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Knašta: Difference between revisions
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Knašta has a SVO (subject-verb-object) word order. It uses subject verb inversion to mark questions. However, due to the prevalence of the implied agent form, the subject is often null, and questions are only marked by a rise in intonation or the placement of an interrogative pronoun. | Knašta has a SVO (subject-verb-object) word order. It uses subject-verb inversion to mark questions. However, due to the prevalence of the implied agent form, the subject is often null, and questions are only marked by a rise in intonation or the placement of an interrogative pronoun. | ||
====Examples of Basic Sentence Order==== | ====Examples of Basic Sentence Order==== | ||
Line 695: | Line 695: | ||
<br/> | <br/> | ||
why must do you that (Why do you have to do that?) | why must do you that (Why do you have to do that?) | ||
====Questions==== | |||
As stated above, all questions in Knašta use a strict VSO word order. Unlike in English where the verbal phrase is split (example: '''Are''' you '''being''' unkind?), in Knašta the entire verbal phrase remains together: | |||
Ameska minǰeska íl drast? | |||
<br/> | |||
like eat he that (Does he like to eat that?) | |||
Questions are marked with a rise in intonation toward the end of the sentence. This is the only distinguishing factor in some questions that use the implied agent form: | |||
Ameskanés drast? | |||
<br/> | |||
like.you that (Do you like that?) | |||
Ameskanés drast. | |||
<br/> | |||
like.you that (You like that) | |||
Interrogative pronouns come first: | |||
Kwo ǰis íl-ins jóm? | |||
<br/> | |||
what be his name (What is his name?) | |||
Kwéę kanel trůvinskakatsí drast? | |||
<br/> | |||
where can find.I this (Where can I find this?) | |||
Kes vālencanés? | |||
<br/> | |||
which want.you (Which do you want?) | |||
Kwomo marša? | |||
<br/> | |||
how walk/function.it (How does it work?) | |||
The use of ''kwomo'' (how) is often restricted to relative clauses, as there is another way to ask how using a compound with the word ''paþa'' (way): | |||
'''Kwo + ǰis sé paþa + gerund + object genitive + subject genitive''' | |||
The object or subject forms follow the normal rules for the genitive case, and may sometimes come before the ''paþa'' compound, thereby causing the deletion of ''sé'' (the). | |||
Essentially this is the equivalent of asking "What is X's way of Y?": | |||
Kwo sen-ǰis lot-ins paþaàrívítkatsjon? | |||
<br/> | |||
what past-be its way.of.happening (How did it happen?) | |||
Kwo ǰis on-ins paþakréjetsatsjon jazišna-ins? | |||
<br/> | |||
what be one's way.of.creation language.of (How does one create a language?) | |||
Kwo sen-ǰis vošní-ins paþafétsatsjon drast-ins? | |||
<br/> | |||
what past-be your way.of.doing that.of (How did you do that?) | |||
Kwo sen-ǰis sé paþaàrívítkatsjon révolůtsíàtsjon-ins? | |||
<br/> | |||
what past-be the way.of.happening revolution.of (How did the revolution happen?) | |||
You can also substitute the object genitive for an expression that involves ''por'' (for): | |||
Kwo sen-ǰis vošní-ins paþafétsatsjon por drast? | |||
<br/> | |||
what past-be your way.of.doing for that (How did you do that?) | |||
Kwo sen-ǰis sé paþakréjetsatsjon por komnizní? | |||
<br/> | |||
what past-be the way.of.creation for communism (How was communism created?) | |||
====Adjectives and Adverbs==== | ====Adjectives and Adverbs==== |
Revision as of 22:23, 5 July 2015
Knashta | |
---|---|
Knašta (Latin) Кнашта (Cyrillic) | |
Pronunciation | [[Help:IPA|'knæʃta]] |
Created by | – |
Native speakers | Unknown () |
Indo-Korinthic
| |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 | qtz |
Background
The Knašta language (English: [kɪnæʃta]), is a language spoken by the Corstek people, who reside on the east coast of North America. The language is related to the Corstek language, and contact with the English and French speaking peoples of the east coast has given rise to a creole called Kombiez.
Knašta is an Indo-Korinthic language. Proto-Indo-Korinthic was spoken in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent before the arrival of Indo-European speaking peoples. For an unspecified reason, the Korinthic people migrated out of India and settled in Greece in 100 BCE. The source of the name 'Korinthic' comes from the Proto-Indo-Korinthic word korintʰíkasʷēgrotʰníosī ([korɪntʰikasʷɛːgrotʰniosɪː]), which means 'the people who went to Corinth (Greece)' (literally Corinth-went-people). The Korinthic people then eventually migrated to what is modern-day France, where Latin heavily influenced their speech.
After the fall of the Roman Empire, the Korinthic peoples split. What are now called the Knashtic people (who refer to themselves as Corsteks), moved north into what is now the Netherlands, where their language was influenced by the Germanic peoples that lived there. The Korstekic people (who also refer to themselves as Corsteks), moved east into what is now the Czech republic, where their language was influenced by the Slavic peoples that lived there.
During the 18th century many Knaštic Corsteks went to North America, and founded the Republic of Corstekistan.
Phonology
Consonants
Bilabial | Labio-dental | Dental | Alveolar | Post-alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | n | ŋ | |||||
Plosive | p b | t d | k g | |||||
Fricative | f v | θ ð | z s | ʃ ʒ | ç ʝ | h | ||
Approximant | w | ɹ | j | |||||
Trill | ʙ* | r | ||||||
Lateral app. | l |
* This trill consonant is only found in some dialects, and is represented by the letter ŗ. However, in most dialects, including the Flaxilþrand Dialect, it represents the sound [pr].
Vowels
Front | Central | Back | |
---|---|---|---|
Close | i | u | |
Near-Close | ɪ | ||
Close-Mid | e ø | o | |
Mid | e̞* | ||
Open-mid | ɛ ɛ̃ | ʌ ɔ*** | |
Near-open | æ** | ||
Open | a | ɑ ɑ̃ |
* This vowel sound only occurs according to the Tsí Rule, as well as at the end of some words that end in í.
** This vowel sound is an allophone of a.
*** This vowel sound is an allophone of o.
Phonotactics
Orthography
There are currently two accepted orthographies for Knašta: Latin and Cyrillic.
Latin
The Knašta Latins is semi-phonetic. Each letter only represents one sound, but some letters represent the same sound.
Letter | IPA Sound Value | Name |
---|---|---|
Aa | a | a |
Ææ | e | éí |
Āā | e | é makron |
Bb | b | bé |
Cc | s | sét |
Čč | tʃ | čé |
Dd | d | dé |
Ďď | dj | ďa |
Ðð | ð | eð |
Ee | ɛ | e |
Éé | e | é |
Ęę | ɚ | ę |
Ff | f | ef |
Gg | g | gé |
Ǵǵ | ʝ | ǵé |
Hh | h | haš |
Ii | ɪ | i |
Íí | i*** | í |
Jj | j | jé |
DŽ ǰ | dʒ | ǰé |
Kk | k | ka |
Ll | l | el |
Mm | m | em |
Nn | n | en |
Ňň | ɲ | ňa |
Oo | o | o |
Óó | ɒ | ó |
Øø | ay̯ | ø |
Pp | p | pé |
ç | qé | |
Rr | r | ro |
Řř | ɹ | řo |
Ŗŗ | pr, ʙ* | ŗo |
Ss | s | sé |
Šš | ʃ | šé |
Tt | t | té |
Ťť | tj | ťa |
Þþ | θ | þorna |
Uu | ʌ | u |
Ůů | u | ů |
Vv | v | vé |
Ww | w | wé |
Xx** | ks | xí [ksi] |
Yy | aɪ | y |
Ýý | i | ýgreka |
Zz | z | zed |
Žž | ʒ | žed |
Dipthongs
All dipthongs except for [ɔɪ] are represented by one letter. The letter combination 'oj represents [ɔɪ]
The Grave Accent
The grave accent (`) is used to ensure that vowels are pronounced separately.
Example: aktůèlt (current) [aktu.ɛlt]
*Sound depends on the dialect. See Knašta/Prevalence of the Bilabial Trill for more information.
**X is always pronounced [ks], never [z].
***Í also represents other sounds. See Knašta/Third I for more information.
Cyrillic
The Knašta Cyrillic alphabet is completely phonetic. It also features many Iotified letters. However, these letters do not palatalize the previous consonant like in Russian.
Letter | IPA Sound Value | Name (In Knašta Latin) | Non-Knaštic Romanization** |
---|---|---|---|
Аа | a | a | a |
Бб | b | bé | b |
Вв | v | vé | v |
Гг | g | gé | g |
Ґґ | ʝ | ǵé otatůrna | gh |
Дд | d | dé | d |
Ее | e | é | ay |
Ѐѐ | je | jé | yay |
Ёё | jo | jo | yo |
Жж | ʒ | žé | zh |
Зз | z | zé | z |
Ҙҙ | ð | ðé | dh |
Ѕѕ | ç | qé | q |
Ии | ɪ | i | i |
Йй | j | jé | y |
Її | jɪ | ji | yi |
Ѵѵ | aɪ̯ | yžatsí | ai |
Кк | k | ka | k |
Ѯѯ | ks | xí | x |
Лл | l | el | l |
Мм | m | em | m |
Нн | n | en | n |
Њњ | ɲ | en jérí | ny |
Оо | o | o | o |
Өө | ɑ | ó | oh |
ОЬоь | œ | œ | oe |
Ӫӫ | jɑ | jó | yoh |
Пп | p | pé | p |
Рр | r | ro | r |
РЬрь | ɹ | řo | rh |
Ғғ | ʙ* | ŗo | pr |
Сс | s | sé | s |
Ҫҫ | θ | þé | th |
Тт | t | té | t |
Уу | u | ů | uu |
Ўў | ʌ | u | u |
Ұұ | w | wé | w |
АУау | ay̯ | ø | au |
Фф | f | ef | f |
Хх | h | haš | h |
Цц | t͡s | tsé | ts |
Чч | t͡ʃ | čé | ch |
Џџ | d͡ʒ | ǰé | dzh |
Шш | ʃ | ša | sh |
Ыы | i | jérí | ii |
Ӹӹ | ji | jí | jii |
Ээ | ɛ | e | e |
Ӭӭ | jɛ | je | ye |
Юю | ju | jů | yuu |
Яя | ja | ja | ya |
Ѣѣ | ɛ̃ | î | ih |
Ѧѧ | ɑ̃ | ê | eh |
*Sound depends on the dialect. See Knašta/Prevalence of the Bilabial Trill for more info.
**Normally, when romanizing Knašta Cyrillic, you would use Knašta Latin. However, If the target audience is not one that speaks Knašta, it is better to use the Non-Knaštic romanization.
Unlike in Russian, it is important to differentiate between е and ё. Ё can never be replaced with е.
Ť and Ď
The letters ť and ď have no counterparts in Knašta Cyrillic. Instead, they are represented by a combination of т for ť or д for ď and a iotified letter (for example the word pysťo (country) in Knašta Latin is пѵстё in Knašta Cyrillic).
Grammar
Morphology
Knašta is an agglutinative language. Word meanings can be changed by adding an array of different prefixes and suffixes, and word compounding between all classes of words (noun, verb, etc.) is allowed.
Nouns
Nouns in Knašta have no gender, and are all made plural by adding the suffix sin.
Nouns are inflected for three cases, nominative, genitive, and locative. The nominative form of the word is unchanged while the genitive form of the word contains the ins suffix, as seen in the below example. The locative case is formed by adding 'o', or 'ẁ' (pronounced /w/) if the word begins with a vowel (always lowercase) to the beginning of the word, except for the words travekatsjon (work, job), and mazak (house). The locative form of these two words is a sé travekatsjon and a sé mazak, respectively.
Nominative | Genitive | Locative | |
---|---|---|---|
Singular | ňos | ňos-ins | oňos |
person | person's | at, to person | |
Plural | ňossin | ňossin-ins | oňossin |
people | people's | at, to people |
Nominative | Genitive | Locative | |
---|---|---|---|
Singular | adoratsjon | adoratsjon-ins | ẁadoratsjon |
love | love's | at, in, to love | |
Plural | adoratsjonsin | adoratsjonsin-ins | ẁadoratsjonsin |
loves | of loves | at, in, to loves |
Locative Case
The locative case is sometimes referred to as the locative-allative case, because it many expressions it can be used to express motion toward:
Gróþkatsa-link oTsyna
go-1PL-PRE-PROG LOC-China (We are going to China)
Doneknés lot ẁíl
give-2SG 3SG LOC-3SG (Give it to him)
However, where both a static location and motion are given in the same phrase, the locative case is only used for the static location, with the word el being used to describe the motion:
Gróþkatsa-link el Beijing oTsyna
go-1PL-PRE-PROG to Beijing LOC-China (We are going to Beijing in China)
Pronouns
There are three persons in Knašta.
1st singular | 2nd singular | 3rd singular | 1st plural | 2nd singular | 3rd singular | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nominative | Joj | Vošní | Íl (he), Èl (she), Lot (it) | Nærsk | Vošnísin | Lotsen |
Genitive | Jo-ins | Vošní-ins | Íl-ins, Èl-ins, Lot-ins | Nærsk-ins | Vošnísin-ins | Lotsen-ins |
Objective | Jo | Vošní | Íl, Èl, Lot | Nærsk | Vošnísin | Lotsen |
Locative | oJo | oVošní | ẁÍl, ẁÈl, oLot | oNærsk | oVošnísin | oLotsen |
Note that only the first person singular pronoun has an irregular objective, locative and genitive form.
Verbs
Almost all Knašta verbs are regular. There are only five irregular verbs in the entire language: kanel (can), potečřé (might), avbendí (need), můsťen (must), and ǰinxa (be, exist).
Regular Knašta verbs are grouped into two classes based on how they are conjugated, -va and -nés verbs. Which group any particular verb is in must be memorized, as it cannot be determined from the verb itself alone. The majority of regular Knašta verbs are -nés verbs.
Type I and II Irregular Verbs
Type I irregular verbs have an irregular conjugated form. The only Type I irregular verb is ǰinxa (to be). Type II irregular verbs do not change their form when conjugated. Type II irregular verbs are often helping verbs. The list of Type II irregular verbs are: kanel, potečřé, avbendí, and můsťen.
-va verbs
-va verbs add the suffix va to the verb with both second person forms. See the example below.
Present Tense Conjugation of Het (To Stop)
1st singular | 2nd singular | 3rd singular | 1st plural | 2nd plural | 3rd plural |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Joj het | Vošní hetva | Íl, Èl, Lot het | Nærsk het | Vošnísin hetva | Lotsen het |
-nés verbs
-nés verbs add the suffix nés to the verb with both second person forms. See the example below.
Present Tense Conjugation of Aďeska (To Help)
1st singular | 2nd singular | 3rd singular | 1st plural | 2nd plural | 3rd plural |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Joj aďeska | Vošní aďeskanés | Íl, Èl, Lot aďeska | Nærsk aďeska | Vošnísin aďeskanés | Lotsen aďeska |
Verb Tense
Tense is changed through the addition of one or multiple prefixes and suffixes. See the table below.
Affix | Meaning | Example | Example Translation |
---|---|---|---|
sen- | past | Joj sen-parlenska a íl. | I talked to him. |
són- | perfect | Joj són-parlenska a íl. | I have talked to him. |
til- | future | Joj til-parlenska a íl. | I will talk to him. |
-link | present perfect | Joj parlenska-link a íl. | I am talking to him. |
As stated above, these can be combined, as in the sentence Joj sen-parlenska-link a íl, which means I was talking to him.
Implied Agent Form
All Knašta verbs have what is known as an implied agent form. This form allows for the verb to be used without its corresponding pronoun.
1st Singular | 2nd Singular | Lot | 1st Plural | 2nd Plural | 3rd Plural |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
-katsí | -nés | Verb Infinitive | -katsa | -nétsa | -kalí |
1st Singular | 2nd Singular | Lot | 1st Plural | 2nd Plural | 3rd Plural |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
-katsí | -va | Verb Infinitive | -katsa | -vatsa | -kalí |
1st Singular | 2nd Singular | Lot | 1st Plural | 2nd Plural | 3rd Plural |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
None | None | Verb Infinitive | None | None | None |
Notice the use of lot instead of 3rd Singular. The implied agent form can only be used in the 3rd person singular if the agent (person or thing preforming the action) is lot (it).
Some regular verbs have irregular implied agent form stems, such as the verb explíka (to explain).
1st singular | 2nd singular | Lot | 1st plural | 2nd plural | 3rd plural |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
explíkatsí | explínés | explíka | explíkatsa | explínétsa | explíkalí |
When using the implied agent form, the pronoun is omitted. For example, one can say Gróþkatsí-link el sé magazatí instead of Joj gróþ-link el sé magazatí, both of which mean "I am going to the store." Notice that it is called implied agent, not implied subject. A sentence like the following can be constructed: Kónjésakatsí drast til-gaňakatsa (I know that we'll win).
When in a verb phrase and used as a helping verb, the Type II irregular verb is not considered to be in the implied agent form, rather, it is applied to the verb being helped. For example, Kanel fétsakatsí lot means "I can do it", not "It can I do."
Adjectives and Adverbs
Adjectives come after the nouns they modify, and are invariable (they do not conjugate at all).
There are some words which are adverbs by default, such as matka (already). Any adjective can be turned into an adverb by adding the suffix -las, including the hyphen.
Examples
Vrémenskí (real)
Vrémenskí-las (really)
Vít (fast, quick)
Vít-las (fast, quickly)
Syntax
Knašta has a SVO (subject-verb-object) word order. It uses subject-verb inversion to mark questions. However, due to the prevalence of the implied agent form, the subject is often null, and questions are only marked by a rise in intonation or the placement of an interrogative pronoun.
Examples of Basic Sentence Order
Joj adora vošní.
I love you (I love you)
Til-tweskava jo.
will-kill.you me (You will kill me)
Ameskanés vošní jo?
love you me (Do you love me?)
Til-metsíkatsa drast?
will-get.we that (Are we going to get that?)
Kw'avesknés?
what'have.you (What do you have?)
Kwy můsťen fétsanés vošní drast?
why must do you that (Why do you have to do that?)
Questions
As stated above, all questions in Knašta use a strict VSO word order. Unlike in English where the verbal phrase is split (example: Are you being unkind?), in Knašta the entire verbal phrase remains together:
Ameska minǰeska íl drast?
like eat he that (Does he like to eat that?)
Questions are marked with a rise in intonation toward the end of the sentence. This is the only distinguishing factor in some questions that use the implied agent form:
Ameskanés drast?
like.you that (Do you like that?)
Ameskanés drast.
like.you that (You like that)
Interrogative pronouns come first:
Kwo ǰis íl-ins jóm?
what be his name (What is his name?)
Kwéę kanel trůvinskakatsí drast?
where can find.I this (Where can I find this?)
Kes vālencanés?
which want.you (Which do you want?)
Kwomo marša?
how walk/function.it (How does it work?)
The use of kwomo (how) is often restricted to relative clauses, as there is another way to ask how using a compound with the word paþa (way):
Kwo + ǰis sé paþa + gerund + object genitive + subject genitive
The object or subject forms follow the normal rules for the genitive case, and may sometimes come before the paþa compound, thereby causing the deletion of sé (the).
Essentially this is the equivalent of asking "What is X's way of Y?":
Kwo sen-ǰis lot-ins paþaàrívítkatsjon?
what past-be its way.of.happening (How did it happen?)
Kwo ǰis on-ins paþakréjetsatsjon jazišna-ins?
what be one's way.of.creation language.of (How does one create a language?)
Kwo sen-ǰis vošní-ins paþafétsatsjon drast-ins?
what past-be your way.of.doing that.of (How did you do that?)
Kwo sen-ǰis sé paþaàrívítkatsjon révolůtsíàtsjon-ins?
what past-be the way.of.happening revolution.of (How did the revolution happen?)
You can also substitute the object genitive for an expression that involves por (for):
Kwo sen-ǰis vošní-ins paþafétsatsjon por drast?
what past-be your way.of.doing for that (How did you do that?)
Kwo sen-ǰis sé paþakréjetsatsjon por komnizní?
what past-be the way.of.creation for communism (How was communism created?)
Adjectives and Adverbs
Adjectives always come after the nouns they modify:
Sé otosa roda
the car red (the red car)
Adverbs typically come after' the verb they modify, and in many cases the end of the sentence:
Můsťen fétsanés drast vrémenskí-las?
must do.you that really (Do you really have to do that?)
Íl sen-žweska bots-las drastniqt
he past-play well tonight (He played well tonight)
DŽis oplaska matka
be.it locative.place already (It's already in place)
Íl til-fétsa lot žamítsa.
he will-do it never. (He'll never do it)
However, the adverb žůsta (just), typically precedes the verb, and can also be placed between the tense marker and verb:
Íl sen-žůsta gróþ
he past-just go (He just went)
Žůsta sen-fétsakatsí lot
just past-do.I it (I just did it)
Relative Clauses
Relatives clauses involving drast (this, that), and kí always use the SVO word order:
Sé ňos kí ǰis dos aržentsísin
the man who is of monies (The man who is rich)
Ní ǰis kelkžozak drast marša bots-las
not be.it some.thing that works well (It's not something that works well)
However, if the clause involves any interrogative pronoun (besides kí), it may also use VSO word order, although the use of the implied agent renders this moot in many cases:
Drast ǰis kwý adorakatsí èl
that be why love.I she (That's why I love her)
Drast ǰis kwo můsťen fétsa íl
that be what must do he (That's what he has to do)
Drast ǰis kw'íl můsťen fétsa
that be what'he must do (That's what he has to do)