Aryan: Difference between revisions

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  thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...
  thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...

Revision as of 17:00, 25 October 2024


Aryan (Pre-Expansion: *Airáh0, pronounced /ai̯ˈrəʔ/; Post-Expansion: *Āryā́, pronounced /aːˈri̯aː/) is an ab interiori language equivalent to the reconstruction of Indo-European Languages (Proto-Indo-European).

Aryan
*airáh0
Pronunciation[ai̯ˈrəʔ]
Created byVeno
Date8000-6000 BP
SettingCaucasus Mountains
Native speakers- (2024)
Pangaean Code
  • Aryan
Early form
Transitional Dialect
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Introduction

Phonology

Sanskrit Avestan O.C.S. Lithuanian Albanian Armenian
*p x x
*t x x
*k x x
*ḱ x x 


thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...
Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants
PIE Indo-Iranian Balto-Slavic Alb. Arm. Anatol. Toch. Greek Italic Celtic Germanic
Sanskrit Avestan O.C.S. Lith. Hitt. Latin Old Irish Gothic English
normal C+[j] [C 1] normal -C- [C 2] [C 1]
*p p; ph [pʰ] [C 3] p; f [C 4] p h;
w [C 5] 		p, pp p pt p ∅ f;
b [β] [C 6] 		f;
v, f[C 2]
*t t; th [t̪ʰ] [C 3] t; θ[C 4] t tʿ [tʰ] t, tt;
z [ts] [C 7] 		t;
c [c] [C 7] 		t s; tt/ss[C 5] t t th [θ] þ [θ];
d [ð]; [C 6] 		th;
d; [C 6]
*ḱ ś [ɕ] s š [ʃ] th [θ];
k[C 8] 		s k, kk k;
ś [ɕ][C 8] 		k c [k] c [k] ch [x] h;
g [ɣ] [C 6] 		h;
∅;[C 2]
y [C 6]
*k k; c [t͡ɕ]; [C 7]
kh [kʰ] [C 3] 		k; c [tʃ]; [C 7]
x[C 4] 		k;
č [tʃ]; [C 7]
c [ts][C 9] 		k k;
q [c][C 9] 		kʿ [kʰ]
*kʷ k;
s; [C 7]
q [c][C 9] 		ku, kku p;
t; [C 7]
k[C 10] 		qu [kʷ];
c [k] [C 11] 		ƕ [ʍ];
gw, w [C 6]
 wh;
w [C 6]
*b b; bh [C 3] b; β [C 12] b p b pt b b [b] -[β]- p
*d d; dh [C 3] d; δ [C 12] d d;
dh [ð][C 2] 		t ts;
ś [ɕ] [C 7] 		d z [zd] > [z] d d [d] -[ð]- t
*ǵ j [d͡ʑ];
h [ɦ] [C 3] 		z ž [ʒ] dh [ð];
g[C 8] 		c [ts] k k;
ś [ɕ][C 8] 		g g g [ɡ] -[ɣ]- k c / k;
ch[C 9]
*g g; j [d͡ʑ]; [C 7]
gh; [C 3] h [ɦ] [C 3] 		g; j [dʒ]; [C 7]
γ [C 12] 		g;
ž [ʒ]; [C 7]
dz[C 9] 		g g k
*gʷ g;
z; [C 7]
gj [ɟ][C 9] 		ku b;
d; [C 7]
g[C 10] 		u [w > v];
gu [ɡʷ] [C 13] 		b [b] -[β]- q [kʷ] qu
*pʰ bh [bʱ] b; β [C 12] b b;
w[C 2] 		p ph [pʰ] pt f;[C 14]
b 		b [b];
b [β];[C 2]
f [C 15] 		b;
v / f[C 16]
*tʰ dh [dʱ] d; δ [C 12] d t t;
c [c] [C 7] 		th [tʰ] tt/ss f;[C 14]
d;
b [C 17] 		d [d] -[ð]- d;
d [ð];[C 2]
þ [C 15] 		d
*ǵʰ h [ɦ] z ž [ʒ] dh [ð];
d[C 8] 		j [dz];
z[C 2] 		k k;
ś [ɕ] [C 7] 		kh [kʰ] h;
h / g[C 8] 		g [ɡ] -[ɣ]- g;
g [ɣ];[C 2]
g [x] [C 15] 		g;
y / w[C 16]
*gʰ gh [ɡʱ];
h [ɦ] [C 7] 		g; j [dʒ]; [C 7]
γ [C 12] 		g;
ž [ʒ]; [C 7]
dz[C 9] 		g g g;
ǰ [dʒ] [C 7]
*gʷʰ g;
z; [C 7]
gj [ɟ][C 9] 		ku ph [pʰ];
th [tʰ]; [C 7]
kh [kʰ][C 10] 		f;[C 14]
g /
u [w];[C 2]
gu [ɡʷ] [C 13] 		g;
b;[C 14]
w;[C 2]
gw [C 13] 		g;
b;[C 14]
w[C 2]
*s s h [h, x] s sh [ʃ];
gj [ɟ];[C 18]
h[C 2] 		h;
∅[C 2] 		š [s] s;
ṣ [ʂ] 		h;[C 14]
s;[C 19][C 15]/
∅;[C 2]
[¯] [C 20] 		i s;
r[C 2] 		s ʃ -[h]- s;
z [C 6] 		s;
r [C 6]
ṣ [ʂ][C 21] š [ʃ][C 21] x [x][C 21] š [ʃ][C 21]
*m m in m m [m] -[w̃]- m
*-m [C 15] m ˛ [˜] n ∅ n n -- m [˜] n ∅
*n n n;
˛ [˜] [C 15] 		n n;
ñ [ɲ] 		n in n
*l r (dial. l) r l l;
ll [ɫ][C 2] 		l /
ɫ [ɫ
> ɣ] 		l il l
*r r/l[C 22] r r [ɾ];
rr [r][C 2] 		r ir r
*y y [j] j [j] gj [ɟ];
∅ 		∅ y [j] z [zd] > [z] /
h;
∅ [C 2] 		?i i [j];
∅ [C 2] 		∅ j y
*w v [ʋ] v [w] v v [ʋ] v g / w w w > h / ∅ i u [w > v] f -∅- w
PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Alb. Arm. Hitt. Toch. Greek Greek+/j/ Latin Old Irish Gothic English

Notes for table 1:

  1. ^ a b A capital C stands for consonant in this table
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Between vowels
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Before an original h₂.
  4. ^ a b c Before a consonant or original laryngeal.
  5. ^ a b After a vowel.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i Following an unstressed vowel (Verner's law).
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Before a (PIE) front vowel (*i, *e).
  8. ^ a b c d e f Before a sonorant.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.
  10. ^ a b c Before or after a (PIE) u
  11. ^ Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel (*u, *o).
  12. ^ a b c d e f In Younger Avestan, after a vowel.
  13. ^ a b c After n.
  14. ^ a b c d e f At the beginning of a word
  15. ^ a b c d e f At the end of a word.
  16. ^ a b Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)
  17. ^ After u, r or before r, l.
  18. ^ Before a stressed vowel
  19. ^ Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)
  20. ^ Before or after a resonant (r, l, m, n).
  21. ^ a b c d After r, u, k, i (Ruki sound law).
  22. ^ rare

Consonant clusters

Proto-Indo-European also had numerous consonant clusters, such as *st, *ḱs. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):

Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters
PIE Indo-Iranian Balto-Slavic Alb. Arm. Anatol. Toch. Greek Italic Celtic Germanic
Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Hitt. Latin Old Irish Gothic English
normal C+[j]
*sr sr r str sr rr [r] (a)r š(ša)r ʃʃr rh n/a fr-, -br- sr str str
*tw tv θβ tv tv t kʿ [kʰ] ttu, ddu s-, -ss- n/a p? t þw thw
*dʰw dhv ðβ dv dv d ? tu, du f d dw dw
*dw dv (e)rk tu, du b tw tw
*tl sl kl, sl tl kl tl
*dl ll
*dn nn, ṇṇ
*ḱw śv sp sv šv s sk, š n/a qu [kʷ] cu [kʷ] Template:Transl [xʷ] wh
*ǵʰw hv zv žv z
*ǵw jv q [kʷ] qu [kw]
*sw sv xuu [xʷ] sv sv v, d[CC 1] kʿ [kʰ] normal dev. h n/a su [sw] s sw sw
*sp sp sp [CC 2] sp f sp [CC 2]
/ pʿ [pʰ] 		normal dev. sp [CC 2] ? sp f sp [CC 3]
*sbʰ spʰ
*sd d; ḷ[CC 4] > ḍ, ḍḍ zd zd zd st d -t- [d] st st
*sdʰ dh; ḷh[CC 4] > ḍh, ḍḍh zd zd zd sth -t- [d] zd d
*st st; ṣṭ[CC 4] st [CC 2] st sht [ʃt] st [CC 2] normal dev. st [CC 2] s; tt/ss[CC 5] st st [CC 3]
*sḱ ch [t͡ɕʰ]; cch[CC 5] s? sk š? h ?? č`; c`[CC 5] normal dev. sk; [CC 2]
kh [kʰ];[CC 6]
skh [skʰ] [CC 7] 		sc [sk] sc [sk] sk [CC 3] sh [ʃ]
*sk sk, {śc, ch}[CC 8] sk, sč [CC 2] normal dev. ? sk [CC 2] normal dev.
*skʷ norm. squ [skʷ] sq [CC 3]
*t+t [tst] tt; tth [CC 9] st; sθ?[CC 10] st s s? zt, zzašt, zzazz [tst] ss? st ss ss / st
*sǵ jj
*sgʰ jj[CC 8]
*dt tt st st st s ss ss [s]
*ddʰ ddʰ zd d t
*dʰt ddʰ zd, st st st
*pt pt ft t? pt t pt pt cht [xt] ft [CC 3]
*ḱt ṣṭ [ʂʈ] št [ʃt] st št [ʃt] kt ct [kt] ht [CC 3] ght [t] [CC 3]
*kt kt xt t? kt
*kʷt pt ct [kt]
*ps ps ps ps s, ss fs ps
*ts ts
*ḱs kṣ š sh [ʃ] ks x [ks] hs x [ks]
*ks kṣ[CC 4] xš[CC 4] (ks)
*kʷs kʷs ps x [ks]
*gs kṣ
*gʷs kṣ
*ǵʰs kṣ ž ks
*gʰs kṣ
*gʷʰs kṣ ps
*tḱ kṣ š k kt s
*tk kṣ xš kt
*dʰǵʰ kṣ z ž tk tk/k khth
*dʰgʰ kṣ tk
*dʰgʷʰ kṣ γž kts phth s
PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Alb. Arm. Hitt. Toch. Greek Greek+/j/ Latin Old Irish Gothic English


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Orthography

Consonants

Vowels

Prosody

Stress

Intonation

Phonotactics

Morphophonology

Morphology

Syntax

Constituent order

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Example texts

Other resources


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