This declension consists of nouns that end in "a" or "ia". It consists primarily of '''feminine''' nouns, but a few nouns with these ending referring to professions can be either '''masculine''' or '''feminine'''. In these cases, the genitive plural is often formed by adding "-iw", such as ''teslia'' - ''tesliw'' Nouns referring to people can also take this ending.

{| class="wikitable" align=center

|+ '''First declension'''

! rowspan="2" |

! colspan="2" |'''Singular'''

! colspan="2" |'''Dual'''

! colspan="2" |'''Plural'''

|-

! Hard

! Soft

! Hard

! Soft

! Hard

! Soft

|-

| '''Nominative''' || berez'''a''' || kyrnyc'''ia''' || bereź'''i''' || kyrnyć'''i''' || berez'''y''' || kyrnyc'''iy'''

|-

| '''Genitive'''2 || berez'''y''' || kyrnyc'''iy''' || ber'''i'''z || kyrnyc || ber'''i'''z || kyrnyc

|-

| '''Dative'''1 || bereź'''i''' || kyrnyć'''i''' || berez'''ama''' || kyrnyc'''iema''' || berez'''am''' || kyrnyc'''iam'''

|-

| '''Accusative'''3 || berez'''u''' || kyrnyc'''iu''' || bereź'''i''' || kyrnyć'''i''' || berez'''y''' || kyrnyc'''iy'''

|-

| '''Instrumental''' || berez'''ow''' || kyrnyc'''ew''' || berez'''ama''' || kyrnyc'''iema''' || berez'''amy''' || kyrnyc'''iemy'''

|-

| '''Locative'''1 || bereź'''i''' || kyrnyć'''i''' || berez'''ach''' || kyrnyc'''ach''' || berez'''ach''' || kyrnyc'''iach'''

|-

| '''Vocative''' || berez'''o''' || kyrnyc'''e''' || bereź'''i''' || kyrnyć'''i''' || berez'''y''' || kyrnyc'''iy'''

|-

|}

# A velar consonant undergoes the appropriate second palatalisation changes

# If two or more consonants are left at the end of the word, then a fill vowel may be inserted.

# The genitive form is used for all animate nouns, while inanimate nouns take the nominative form.

====Second declension====

The second declension consists of '''masculine''' and '''neuter''' nouns. Masculine nouns primarily end in a consonant, while neuter nouns end in "-o", "-e" or "-ie" ([eː]).

{| class="wikitable" align=center

|+ '''Second declension, masculine'''

! rowspan="2" |

! colspan="2" |'''Singular'''

! colspan="2" |'''Dual'''

! colspan="2" |'''Plural'''

|-

! Hard

! Soft

! Hard

! Soft

! Hard

! Soft

|-

| '''Nominative''' || k'''i'''t || k'''i'''ń || kot'''a''' || kon'''ia''' || kot'''y''' || kon'''iy'''

|-

| '''Genitive'''1 || kot'''a''' || kon'''ia''' || kot'''iw''' || kon'''iw''' || kot'''iw''' || kon'''ej'''

|-

| '''Dative''' || kot'''owy''' || kon'''ewy''' || kot'''oma''' || kon'''ioma''' || kot'''om''' || kon'''iom'''

|-

| '''Accusative'''2 || kot'''a''' || kon'''ia''' || kot'''a''' || kon'''ia''' || kot'''y''' || kon'''iy'''

|-

| '''Instrumental''' || kot'''om''' || kon'''em''' || kot'''oma''' || kon'''iema''' || kot'''amy''' || kon'''iemy'''

|-

| '''Locative'''3 || koť'''i''' || koń'''i''' || kot'''och''' || kon'''ioch''' || kot'''och''' || kon'''ioch'''

|-

| '''Vocative'''4 || kot'''e''' || kon'''iu''' || kot'''a''' || kon'''ia''' || kot'''y''' || kon'''iy'''

|-

|}

#Use the ending -a with:

#:Names of professions, people’s names (first and last)

#:Names of plants and animals

#:Names of objects

#:Names of settlements and geographic places

#:Names of measuring units

#:Names of machines

#:Words of foreign origin, which describe geometric parts, concrete objects.

#:Use the ending -u with:

#:Chemical elements, materials

#:Collective nouns

#:Names of buildings

#:Natural phenomena

#:Feelings

#:Names of processes, states, phenomena

#:Names of games and dances

#The accusative case for animate nouns is identical to the genitive case; for inanimate nouns, it is identical to the nominative.

#Nouns that take the -і ending undergo the first palatalisation, while those taking the -u ending do not.

#If the ending -е is used, then the first palatalization occurs. However, it can be avoided by using the -u form.

[[Category:Languages]]

[[Category:Slavic languages]]

Ruthenian: Difference between revisions

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