User:Chrysophylax/Skājamāl

Sound changes

1. merger of overlong into long vowels

   *pūkō ( < *pūkô)

2. d > þ / r_ / (represent /d/ as [þ] here for later word changes, cf. Go waurd, ON orð) but not after [l], [n], or [m]

   *wurþą ( < wurdą)

3. d > ð / V_V (show /d/ = [ð] intervocalically)

   *nimiði ( < *nimidi)

4. z > s / _# [unconditionally]

   *gaisas ( < *gaizaz)

5. s > h / _#

   *baisah ( < *baizaz) which later gives bērah

6. ō > ā

   markā < *markō

7. vowels [+nasal] > vowels [-nasal] [+length]

   *breustā ( < *breustą)

8. γ > j / #_V, V_V

   *jaisīþi ( < **gaisīþi), skājah ( < *skōgaz)

9. γ > v̄ / V_[+voiced +consonant]
10. þ > h / _R

    *mahlā ( < *maþlą) which later gives māl

11. ā > ē / [+dental +consonant +nasal]_#
12. Spontaneous haplogy (sic).

    *nimði < *nimiði ( < *nimidi)

13. f > hw / _V

    *hwehu ( < *fehu)

14. mb > w̃ / V_V

    law̃ah ( < *lambaz )

15. þ > s [unconditionally]

    sat ( < *þat), wursā < *wurþā ( < *wurdą)

16. d > n / nV_V

    annā ( < *andô)

17. ă ĕ ŏ > Ø / _# (unless monosyllabic) (Short vowel deletion rule)
18. If a word by result of the short vowel deletion becomes monosyllabic, lengthen the stem vowel for compensation.
19. If a word by result of the aforementioned rule terminates in -w, it becomes -u.
20. ĭ ŭ > e o / _#

    alo ( < *alu)

21. s > h / _R
22. j > Ø /#_V

    allā < *jallā ( < *gallō)

    exception j > ē / #_e for disyllabic words

    ēbā < *jebā ( < *gebā)

23. h > Ø /V_C, with compensatory lenghtening of the preceding vowel

    mālā < *mahlā ( < *maþlą)

24. s > z / V_V

    *keuzanā ( < *keusaną)

25. b > v / V_V

    *averanā < *aberanā ( < *gaberaną), ēvā < *ēbā ( < *gebō )

26. b > w / V_jV

    *haujā < *habjā ( < *habjō)

27. d > z / V_V

    māzēr < *māðēr ( < *mōdēr)

28. z > r / V_V (unless following or preceding syllable already has r)

    *ekorana < *ekozana ( < *gekozanaz)

29. h > Ø / #_V

    *ailah < *hailah ( < *hailaz)

30. Words of three or more syllables may occasionally experience V > Ø / _#
31. ai ei eu > ē ī iu when stressed

    ējum ( < *aigum, pres act 1pl of *aiganą), rīzanā ( < *reidaną~rīdaną), kiuranā ( < *keusaną)

    ērīs 'he/she/it frightens' ( < *gaisīþi) cf. avajs 'he/she/it has' ( < *habaiþi)

32. /wr/ -> [rʷː]

Current status

1.

a-stems
hwarhah m piglet			blātā n sacrifice
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Vocative	hwarh	hwarhāh	blātā
Nominative	hwarhah	hwarhāh
Accusative	hwarhā	hwarhann
Genitive	hwarhah	hwarhō	blātah	blātō
Dative	hwarhaj	hwarhamah	blātaj	blātamah
Instrumental	hwarhā	hwarhamah	blātā	blātamah

ō

These will probably merge to some extent with the a-stems of n gender.

"ō-stems"
ēvā f gift
	Singular	Plural
Vocative	ēvā	ēvāh
Nominative
Accusative	ēvō
Genitive	ēvāh	ēvō
Dative	ēvāj	ēvāmah
Instrumental	ēvā

2.

"i-stems"
astih m guest			mare n sea
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Vocative	astih	astīh	mare	marī
Nominative	astih	astīh	mare	marī
Accusative	astī	astinn	mare	marī
Genitive	astīh	astjjō	marīh	marjō
Dative	astī	astimah	mare	marimah
Instrumental	astī	astimah	mare	marimah

3.

u-stems
attuh m hat			hweho n cattle
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Vocative	atto	attīh	hweho	hwehū
Nominative	attuh	attīh	hweho	hwehū
Accusative	attū	attunn	hweho	hwehū
Genitive	attauh	attjō	hwehauh	hwehjō
Dative	attī	attumah	hwehī	hwehumah
Instrumental	attī	attumah	hwehī	hwehumah

4.

an-stems
umā m soldier			aujā n eye
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Vocative	umā	umnīh	aujā	aujānā
Nominative	umā	umnīh	aujā	aujānā
Accusative	umnū	umnunn	aujā	aujānā
Genitive	umnīh	umnō	auhnih	aujanō
Dative	umnī	ummah	auhnī	aujamah
Instrumental	umnī	ummah	auhnī	aujamah

5.

on-stems
hwiwalsā f butterfly
	Singular	Plural
Vocative	hwiwalsō	hwiwalsānih
Nominative	hwiwalsā	hwiwalsānih
Accusative	hwiwalsānū	hwiwalsānunn
Genitive	hwiwalsānih	hwiwalsānō
Dative	hwiwalsāne	hwiwalsāmah
Instrumental	hwiwalsāne	hwiwalsāmah

6.

īn-stems
hrārī f wisdom
	Singular	Plural
Vocative	hrārī	hrārīnih
Nominative	hrārī	hrārīnih
Accusative	hrārīnū	hrārīnunn
Genitive	hrārīnih	hrārīnō
Dative	hrārīne	hrārīnāmah
Instrumental	hrārīne	hrārināmah

7.

r-stems
māzēr f mother
	Singular	Plural
Vocative	māzer	māzrih
Nominative	māzēr	māzrih
Accusative	māzerū	māzrunn
Genitive	māzur	māzrō
Dative	māzre	māzrumah
Instrumental	māzre	māzrumah

Alternative declension:

r-stems
māzēr f mother
	Singular	Plural
Vocative	māzerī	māzrīnih
Nominative	māzērī	māzrīnih
Accusative	māzrīnū	māzrīnunn
Genitive	māzrīnih	māzrīnō
Dative	māzrīni	māzrināmah
Instrumental	māzrīne	māzrīnāmah

8. z-stems

z-stems
lamhah n lamb
	Singular	Plural
Vocative	lamhah	lamhirā
Nominative	lamhah	lamhirā
Accusative	lamhah	lamhirā
Genitive	lamhirih	lamhirō
Dative	lamhirī	lamhirumah
Instrumental	lamhirī	lamhirumah

ix

Early Skājamāl personal pronouns

	First person			Second person
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	*ek *ik1	*wet *wit1	*wīh *wih1	*sū	*jut	*jūh
Accusative	*mek *mik1	*unn	*uss	*sek *sik1	*innu	*ihwih
Genitive	*mīnah	*unnerah	*usserah	*sīnah	*innūrah	*ihwerah
Dative/instrumental	*mih	*unnih	*ussih	*sih	*innwih	*ihwih

¹ – Unstressed variant

The Lord's Prayer

hwāzēr usserah, sū īre in himinamah
sījje sīna namā ēlagāh,
wirkijē sīna wiljā,
ekwemē sīna rīkijā,
hwa an ersē hwe an himinamah
ēf daebrauzā ussera himmē daē ussih
hworholēt usserāh skuldin ussih
hwe auk wīh hworlētam san skuldan ussih
nuh bring uss in kūtauh ak eablēzī uss
a uvilammē.

Waka, Wāran

1. Waka Wāran!
   
2. Ērambāt
   
3. Māte hwijannū
   
4. Hwinn sturkī
   
5. Sterrī ak staut!
   
6. Serh annjalausanū derkanū
   
7. Serh gatā stēnō
   
8. Tā annjā!
   
9. Tā daurū!

"Awake Wodan! Pyre-tender! Meet the foe! Find strength! Stand fast and strike! Through endless dark, through gaps of stones. To the end! To death!"

Example sentences

1. sā hweū hwurhte sanā wulhwā hwure avajs

   þō fehū furhti þaną wulfą furi habaiþi.

   'The cattle has fear of the wolf.'

2. sa wulhwā sā hweū ērīs

   sa wulfaz þō fehū ?gaisīþi. ( PIE *gheis-, cf. Goth. usgaisjan)

   'The wolf terrorizes the cattle.'

Askājaskā naunā

sājanaunā

The adjectives of Skájamál are quite peculiar from a sibling perspective - there is no “strong” or “weak” inflection - instead, adjectives are declined for definiteness by a complex process whose origins lie in the ancient addition of a prefix, *ja(i)-, which is usually reflected as a- before most consonants and disappears before most vowels. However, sound changes and analogical processes make the resultant system quite tricky to navigate.

1. preserved pre-consonantal a-

hwēkwaḥ vs. ahwēkwaḥ (weak)

1. iotation and loss

ulsīnaḥ vs. iulsīnaḥ (golden);this results from an original *g being preserved as -j- intervocalically and lost initially.

1. preserved lenition

bitraḥ vs. avitraḥ (bitter)

1. lenition and loss

batistaḥ vs. vatistaḥ (best)

Askājaskā wursā

ahwēkwā wursā

habdō > awdō -> audō -> aujā 1sgpres, audō 1sgpast, aujau 1sgpressubj, audē 1sgpastsubj

1. Innovatio I

The past tense indicative 1pl marker has replaced the equivalent present indicative marker. So, basically a bunch of verbs look a bit like preterite-presents here.

e.g. aujum 'we have' ( from an innovated < *habjum, instead of the expected reflex of PGmc. *habjamaz which would be **aujamah)

1. Innovatio II

Loss of final -i in the ind. pres. ("weak")

avajs 'you have, he has' ( < *habaiþ < PGmc. *habaiþi AND < *habais < PGmc. *habaisi)

-jō	-jā
-aisi	-ajs
-aiþi	-ajs
-jum	-jum
-aiþ	-ajs
-janþi	-jan

1. Innovatio III

The subclasses of w-Class III merge with the stative -ja- spreading into the factitive in the present, while the factitive -a- forms spread to the past. The past participle is formed with *-adaz, present with *-(i)jandz

1. Innovatio IV

The spread of -janā to the infinitive from the I and III class to the rest.

wrissājanā, salbājanā

Class I

s-class I

A lot of things happen here:

As for *brūkaną, it's moved into class 2b of the strong verbs but keeps weak participle: briūk-, brauk-, brukadaz -> briūk-, brauk, brukara

then, *būanā joins the third weak class as būjanā (būās, būrāze, būra)

s-class II

todo

s-class III

to a large extent, merged with Class III, with verbs showing alternation between -a- and -i- in the past.

Class II

šemplīas paradịmās: wansājanā (kalaš II - 'mažinatiš')
						present participle: wansānn past participle: wansāraḥ
	indicative						subjunctive
	singular			plural			singular			plural
	first	second	third	first	second	third	first	second	third	first	second	third
present	wansā	wansās	wansās	wansām	wansās	wansān	wansō	wansā	wansā	wansām	wansā	wansān
past	wansārō	wansārē	wansārē	wansārzum	wansārzud	wansārzun	wansārzī	wansārzī	wansārzī	wansārzīm	wansārzīd	wansārzīn

Class III

šemplīas paradịmās: aujanā (kalaš III - 'jèmetiš')
						present participle: aujann past participle: avarah
	indicative						subjunctive
	singular			plural			singular			plural
	first	second	third	first	second	third	first	second	third	first	second	third
present	aujā	avajs	avajs	aujum	avajs	aujan	aujaū	aujai	aujai	aujaim	aujai	aujain
past	audō	audē	audē	audum	audud	audun	audērī	audērī	audērī	audērīm	audērīd	audērīn

astarkijā wursā

Class I

-ī- -ē- -i- -i-

Class II

a) iu - au - u - u

b) iū - au - u - u < Innovatio! j- ex a)

Sandhi

Pronomina often occur in second position (wackernagel), thus sometimes glued onto verb. E.g.

wansā ik → wansājk

wansās sū → wansāru

wansās sa → wansāra

A man says to another man…

This is in step 16 Skājamāl

— O, Hweho!
— Hweho?
— Hwehōh?!
— Ne, hweho!
— Hahā, hweho!

Listen to this dialogue read by D. Salo