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Nominals are marked for case in Eska.  Object case takes the suffix -a.  Dative case takes the suffix -i  Agent case takes the suffix -o.
Nominals are marked for case in Eska.  Object case takes the suffix -a.  Dative case takes the suffix -i  Agent case takes the suffix -o.


''Object Case''
''Object Case''
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Sac az talane ap '''mana'''.  The man is tall.
Sac az talane ap '''mana'''.  The man is tall.


''Agent Case''
''Agent Case''
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The Dative case is a hypercase of mutually exclusive cases including: Experiencer, Benefactor, Location, Time, and Range.  The Experiencer case occurs with the Experiential Domain.  The Benefactor case occurs with the Benefactive Domain. The Location case occurs with the Locative Domain.  The Time case occurs with the Temporal Domain.  And the Range case occurs with the Range Domain.
The Dative case is a hypercase of mutually exclusive cases including: Experiencer, Benefactor, Location, Time, and Range.  The Experiencer case occurs with the Experiential Domain.  The Benefactor case occurs with the Benefactive Domain. The Location case occurs with the Locative Domain.  The Time case occurs with the Temporal Domain.  And the Range case occurs with the Range Domain.


''Experiencer Case''
''Experiencer Case''
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Sac az bilivine ip '''mani''' Goda.  The man believes in God.
Sac az bilivine ip '''mani''' Goda.  The man believes in God.




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examples:
examples:


Sac iz baytile op mano kara '''dileri'''.  The man bought a car from a dealer.
Sac iz bayzile op mano kara '''dileri'''.  The man bought a car from a dealer.


Sac iz seline op selmiso ap dresa ip '''misi'''.  The saleswoman sold the dress to a woman.
Sac iz seline op selmiso ap dresa ip '''misi'''.  The saleswoman sold the dress to a woman.
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Sac iz bitane oap '''manoa''' hamaror.  The man hit himself with a hammer.
Sac iz bitane oap '''manoa''' hamaror.  The man hit himself with a hammer.




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Predicate suffixes appear in this order:  Dative Status + Class + (Main or Subordinate Predicate) + (Case).  Reduced Predicates take these suffixes:  Case + Class.
Predicate suffixes appear in this order:  Dative Status + Class + (Main or Subordinate Predicate) + (Case).  Reduced Predicates take these suffixes:  Case + Class.




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Sac iz '''smelise''' ip misi flora.  The woman smelled a flower.
Sac iz '''smelise''' ip misi flora.  The woman smelled a flower.


''Subordinate Predicates''
''Subordinate Predicates''
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Sac iz noj vidise ip mani nobada, '''wakisu''' ha awi.  The man didn't see anybody, (so) he walked away.
Sac iz noj vidise ip mani nobada, '''wakisu''' ha awi.  The man didn't see anybody, (so) he walked away.


Embedded Predicates
 
 
''Embedded Predicates''


examples:
examples:
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Sac iz  
Sac iz  


Reduced Predicates
 
 
''Reduced Predicates''


Reduced Predicates translate as a relative clause.  They function similar to an adjective in English.
Reduced Predicates translate as a relative clause.  They function similar to an adjective in English.
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A clause is divided into a Proposition and a Modality.  The above sections have dealt exclusively with the Proposition.  Now we will focus on the Modality.  The Modality includes:  Modal nominals, Negative, Tense, Mood, Aspect, Voice, Performatives, Manner, Temporals, and Frequency.
A clause is divided into a Proposition and a Modality.  The above sections have dealt exclusively with the Proposition.  Now we will focus on the Modality.  The Modality includes:  Modal nominals, Negative, Tense, Mood, Aspect, Voice, Performatives, Manner, Temporals, and Frequency.


'''Modal Nominals'''
'''Modal Nominals'''


Modal Nominals are nominals that are not necessary for a clause to be grammatical.  They include: Instrument, Topic, Commitative and Modal Dative cases.
Modal Nominals are nominals that are not necessary for a clause to be grammatical.  They include: Genitive, Instrument, Topic, Commitative and Modal Dative cases.
 
 
 
''Genitive''
 
The Genitive case is called the possessive in English.  In Eska a nominal in the Genitive is marked by the Subordinate predicate '''azinu''' (to have).  The possessed nominal is marked by the suffix -v to show that it is a fronted argument.
 
examples:
 
Sac iz tekile iop misio bukav '''azinu mini'''.  The woman took my book.
 
Sac iz bayzile op mano karav '''azinu misi'''.  The man bought the woman's car.
 
 


''Instrument''
''Instrument''


The Instrument case takes the suffix -or.  It denotes an instrument or means of completing an action.  It can be a tool such as a hammer that is used to pound in a nail.  It can be a weapon used to hurt or kill someone.  It can be the method of completing an action.
The Instrument case is marked by the Subordinate predicate '''uzane''' (to use).  It denotes an instrument or means of completing an action.  It can be a tool such as a hammer that is used to pound in a nail.  It can be a weapon used to hurt or kill someone.  It can be the method of completing an action.


examples:
examples:


Sac iz bitane op mano ap misa '''clubor'''.  The man clubbed the woman.  (The man hit the woman with a club.)
Sac iz bitane op mano ap misa '''uzane cluba'''.  The man clubbed the woman.  (The man hit the woman using a club.)
 
Sac iz bitane op mano ap mana '''uzane fista'''.  The man punched another man.  (The man hit the other man using (his) fist.)
 
Sac iz bitane op mano ap nela '''uzane hamara'''.  The man hammered in the nail.  (The man hit the nail using a hammer.)


Sac iz bitane op mano ap mana '''fistor'''.  The man punched another man.  (The man hit the other man with (his) fist.)
Sac iz beldane op mano ap veg bigan husi '''uzane brika'''.  The man built the very big house using bricks.


Sac iz bitane op mano ap nela '''hamaror'''.  The man hammered in the nail.  (The man hit the nail with a hammer.)


Sac iz beldane op mano ap veg bigan husi '''brikor'''.  The man built the very big house using bricks.


''Topic''
''Topic''


Topic can be used to indicate the "topic" of discussion.  It is marked by the suffix -ay.
Topic can be used to indicate the "topic" of discussion.  It is marked by the Subordinate predicate '''rigardinu''' (to regard, concern).


examples:
examples:


'''Fixay''', sac az naj plizine ta mi.  Speaking of fish, I don't like it.  (Speaking of fish, it doesn't please me.)
'''Rigardinu fixa''', sac az naj plizine ta mi.  Speaking of fish, I don't like it.  (Speaking of fish, it doesn't please me.)
 
 


''Commitative''
''Commitative''


Commitative case denotes accompaniment.  It is marked by the suffix -ar.
Commitative case denotes accompaniment.  It is marked by the Subordinate predicate '''akompaninu''' (to accompany).


examples:
examples:


Sac iz atise xa husi '''minar'''.  She came home with me.
Sac iz atise xa husi '''akompaninu mini'''.  She came home with me.
 
 


''Modal Dative''
''Modal Dative''


Modal Dative case denotes a dative use that is not an argument of the verb.  It is marked by the suffix -ir.
Modal Dative case denotes a dative use that is not an argument of the verb.  The Modal Experiencer case is marked by the Subordinate predicate '''expirinu''' (to experience). The Modal Benefactor case is marked by the Subordinate predicate '''azilu''' (to give).  The Modal Location case is marked my the Subordinate predicate '''atinu''' (to be at).  The Modal Time case is marked by the Subordinate predicate '''okurinu''' (to occur, happen).  The Modal Range case is marked by the Subordinate predicate '''mezurinu''' (to measure).  The Modal Comparison case is marked by the Subordinate predicate '''komperinu''' (to compare)


examples:
examples:


Sac iz vidise ip mani ap misa '''parkir'''.  The man spied the woman at the park.  (Vidise is in the Experiential Domain and does not require a location.)
Sac iz vidise ip mani ap misa '''atinu parki'''.  The man spied the woman at the park.  (Vidise is in the Experiential Domain and does not require a location.)


Sac iz baytale op mano buka '''minir'''.  The man bought a book for me.  (Baytale is in the Benefactive Domain and does not require 'for me'.  If '''minir''' is replaced by '''mini''' then the sentence would mean:  the man bought a book from me.)
Sac iz bayzale op mano buka '''azilu mini'''.  The man bought a book for me.  (Bayzale is in the Benefactive Domain and does not require 'for me'.  If '''azilu mini''' is replaced by '''mini''' then the sentence would mean:  the man bought a book from me.)




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