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The change initially applies to "light"-syllable nouns with stems ending in ‹-s› or ‹-r› in the masculine and feminine classes that take a final ‹-z› in the nominative singular. E.g. PGmc. *''weraz'', *''drusiz'' → (Mora Loss: Short Unstressed Vowel Deletion) → *''werz'', *''drusz'' → (Final Obstruent Devoicing) → ''wers'', ''druss'' → (r/s-Assimilation) → Gothic ''waír'' /wer/, ''drus''. | The change initially applies to "light"-syllable nouns with stems ending in ‹-s› or ‹-r› in the masculine and feminine classes that take a final ‹-z› in the nominative singular. E.g. PGmc. *''weraz'', *''drusiz'' → (Mora Loss: Short Unstressed Vowel Deletion) → *''werz'', *''drusz'' → (Final Obstruent Devoicing) → ''wers'', ''druss'' → (r/s-Assimilation) → Gothic ''waír'' /wer/, ''drus''. | ||
Later, beginning around the time of Middle Gutish, this change was expanded analogously to other nouns and adjectives which had "heavy" syllables, and eventually the rule emerged that nouns and adjectives ending in ‹-r› and ‹-s› do not take an (additional) ‹-s› in the nominative singular, though they otherwise follow the paradigm of their particular stem. | Later, beginning around the time of Middle Gutish, this change was expanded analogously to other nouns and adjectives which had "heavy" syllables, and eventually the rule emerged that nouns and adjectives ending in ‹-r› and ‹-s› do not take an (additional) ‹-s› in the nominative singular, though they otherwise follow the paradigm of their particular stem. (E.g. ''bērs'' → ''bēr'' ‘boar’, ''stiur'' → ''sčur'' ‘steer’. One notable example of this phenomenon is the Germanic ''tersaz'' (''membrum virīle'') which became ''tairs'' in Gothic, but was then reanalyzed as an exception to the original r-rule (instead of the s-rule that it actually is), and eventually it became ''ter'' in Gutish. It remains, however, an unkind word.) | ||
===Phonemic Inventory=== | ===Phonemic Inventory=== |
Revision as of 00:53, 22 October 2017
Gutish is an East Germanic language descended from a language that was probably mutually intelligible with Gothic, though much of its corpus cannot have been inherited from the language of Wulfilas. It is likely, however, that the speakers of the ancestor of Gutish did consider themselves Goths, as reflected in its name. (It is likely similar in development to Modern High German – Deutsch – which is not directly descended from Old High German, but rather a similar dialect spoken by a group who also considered themselves “Diutisk.”) While it shares many of the areal changes of the Northwest Germanic languages, it is also marked by distinctive changes in palatalization, which, while similar to those of Old English, are most likely influenced by contact with Slavic languages.
Writing System
Alphabet & Pronunciation
Here I give the traditional Gutish letters followed by the Romanization I use for them in the second row. The Romanization is used throughout this article.
Non-Alphabetic Variants
āde ‘egg’ |
ēls ‘eel’ |
īs ‘ice’ |
ōðlas ‘inheritance’ |
ūrus ‘aurochs’ |
œ̄ja ‘island’ |
ȳftigi ‘timeliness’ |
Though the seven long vowels of the Non-Alphabetic Variants have individual names, they are not considered to be part of the standard alphabet or alphabetical order. Instead, each long vowel is considered alphabetically to be the equivalent of its doubled short counterpart. That is, ‹ā› is equivalent to ‹aa›, ‹ē› to ‹ee›, ‹ī› to ‹ii›, and so on. (The long vowels ‹ǣ› and ‹ǭ› are included in the standard alphabetical order, and do not have short forms, though they are written with macrons in their Romanized forms.)
(NB: The Gutish alphabet, while mainly latin- and cyrillic-based, contains several characters which are not readily representable using the standard Unicode characters. The forms presented in this wiki are a Romanization of the letters shown in the table above.)
Orthography
The orthography of Gutish is quite regular to its phonology; indeed, there are very few exceptions – four, in fact:
- The letter ‹n› is used before ‹g› or ‹k› to indicate the velar nasal [ŋ]. Specifically, ‹ng› is [ŋg] and ‹nk› is [ŋk]. (E.g. drinkna [driŋk.na] ‘to drink’.)
- In combinations where ‹ng› is followed by another nasal consonant, [g] is elided in speech: ‹ngm› is [ŋm] and ‹ngn› is [ŋn]. (E.g. gangna [gaŋ.na] ‘to go’; not **[gaŋg.na].)
- The diphthong ‹eu› is realized as [ɛu̯] (rather than the expected [e̞u̯]). (E.g. sneugna [snɛu̯g.na] ‘to snow’.)
- The diphthong ‹øu› is realized as [œy̑] (rather than the expected [ø̞u̯]).
Stress is indicated in the standard orthography with an acute accent only if:
- The stress is not on the first syllable, and
- the stressed syllable is a short vowel. (Long vowels cannot be unstressed, though they may sometimes take secondary stress.)
For example, fergúne ‘mountain’, but garǣts ‘correct’.
Ligatures & Liaisons
When two like vowels of equal value come together, the words may form a ligature. This is most common with the articles (sā + a-, sō + u-, etc.) and particles (e.g nī + i-).
- Articles
- Mandatory:
- sā, hwā, twā + a-, ā- → s’ā-, hw’ā-, tw’ā-
- sā aplas → s’āplas, ‘the apple’
- twā aðna → tw’āðna ‘two seasons’
- sō, þō, hō + u-, ō- → s’ō-, þ’ō-, h’ō-
- sō uréča → s’ōréča, ‘the persuit’
- sō ōs → s’ōs, ‘the ewe’
- þǣ, twǣ + e-, ǣ- → þ’ǣ-, tw’ǣ-
- þǣ ǣjus → þ’ǣjus ‘the horses’
- twǣ elis → tw’ǣlis ‘two others’
- nī, þrī, hī + i-, ī- → n’ī-, þr’ī-, h’ī-
- nī ist → n’īst, ‘isn’t’
- hī īsran → h’īsran ‘this iron’
- sā, hwā, twā + a-, ā- → s’ā-, hw’ā-, tw’ā-
- Optional:
- sō, þō + V- → sw’V-, þw’V-
- sō akuže, sw’akuže ‘the axe’
- þō ī, þw’ī ‘those which’
- sō, þō + V- → sw’V-, þw’V-
- Mandatory:
Alternative Writing Systems
Cursive
Coming soon...
Phonology
Vowels
Short Vowels | Long Vowels | Diphthongs | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Front | Central | Back | Front | Central | Back | Front | Central | Back | |||
Closed | i · y [i · y] |
u [u] |
ī · ȳ [iː · yː] |
ū [uː] |
Closed-to- | ||||||
Mid | e · œ [e̞ · ø̞] |
o [o̞] |
ǣ · œ̄ [e̞ː · ø̞ː] |
ǭ [o̞ː] |
Mid-to- | ē · œu [e̞i̯ · œy̑] |
eu · ō [ɛu̯ · o̞u̯] | ||||
Open | a [ɑ] |
ā [ɑː] |
Open-to- |
Consonants
Bilabial | Labio- dental |
Dental | Alveolar | Palato- alveolar |
Velar | Glottal | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Plosive | p · b [p~pʰ · b] |
t · d [t~tʰ · d] |
k · g [k~kʰ · g] |
||||
Affricate | č · ǧ [ʧ · ʤ] |
||||||
Nasal | · m [m] |
· n [n] |
· n1 [ŋ] |
||||
Fricative | f · v [f · v] |
ð · þ [ð · θ] |
s · [s] |
š · ž [ʃ · ʒ] |
h · [h] | ||
Tap or Trill | · r [r~ɾ] |
||||||
Approximant | · j [j] |
· w [w] |
|||||
Lateral approximant | · l [l] |
1Before ‹g› or ‹k›.
[r]-Assimilation
This is a persistent rule that does not have much effect on declensions within the language, but does have some effect on the development of certain words. This rule is described in the Rules chapter of this document in Assimilation of [ɾ]. Specifically, /r/ is deleted when immediately followed by /ž/. For example, the possessive adjective inkur ‘your’, from earlier igqar /inkwar/ has the genitive plural form inkuža from earlier igqaraizō /inkwarɛ̄zō/ rather than the otherwise expected **inkurža. Similarly, marzjan ‘to offend’ and baurza /bɔrza/ ‘perch, bass’ → mežin, boža.
Voicing Alternation
This rule is inherited from Proto-Germanic. The rule is not persistent, but the variation in forms still affects the inflections of nouns, verbs, and adjectives in Gutish. (A similar v/f alternation rule exists in English, for example in singular knife and plural knives, or the noun strife and the verb strive.) The Gothic version of this rule caused alternation between ‹f› or ‹þ›, used only at the end of a word or before an unvoiced consonant, and ‹b› or ‹d›, used elsewhere, e.g. giban, ‘to give’, gaf, ‘gave’. There are three main realizations of this rule in Gutish:
- v → f
- ð → þ } at the end of a word, or before an unvoiced consonant.
- ž → s
The implications of this rule for Gutish are:
- ‹f› or ‹þ› occur before ‹s› in the nominative singular of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, e.g. þlǣfs ‘loaf of bread’, but genitive þlǣvis.
- ‹f› or ‹þ› occur when word-final in the accusative of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, and the nominative and accusative of neuter strong nouns, e.g. blōþ ‘blood’, but genitive blōðis.
- ‹f› occurs when word-final or before ‹t› in the preterit singular and the second person imperative singular of strong verbs, e.g. gaf, gaft, ‘gave’, but infinitive givna.
- ‹þ› also occurs when word-final in the preterit singular and imperative, but is assimilated to ‹s› before ‹t› in the second person preterit (see Coronal Consonant Assimilation below), e.g. biǧin ‘to bid’ has the first- and third-person preterit baþ but second-person bast.
- The implications for ‹s› and ‹ž› can be a little trickier, because this split was not uniform in Gothic, and intervocalic /s/ was not later voiced (as it was in many other Germanic languages, leveling out this particular conundrum), so many words retain ‹s› throughout the paradigm. These are noted in the lexicon.
Please note that because this rule is not persistent, there are several words which later developed an intervocalic ‹f› or ‹þ› from earlier ‹h› which is not affected by this rule.
Palatalization
Palatalization is another historic rule that is no longer persistent in Gutish, but has wide-ranging implications for inflections in Gutish. There are actually several types of palatalization that occur in Gutish, but they can all be boiled down into the following rules:
- Masculine and feminine nouns whose roots end in ‹d› or ‹g› become palatalized before ‹s› in the nominative singular of a-, i-, and u-stems (but not feminine ō-stems). E.g. Gothic dags ‘day’, gards ‘yard’ become daǧ, garǧ. This type of palatalization only occurs when there was a /dz/ or /gz/ present in the language at some point historically (from Gothic /ds/ or /gs/).
- A much more common form of palatalization, however, is that which occurs whenever the ending of a noun, verb, or adjective begins with ‹j›, e.g. strong masculine ja-stem nouns or adjectives or class 1 weak verbs. In these cases, the following occurs:
- d or g + j → ǧ
- t or k + j → č
- s or h + j → š
- z + j → ž (Actually, all instances of ‹z› eventually became ‹ž›, but that’s not applicable to this section.)
Palatalization of the latter type often goes hand in hand with Umlaut, below.
[b]/[v] Alternation
A less common alternation is that of ‹b› and ‹v›. This occurs in the same environment as the second type of palatalization (above), but instead of a true palatalization, instead there is a shift of ‹v› to ‹b›; or, more accurately, some paradigms without an original ‹j› are able to shift from ‹b› to ‹v› when intervocalic, but those with ‹j› are blocked from spirantizing.
For example, the adjective drœ̄vis ‘muddy’ (from Gothic drōbeis) has the dative singular form drœ̄bia (from drōbja).
Umlaut
Umlaut is another of those sound laws that no longer happens actively in the language, but it has become indicative of specific tenses or cases in the language.
- The accusative singular of nouns with palatalization are not umlauted. All other forms of nouns with palatalization are umlauted.
- The past subjunctive of verbs is umlauted (except for the 3rd person singular in formal speech). (First person singular is palatalized and umlauted.)
- Most class 1 weak verbs and strong verbs ending in –jan in Gothic have umlaut in the present and imperative. These verbs all end with –in in Gutish.
Umlaut in Gutish initiates the following changes in the stressed vowel of a word:
- a → e - satjan ‘to set’ → sečin
- ā → ǣ - hlahjan ‘to laugh’ → þlǣn
- ǭ (Got. ‹áu›) → œ̄ - hausjan ‘to hear’ → hœ̄šin
- o (Got. ‹aú›) → œ - þaursjan ‘to thirst’ → þœršin
- ō → œ̄ - hwōtjan ‘to threaten’ → hwœ̄čin
- u → y - hugjan ‘to think’ → hyǧin
- ū → ȳ - hrūkjan ‘to crow’ → þrȳčin
NB: The word “Umlaut” can refer to several different types of vowel change in Germanic languages – i/j-umlaut, u/w-umlaut, and a-umlaut most commonly – but only one type is present in Gutish: Umlaut here is used to refer specifically to i/j-umlaut, also known as i-umlaut, or front umlaut.
Coronal Consonant Assimilation
This rule has a formidable name, but is actually common to all Germanic languages. This rule states that whenever a coronal consonant (namely, d, t, or þ) is directly followed by ‹t› or ‹st›, the coronal consonant becomes s. This accounts for the English word best, from earlier betst, from *batest. This applies mainly to second person preterit strong verbs, e.g. ǧutna ‘to pour’ and biǧin ‘to bid’ have a second person preterit of gǭst ‘you poured’ and bast ‘you bade’, rather than the otherwise expected **gǭtt and **baþt.
Syncope of Unstressed Non-High Middle Vowel
...um, working on it. I'll get back to you on this one...
Blocking of Metathetical Unpacking
Another formidable name, but what this means is that at various times historically, sound changes caused unstressed /a/ to disappear before sonorants (/l/, /r/, /m/, or /n/), turning them into syllabics. This happened at least once before the Gothic era, giving rise to words like bagms and aþn, and again before Gutish, most notably collapsing the infinitive -an to -n. Later on, syllabics were “unpacked;” that is, they regained the /a/ that had been lost, but it now appeared after the sonorant instead of before it. For example, brōþar ‘brother’ became brōðra via an intermediate */brōðr̩/. However, there are a few instances where this unpacking didn’t happen because the ‹a› before the sonorant could not be deleted; if it were, the word would have been unpronounceable. This metathesis (which, in reality, is not really metathesis, but that’s what I’m calling it for now) is also blocked after any non-intervocalic voiced continuant; that is, V[v/ð]S shifts as expected (e.g. widan > wiðn̩ > wiðna), but VC[v/ð]S does not (e.g. haldan > halðan, not **halðna).
The practicality of this rule as it applies to modern Gutish is that:
- Dative plural a-stem nouns whose roots end in ‹–m› have the ending of ‹–am› rather than ‹–ma›, e.g. worms ‘worm’ has the dative plural of wormam rather than **wormma.
- Masculine accusative plural strong a-stem nouns ending in ‹–n› have the ending of ‹–ans› rather than ‹–nas›, e.g. ǭns ‘oven’ has the accusative plural of ǭnans rather than **ǭnnas.
- Infinitives of strong verbs and weak class 3 verbs whose roots end with ‹lð›, ‹lv›, ‹rð›, or ‹rv› have ‹–an› instead of ‹–na›, e.g. Gothic þaurban becomes þorvan rather than the otherwise expected **þorvna.
- The third person plural indicative of strong verbs and weak class 3 verbs end in -anþ rather than **naþ.
Assimilation of [r] and [s]
Historically, this is a sound change that occurred in the transition from Proto-Germanic to Gothic and is no longer persistent, but it has specific reflexes that affect Gutish paradigms.
The change initially applies to "light"-syllable nouns with stems ending in ‹-s› or ‹-r› in the masculine and feminine classes that take a final ‹-z› in the nominative singular. E.g. PGmc. *weraz, *drusiz → (Mora Loss: Short Unstressed Vowel Deletion) → *werz, *drusz → (Final Obstruent Devoicing) → wers, druss → (r/s-Assimilation) → Gothic waír /wer/, drus.
Later, beginning around the time of Middle Gutish, this change was expanded analogously to other nouns and adjectives which had "heavy" syllables, and eventually the rule emerged that nouns and adjectives ending in ‹-r› and ‹-s› do not take an (additional) ‹-s› in the nominative singular, though they otherwise follow the paradigm of their particular stem. (E.g. bērs → bēr ‘boar’, stiur → sčur ‘steer’. One notable example of this phenomenon is the Germanic tersaz (membrum virīle) which became tairs in Gothic, but was then reanalyzed as an exception to the original r-rule (instead of the s-rule that it actually is), and eventually it became ter in Gutish. It remains, however, an unkind word.)
Phonemic Inventory
Pronouns
Personal Pronouns
Nom. | Gen. | Dat. | Acc. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1sg | ik | mīn | mis | mik | I, my, (to) me, me |
2sg | þū | þīn | þis | þik | thou, thy, (to) thee, thee |
3sg.masc | is | is | itma | in | he, his, (to) him, him |
3sg.neu | it | is | itma | it | it, its, (to) it, it |
3sg.fem | sī | ižas | iža | ī, īja | she, her, (to) her, her |
1du | wit | unkar | unkis | unk | we two, our, (to) us, us |
2du | jut | inkur | inkus | ink | you/ye two, your, (to) you, you |
1pl | wīs | unsar | unsis | uns | we all, our, (to) us, us |
2pl | jūs | ižur | ižus | ižus | you/ye all, your, (to) you, you |
3pl.masc | īs | iža | im | ins | they, their, (to) them, them |
3pl.neu | ī, īja | iža | im | ī, īja | they, their, (to) them, them |
3pl.fem | ījas | iža | im | ījas | they, their, (to) them, them |
Relative Pronouns
There are two types of relative pronouns in Gutish, and although they are used interchangeably, I present them here in two separate tables: The first (more common) forms are with the Gothic clitic particle ei- having separated from the pronouns (see Clitic Separation), and the second, more “traditional” forms where the clitic is still attached to the word.
Nom. | Gen. | Dat. | Acc. | Nom. | Gen. | Dat. | Acc. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
sg.masc | is ī | þis ī | þatm’ī | þan ī | iži | þiži | þetmi | þeni | |
sg.neu | þat ī | þis ī | þatm’ī | þat ī | þī, þeti | þiži | þetmi | þī, þeti | |
sg.fem | sō ī, sw’ī | þižas ī | þiž’ī | þō ī, þw’ī | sī | þižaži | þiži | þī | |
pl.masc | īs ī, þǣ ī | þiž’ī | þǣm ī | þans ī | iži | þiži | þǣmi | þenǧi | |
pl.neu | þō ī, þw’ī | þiž’ī | þǣm ī | þō ī, þw’ī | þœ̄gi | þiži | þǣmi | þœ̄gi | |
pl.fem | þōs ī | þiž’ī | þǣm ī | þōs ī | þœ̄ži | þiži | þǣmi | þœ̄ži |
Indefinite Pronouns
Nom. | Gen. | Dat. | Acc. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
inter.masc | hwas | hwis | hwatma | hwan | who, whose, to whom, whom |
inter.neu | hwā | hwis | hwatma | hwat | what, &c, plural. |
inter.fem | hwō | hwižas | hwiža | hwō | who, &c, plural. |
gen. | sist | is | itma | sist | one, one’s, &c |
neg. | nima hun | nimis hun | nimin hun | nimna hun | noöne, noöne’s, &c |
refl. | - | sīn | sis | sik | himself, herself, itself, &c |
Numbers
Declinable Numerals
Singular (‘one, a, an’)
Nom. | Gen. | Dat. | Acc. | |
---|---|---|---|---|
masc. | ǣns | ǣnis | ǣnatma | ǣnan |
neu. | ǣn(at) | ǣnis | ǣnatma | ǣn(at) |
fem. | ǣna | ǣnažas | ǣna | ǣna |
Dual (‘two, both’)
Numeral | Distributive (short) | Distributive (long) | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nom. | Gen. | Dat. | Acc. | Nom. | Gen. | Dat. | Acc. | Nom. | Gen. | Dat. | Acc. | |||
masc. | twǣ | twǣǧa | twǣm | twans | bǣ | bǣža | bǣm | bans | bījaþs | bīðiža | bīðum | bīðans | ||
neu. | twā | twǣǧa | twǣm | twā | bā | bǣža | bǣm | bā | bījaþ | bīðiža | bīðum | bījaþ | ||
fem. | twōs | twǣǧa | twǣm | twōs | bījas | bǣža | bǣm | bījas | bīðas | bīðiža | bīðum | bīðas |
Trial (‘three, all three’)
Numeral | Distributive | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nom. | Gen. | Dat. | Acc. | Nom. | Gen. | Dat. | Acc. | ||
masc. | þrīs | þrīja | þrim | þrins | þrǣ | þrǣža | þrǣm | þrans | |
neu. | þrī | þrīja | þrim | þrī | þrā | þrǣža | þrǣm | þrā | |
fem. | þrīs | þrīja | þrim | þrins | þrījas | þrǣža | þrǣm | þrījas |
Undeclinable Numerals
# | 1# | #0 | #00 | #000 | #000 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 | (nǣns) | tǣjun, tēn | -tiǧis | tēhund | þūsunde | -ljǭn |
1 | (ǣns) | ǣnlif | tǣjun | ǣn hund | ǣna þūsunde | miljǭn |
2 | (twǣ) | twalif | twǣtiǧis | twā hunda | tōs þūsunǧis | biljǭn |
3 | (þrīs) | þrījatǣn | þrīstiǧis | þrī hunda | þrī þūsunǧis | þriljǭn |
4 | fiður, fiðra | fiðratǣn | fiðratiǧis | fiður hunda | fiður þūsunǧis | friljǭn |
5 | fim | fimtǣn | fimtiǧis | fim hunda | fim þūsunǧis | fimfiljǭn |
6 | sǣs | sǣstǣn | sǣstiǧis | sǣs hunda | sǣs þūsunǧis | sǣsiljǭn |
7 | sivun, sivna | sivnatǣn | sivnatiǧis | sivun hunda | sivun þūsunǧis | sivniljǭn |
8 | āta | ātatǣn | ātatiǧis | āta hunda | āta þūsunǧis | ātatiljǭn |
9 | njun | njuntǣn | njuntiǧis | njun hunda | njun þūsunǧis | njuniljǭn |
The numbers in Gutish – as in most languages – have gone through more phonological change than other words, and as a result, there are some irregularities. Four numbers have two forms (some of which may be optional). There is also an innovated trial distributive (‘all three’), probably by assimilation from the dual (‘both’). The number ‘one’, usually alternating with the indefinite article in most languages, is used merely for counting purposes, as an indefinite article is not used in Gutish.
The number ‘four’ is fiður, where we would normally expect **fidur through regular sound change (specifically, the change of /d/ to /ð/ would normally be blocked by the following /w/ in fidwōr). There is also a further lenited form of fiðra, which is optional when it stands alone, but required in compounds. (Gothic also had two versions of ‘four’: fidwōr and a compound form fidur.)
The number ‘seven’ has the expected form of sivun, but also a lenited form of sivna, again, required in compounds but otherwise optional. ‘Eight’ is āta, but may optionally be lenited to āt. (This is a newer innovation, and is not considered to be correct in writing.) Finally ‘ten’ is tǣjun or lenited tǣn, the latter being used exclusively in the “teen” numbers, the former being preferred elsewhere, though still optional.
Number terms higher than ‘thousand’ are ostensibly borrowed from Latin, though they contain their own Germanic innovations, e.g. þriljǭn ‘trillion’, fiðriljǭn ‘quadrillion’, fimfiljǭn ‘quintillion’, instead of the expected **triljǭn, **kwaðriljǭn, and **kwintiljǭn.
Another note concerning the higher numbers: Gutish follows the short scale for higher numbers (whereas most European countries currently use the long scale); that is, each new number term is one thousand times larger than the previous term (whereas in the long scale, each new term is one million times larger). This is further confused by the now-standard European “hybrid” model where intermediate terms in the long scale are applied to the “thousands” with the suffix ‘-ard’. The following table is applicable to most modern standards:
N⁰ | Numerals | Gutish | Short | Hybrid | Long | Metric |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
10³ | 1,000 | þūsunde | thousand | thousand | thousand | kilo |
10⁶ | 1,000,000 | miljǭn | million | million | million | Mega |
10⁹ | 1,000,000,000 | biljǭn | billion | milliard | thousand million | Giga |
10¹² | 1,000,000,000,000 | þriljǭn | trillion | billion | billion | Tera |
10¹⁵ | 1,000,000,000,000,000 | fiðriljǭn | quadrillion | billiard | thousand billion | Peta |
10¹⁸ | 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 | fimfiljǭn | quintillion | trillion | trillion | Exa |
10²¹ | 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 | sǣsiljǭn | sextillion | trilliard | thousand trillion | Zetta |
10²⁴ | 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 | sivniljǭn | septillion | quadrillion | quadrillion | Yotta |
10²⁷ | 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 | ātatiljǭn | octillion | quadrilliard | thousand quadrillion | - |
10³⁰ | 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 | njuniljǭn | nonillion | quintillion | quintillion | - |
Ordinal Numbers
Ordinal numbers are usually formed by adding a dental suffix to the end of a number, though there is some suppletion for the first and second ordinals, and the third is irregular (just as is the case in English).
In Proto-Germanic and Gothic, all of the ordinals except for first and second used only the weak declension, but all ordinals now use both strong and weak declensions according to standard rules. As with the cardinal numbers, there are two acceptable forms for ‘fourth’, ‘seventh’, and ‘tenth,’ following the same lenition as the cardinals, though there is only one form of ‘eighth’. An alternate form of ‘third’, þrīǧas is sometimes used, but it is not always considered correct.
1 | frumist, frums | first |
2 | anðras | second |
3 | þriǧas, þrīǧas | third |
4 | fiðraþs | fourth |
5 | fimft | fifth |
6 | sǣst | sixth |
7 | sivunǧ | seventh |
8 | ātuǧ | eighth |
9 | njunǧ | ninth |
10 | tǣjunǧ, tǣnǧ | tenth |
11 | ǣnlift | eleventh |
12 | twālift | twelfth |
13 | þrītǣnǧ | thirteenth |
20 | twǣtiǧist | twentieth |
100 | hundaþs | hundredth |
1,000 | þūsunǧiþs | thousandth |
1,000,000 | miljǭnǧ | millionth |
Alternative Numbers
The Gothic number system, modeled after the Greek system, which used the letters of the alphabet instead of separate unique characters, continued to be used well into the middle ages (Middle Gutish), and certain taboo numbers came to be called by their character representation rather than their numeric form. Primarily among these numbers was '13', which was written in Gothic as ·ig·. This also occurred with the numbers '113' (rig), '213' (sig), '313' (tig), '413' (wig), and '513' (fig). (This was not mirrored in the higher numbers of the hundreds, because most of those combinations would have been unpronounceable.)
The number '19' is also sometimes called iþ by the same formulation.
Certain slang terms have also developed out of this system, in reverse, as it were. For example, a 'road' or 'highway' is sometimes referred to as a '413' (fiðrahunda þrījatǣn or fiðra-þrītǣn), written wig (the accusative singular of wiǧ ('road').
A much more recent slang term that has evolved from this system is the use of the number '843' to represent the (unpronounceable) letter combination ·omg·.
Articles & Determiners
Gutish has two definite articles, sā and his, both of which are equivalent to ‘the,’ but may also be translated as ‘that’ and ‘this’, respectively. Where there is a lack of clear proximity-based dichotomy, sā is usually preferred.
There is no indefinite article in Gutish.
Nom. | Gen. | Dat. | Acc. | Nom. | Gen. | Dat. | Acc. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
masc.sg | sā | þis | þatma | þan | his | his | hitma | hin | |
neu.sg | þat | þis | þatma | þat | hit | his | hitma | hit | |
fem.sg | sō | þižas | þiža | þō | hīja | hižas | hiža | hī, hīja | |
masc.pl | þǣ | þiža | þǣm | þans | hīs | hiža | him | hins | |
neu.pl | þō | þiža | þǣm | þō | hī, hīja | hiža | him | hī, hīja | |
fem.pl | þōs | þiža | þǣm | þōs | hījas | hiža | him | hījas |
Nouns
A Note on Strong and Weak Nouns
In most Germanic languages, nouns (as well as verbs and adjectives) tend to be broken into categories considered “strong” and “weak.” In nouns and adjectives, “weak” means that the words cling to their determiner endings inherited from Indo-European, which usually have an /n/ inserted between the root and the ending. For the purposes of this text, I will dispense with the traditional strong and weak categories as relates to the nouns and simply relate the various categories into which nouns can be classified, based on their inherited Proto-Germanic endings (which include the /n/ infix where applicable). Since these endings can be irregular and each class must be learned by rote anyway, there is no need in the context of the Gutish language to add this additional arbitrary distinction.
Noun classes differ by stem vowel and by gender. They may also differ by glides (/j/ or /w/) suffixed to the stem and/or the presence of infixive /n/. The main classes are those stems in /a/ or /ō/, in /i/, in /u/, or in /n/ (as described above). There are also a few minor classes in consonantal stems (a.k.a. Ø-stem), in /r/ (a very small class having to do with familial relations), and in /nd/ (based on the nominalization of the present participle). These minor classes will be discussed here, but for the learner who is new to Germanic languages, these should be treated as irregular declensions and learned by rote. Many of these have also been regularized in Gutish through the process of paradigmatic levelling, and their declensions have been assimilated by analogy into other classes.
Every noun in Gutish (and most Germanic languages) has eight possible forms. These are the singular and plural forms of the nominative (those nouns which comprise the subject of the sentence), genitive (those used to indicate possession or relation), dative (the indirect object), and accusative (the direct object).
Masculine and feminine strong nouns usually take an ending of –s for the nominative singular, while neuter nouns take no ending. The genitive is almost universally indicated by –is (this is equivalent to the “ ’s ” of the English possessive). The dative usually takes –a. The accusative usually does not take any ending.
In the plural, Masculine and feminine nouns usually take –as as an ending; neuter takes –a. The genitive plural also takes –a. The dative plural takes –am, but in many cases this ending undergoes a process of metathesis, rendering it –ma (exceptions are noted in the paradigms). Finally the accusative plural of masculine and feminine nouns is –ans, but again may metathesize to –nas; neuter plurals generally take –a.
Most of the actual declensions of nouns are fairly standard – much more standardized, in fact, than Gothic – however, the various phonological rules governing the language create a great deal of variation. It is im-portant to be familiar with the rules set forth in the Phonology section of this document in order to fully understand some of the otherwise unexpected variants that emerge.
In order to give more context to the evolution of these rules and the variations that emerge, the original Proto-Germanic and Gothic forms are also examined.
a- and ō-stems
By far the most common type of noun in all of the Germanic languages, a- and ō-stems become the basis of several sub-classes of nouns. Masculine and neuter nouns took a-stem (from Proto-Indo-European o-), while feminine nouns took ō (from PIE ā-).
Strong a-stem (masculine)
This is the most common type of noun class in Gutish as well as in most Germanic languages. As such, it is also the most varied in terms of declension.
Nom.Sg. | Gen.Sg. | Dat.Sg. | Acc.Sg. | Nom.Pl. | Gen.Pl. | Dat.Pl. | Acc.Pl. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Type I: Default (“n.st.m.a”) | ||||||||
slǣpaz | slǣpis | slǣpai | slǣpą | slǣpōz | slǣpǫ̂ | slǣpamaz | slǣpanz | ‘sleep’ |
slēps | slēpis | slēpa | slēp | slēpōs | slēpē | slēpam | slēpans | |
slēps | slēpis | slēpa | slēp | slēpas | slēpa | slēpma | slēpnas | |
This is the default declension of the a-stem paradigm. Note the metathesis in the endings on the dative and accusative plural. | ||||||||
Type II: Syllabic (“n.st.m.a.syl”) for roots ending in VCR (VCl-, VCm-, VCn-, VCr-) | ||||||||
akraz | akris | akrai | akrą | akrōz | akrǫ̂ | akramaz | akranz | ‘field’ |
akrs | akris | akra | akr | akrōs | akrē | akram | akrans | |
akras | akris | akra | akra | akras | akra | akram | akrans | |
For those nouns ending in a syllabic sonorant in Gothic (‹r›, ‹l›, ‹m›, or ‹n› after another consonant), a vowel must be added to certain endings (indicated in red). Consquently, the metathesis observed in the default form is undone. (Or, more accurately, is blocked from occurring in the first place.) | ||||||||
Type IIIa: Devoicing/Spirantization Merging (“n.st.m.ba”) for roots ending in Vb- and Vf- | ||||||||
hlaibaz | hlaibis | hlaibai | hlaibą | hlaibōz | hlaibǫ̂ | hlaibamaz | hlaibanz | ‘bread’ |
hlaifs | hlaibis | hlaiba | hlaif | hlaibōs | hlaibē | hlaibam | hlaibans | |
þlǣfs | þlǣvis | þlǣva | þlǣf | þlǣvas | þlǣva | þlǣvma | þlǣvnas | |
For roots ending in ‹b›, it is devoiced to ‹f› in the nominative and accusative singular (at a time before Gothic), indicated in red. ‹b› is spirantized (that is, becomes ‹v›) in the rest of the endings, indicated in blue. (This was the case in Gothic as well, though the spirantization was not indicated in writing.) In the case of those roots ending in ‹f›, the ‹f› is voiced to ‹v› in the same environment that ‹b› is spirantized, so as far as Gutish is concerned, these two paradigms are identical. | ||||||||
Type IIIb: Devoicing/Spirantization Merging (“n.st.m.da”) for roots ending in Vd- and Vþ- | ||||||||
audaz | audis | audai | audą | audōz | audǫ̂ | audamaz | audanz | ‘fortune’ |
auþs | audis | auda | auþ | audōs | audē | audam | audans | |
ǭþs | ǭðis | ǭða | ǭþ | ǭðas | ǭða | ǭðma | ǭðnas | |
Same idea as above. For roots ending in ‹d›, it is devoiced to ‹þ› in the nominative and accusative singular (at a time before Gothic), indicated in red. ‹d› is spirantized (that is, becomes ‹ð›) in the rest of the endings, indicated in blue. (This was the case in Gothic as well, though the spirantization was not indicated in writing.) In the case of those roots ending in ‹þ›, the ‹þ› is voiced to ‹ð› in the same environment that ‹d› is spirantized, so as far as Gutish is concerned, these two paradigms are identical. | ||||||||
Type IIIc: Devoicing (“n.st.m.za”) for roots ending in Vz- | ||||||||
gaizaz | gaizis | gaizai | gaizą | gaizōz | gaizǫ̂ | gaizamaz | gaizanz | ‘spear’ |
gais | gaizis | gaiza | gais | gaizōs | gaizē | gaizam | gaizans | |
gǣs | gǣžis | gǣža | gǣs | gǣžas | gǣža | gǣžma | gǣžnas | |
Same idea as above, with an extra twist. For roots ending in ‹ž›, it is devoiced to ‹s› in the nominative and accusative singular (at a time before Gothic), indicated in red. ‹ž› remains in the rest of the endings, indicated in blue. In addition to the devoicing in the nominative and accusative, the nominative ending ‹s› is deleted or assimilated. | ||||||||
Type IVa: Post-Approximant Spirantization (“n.st.m.rba”) for roots ending in Vlb- and Vrb- | ||||||||
hwerbaz | hwerbis | hwerbai | hwerbą | hwerbōz | hwerbǫ̂ | hwerbamaz | hwerbanz | ‘planet’ |
ƕaírbs | ƕaírbis | ƕaírba | ƕaírb | ƕaírbōs | ƕaírbē | ƕaírbam | ƕaírbans | |
hwerbs | hwervis | hwerva | hwerb | hwervas | hwerva | hwervam | hwervans | |
Like the above, this deals with nouns ending in ‹b›, which spirantizes to ‹v› in most declensions, but it is prevented from devoicing to ‹f› in the nominative and accusative by a consonant before it. This is a rule inhereited from Gothic. Metathesis in the dative and accusative plural is also blocked. This occurs for stems ending in ‹rb›, ‹rd›, ‹lb›, and ‹ld›. | ||||||||
Type IVb: Post-Approximant Spirantization (“n.st.m.rda”) for roots ending in Vld- and Vrd- | ||||||||
bardaz | bardis | bardai | bardą | bardōz | bardǫ̂ | bardamaz | bardanz | ‘beard’ |
bards | bardis | barda | bard | bardōs | bardē | bardam | bardans | |
barǧ | barðis | barða | bard | barðas | barða | barðam | barðans | |
This is the same idea as the “rda” declension above, with the additional twist that Gothic ‹ds›, when word-final, palatalizes and becomes ‹ǧ›. There is also spirantization in the other declensions except for the accusative singular, which retains the original ‹d›, and metathesis is blocked in the dative and accusative plural. | ||||||||
Type IVc: Post-Approximant Spirantization (“n.st.m.rza”) for roots ending in Vlz- and Vrz- | ||||||||
amzaz | amzis | amzai | amzą | amzōz | amzǫ̂ | amzamaz | amzanz | ‘shoulder’ |
ams | amzis | amza | ams | amzōs | amzē | amzam | amzans | |
ams | amžis | amža | ams | amžas | amža | amžam | amžans | |
This paradigm differs from the version above in that a consonant occurring before a voiced fricative (‹ž›) has the affect of blocking metathesis in the dative and accusative plural (in red). | ||||||||
Type Va: Post-Approximant Inter-Sonorant Voicing (“n.st.m.lfa”) for roots ending in Vlf- and Vrf- | ||||||||
wulfaz | wulfis | wulfai | wulfą | wulfōz | wulfǫ̂ | wulfamaz | wulfanz | ‘wolf’ |
wulfs | wulfis | wulfa | wulf | wulfōs | wulfē | wulfam | wulfans | |
wulfs | wulvis | wulva | wulf | wulvas | wulva | wulvam | wulvans | |
Scary name, but it’s really just the same as the above, but for nouns ending in ‹f›. | ||||||||
Type Vb: Post-Approximant Inter-Sonorant Voicing (“n.st.m.lþa”) for roots ending in Vlþ- and Vrþ- | ||||||||
Type VIa: Post-Approximant Inter-Sonorant Voicing (“n.st.m.ga”) for roots ending in Vg-, Vng-, Vlg-, Vrg- | ||||||||
dagaz | dagis | dagai | dagą | dagōz | dagǫ̂ | dagamaz | daganz | ‘day’ |
dags | dagis | daga | dag | dagōs | dagē | dagam | dagans | |
daǧ | dagis | daga | dag | dagas | daga | dagma | dagnas | |
This is the same as the default with the only exception that there is palatalization of ‹g› in the nominative singular. | ||||||||
Type VIIa: /r/-Assimilation (“n.st.m.ra”) for roots ending in r- | ||||||||
weraz | weris | werai | werą | werōz | werǫ̂ | weramaz | weranz | ‘man’ |
waír | waíris | waíra | waír | waírōs | waírē | waíram | waírans | |
wer | weris | wera | wer | weras | wera | werma | wernas | |
This is the same as the default with the only exception that the nominative singular ‹s› is assimilated (in pre-Gothic times). This rule expands slightly in Gutish; whereas in Gothic it applied only to light syllables, by Gutish times it applies to all nouns ending in ‹r›. | ||||||||
Type VIIb: /s/-Assimilation (“n.st.m.sa”) for roots ending in s- | ||||||||
wapsaz | wapsis | wapsai | wapsą | wapsōz | wapsǫ̂ | wapsamaz | wapsanz | ‘wasp’ |
waps | wapsis | wapsa | waps | wapsōs | wapsē | wapsam | wapsans | |
waps | wapsis | wapsa | waps | wapsas | wapsa | wapsma | wapsnas | |
s is dropped/assimilated from the nominative. | ||||||||
Type VIIc: Cluster Simplification and Palatalization (“n.st.m.ska”) for roots ending in Vsk- | ||||||||
fiskaz | fiskis | fiskai | fiską | fiskōz | fiskǫ̂ | fiskamaz | fiskanz | ‘fish’ |
fisks | fiskis | fiska | fisk | fiskōs | fiskē | fiskam | fiskans | |
fišk | fiškis | fiška | fišk | fiškas | fiška | fiškam | fiškans | |
s is dropped from the nominative. | ||||||||
Type VIId: Cluster Simplification (“n.st.m.ska”) for roots ending in Vsp-, Vst-, Vft- | ||||||||
astaz | astis | astai | astą | astōz | astǫ̂ | astamaz | astanz | ‘branch’ |
asts | astis | asta | ast | astōs | astē | astam | astans | |
ast | astis | asta | ast | astas | asta | astma | astnas | |
s is dropped from the nominative. | ||||||||
Type VIIIa: Metathetical Blocking with /m/ (“n.st.m.ska”) for roots ending in m- | ||||||||
wurmaz | wurmis | wurmai | wurmą | wurmōz | wurmǫ̂ | wurmamaz | wurmanz | ‘wurm’ |
waúrms | waúrmis | waúrma | waúrm | waúrmōs | waúrmē | waúrmam | waúrmans | |
worms | wormis | worma | worm | wormas | worma | wormam | wormnas | |
no metathesis in dat pl only | ||||||||
Type VIIIa: Metathetical Blocking with /n/ (“n.st.m.ska”) for roots ending in n- | ||||||||
uhnaz | uhnis | uhnai | uhną | uhnōz | uhnǫ̂ | uhnamaz | uhnanz | ‘oven’ |
auhns | auhnis | auhna | auhn | auhnōs | auhnē | auhnam | auhnans | |
ǭns | ǭnis | ǭna | ǭn | ǭnas | ǭna | ǭnma | ǭnans | |
no metathesis in acc pl only | ||||||||
Type IXa: Assimilation of /b/ (“n.st.m.mba”) for roots ending in mb- | ||||||||
lambaz | lambis | lambai | lambą | lambōz | lambǫ̂ | lambamaz | lambanz | ‘lamb, sheep’ |
lambs | lambis | lamba | lamb | lambōs | lambē | lambam | lambans | |
lams | lambis | lamba | lam | lambas | lamba | lambam | lambans | |
b is lost in nom and acc sg | ||||||||
Type IXa: nd (“n.st.m.nda”) for roots ending in nd- | ||||||||
wendaz | wendaiz | wendai | wendą | wendōz | wendǫ̂ | wendamaz | wendanz | ‘wind’ |
winds | windis | winda | wind | windōs | windē | windam | windans | |
winǧ | windis | winda | wind | windas | winda | windam | windans | |
In addition to those a-stem nouns ending in nd-, nounds from the “nd-stems,” such as frīnǧ ‘friend’, have been assimilated into this declension, adding ‹a› to the declension of the dative singular and nominative plural, and adding ‹n› to the accusative plural. |
Strong a-stem (neuter)
The strong neuter a-stems are just like the masculine, except that the neuter does not take an ‹-s› on the nominative singular (i.e. the nominative is the same as the accusative), and the nominative and accusative plurals are identical to the dative singular. In other words, any of the irregularities discussed above that have to do with these categories will no longer apply for neuter a-stem nouns.
Nom.Sg. | Gen.Sg. | Dat.Sg. | Acc.Sg. | Nom.Pl. | Gen.Pl. | Dat.Pl. | Acc.Pl. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Type I: Default (“n.st.n.a”) | ||||||||
barną | barnis | barnai | barną | barnō | barnǫ̂ | barnamaz | barnō | ‘child’ |
barn | barnis | barna | barn | barna | barnē | barnam | barna | |
barn | barnis | barna | barn | barna | barna | barnma | barnnas | |
This is the default declension of the a-stem paradigm. Note the metathesis in the endings on the dative and accusative plural. | ||||||||
Type II: Syllabic (“n.st.m.a.syl”) for roots ending in VCR (VCl-, VCm-, VCn-, VCr-) | ||||||||
aþną | aþnis | aþnai | aþną | aþnōz | aþnǫ̂ | aþnamaz | aþnanz | ‘season’ |
aþn | aþnis | aþna | aþn | aþna | aþnē | aþnam | aþna | |
aðna | aðnis | aðna | aðna | aðna | aðna | aðnam | aðna | |
For those nouns ending in a syllabic sonorant in Gothic (‹r›, ‹l›, ‹m›, or ‹n› after another consonant), a vowel must be added to certain endings (indicated in red). Consquently, the metathesis observed in the default form is undone. (Or, more accurately, is blocked from occurring in the first place.) | ||||||||
Type IIIa: Devoicing/Spirantization Merging (“n.st.m.ba”) for roots ending in Vb- and Vf- | ||||||||
hrōfą | hrōfis | hrōfai | hrōfą | hrōfō | hrōfǫ̂ | hrōfamaz | hrōfō | ‘roof’ |
hrōfs | hrōfis | hrōfa | hrōf | hrōfōs | hrōfē | hrōfam | hrōfans | |
þrōf | þrōvis | þrōva | þrōf | þrōva | þrōva | þrōvma | þrōva | |
For roots ending in ‹b›, it is devoiced to ‹f› in the nominative and accusative singular (at a time before Gothic), indicated in red. ‹b› is spirantized (that is, becomes ‹v›) in the rest of the endings, indicated in blue. (This was the case in Gothic as well, though the spirantization was not indicated in writing.) In the case of those roots ending in ‹f›, the ‹f› is voiced to ‹v› in the same environment that ‹b› is spirantized, so as far as Gutish is concerned, these two paradigms are identical. | ||||||||
Type IIIb: Devoicing/Spirantization Merging (“n.st.m.da”) for roots ending in Vd- and Vþ- | ||||||||
blōþą | blōþis | blōþai | blōþą | blōdō | blōdǫ̂ | blōdamaz | blōdō | ‘blood’ |
blōþ | blōþis | blōþa | blōþ | blōþa | blōþē | blōþam | blōþa | |
blōþ | blōðis | blōða | blōþ | blōða | blōða | blōðma | blōða | |
Same idea as above. For roots ending in ‹d›, it is devoiced to ‹þ› in the nominative and accusative singular (at a time before Gothic), indicated in red. ‹d› is spirantized (that is, becomes ‹ð›) in the rest of the endings, indicated in blue. (This was the case in Gothic as well, though the spirantization was not indicated in writing.) In the case of those roots ending in ‹þ›, the ‹þ› is voiced to ‹ð› in the same environment that ‹d› is spirantized, so as far as Gutish is concerned, these two paradigms are identical. | ||||||||
Type IIIc: Devoicing (“n.st.m.za”) for roots ending in Vz- | ||||||||
deuzą | deuzis | deuzai | deuzą | deuzō | deuzǫ̂ | deuzamaz | deuzō | ‘creature’ |
dius | diuzis | diuza | dius | diuza | diuzē | diuzam | diuza | |
ǧus | ǧužis | ǧuža | ǧus | ǧuža | ǧuža | ǧužma | ǧuža | |
Type IXa: Assimilation of /b/ (“n.st.n.mba”) for roots ending in mb- | ||||||||
lambą | lambis | lambai | lambą | lambō | lambǫ̂ | lambamaz | lambō | ‘lamb’ |
lamb | lambis | lamba | lamb | lamba | lambē | lambam | lamba | |
lam | lambis | lamba | lam | lamba | lamba | lambam | lamba | |
lba (“n.st.n.lba”) for roots ending in lb-, rba | ||||||||
kalbą | kalbis | kalbai | kalbą | kalbō | kalbǫ̂ | kalbamaz | kalbō | ‘calf’ |
kalb | kalbis | kalba | kalb | kalba | kalbē | kalbam | kalba | |
kalb | kalbis | kalba | kalb | kalba | kalba | kalbam | kalba | |
rda (“n.st.m.rda”) for roots ending in rda-, lda- | ||||||||
wurdą | wurdis | wurdai | wurdą | wurdō | wurdǫ̂ | wurdamaz | wurdō | ‘word’ |
waúrd | waúrdis | waúrda | waúrd | waúrda | waúrdē | waúrdam | waúrda | |
word | worðis | worða | word | worða | worða | worðma | worða |
Strong ō-stem (feminine)
The simplest noun class by far is the strong feminine ō-stem. There is only one paradigm with no variations.
Nom.Sg. | Gen.Sg. | Dat.Sg. | Acc.Sg. | Nom.Pl. | Gen.Pl. | Dat.Pl. | Acc.Pl. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Type I: Default (“n.st.f.ō”) | ||||||||
erþō | erþōz | erþōi | erþǭ | erþôz | erþǫ̂ | erþōmaz | erþôz | ‘earth’ |
aírþa | aírþais | aírþai | aírþa | aírþōs | aírþō | aírþōm | aírþōs | |
erða | erðis | erða | erða | erðas | erða | erðam | erðas | |
This is the default declension of the ō-stem paradigm. Note the assimilation of the genitive singular (from the expected “-as”). |
ja- and jō-stems
While traditionally listed as sub-classes of a- and ō-stems, the j-stem nouns differ from these in two important ways: Umlaut and Palatalization. (…more below…)
Strong ja-stem (masculine)
Nom.Sg. | Gen.Sg. | Dat.Sg. | Acc.Sg. | Nom.Pl. | Gen.Pl. | Dat.Pl. | Acc.Pl. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Type I: Default (“n.st.m.ja”) | ||||||||
harjaz | harjis | harjai | harją | harjōz | harjǫ̂ | harjamaz | harjanz | ‘army’ |
harjis | harjis | harja | hari | harjōs | harjē | harjam | harjans | |
heris | heris | heria | hare | heris | heria | herim | herins | |
Nom.Sg. | Gen.Sg. | Dat.Sg. | Acc.Sg. | Nom.Pl. | Gen.Pl. | Dat.Pl. | Acc.Pl. | |
Type II: bja (“n.st.m.bja”) | ||||||||
sebjaz | sebjis | sebjai | sebją | sebjōz | sebjǫ̂ | sebjamaz | sebjanz | ‘kinsman’ |
sibjis | sibjis | sibja | sibi | sibjōs | sibjē | sibjam | sibjans | |
sibis | sibis | sibia | sive | sibis | sibia | sibim | sibins | |
Accusative changes to /v/… | ||||||||
Nom.Sg. | Gen.Sg. | Dat.Sg. | Acc.Sg. | Nom.Pl. | Gen.Pl. | Dat.Pl. | Acc.Pl. | |
Type IIIa: dja (“n.st.m.dja”) | ||||||||
medjaz | medjis | medjai | medją | medjōz | medjǫ̂ | medjamaz | medjanz | ‘middle’ |
midjis | midjis | midja | midi | midjōs | midjē | midjam | midjans | |
miǧis | miǧis | miǧa | miðe | miǧis | miǧa | miǧim | miǧins | |
Accusative changes to /ð/… | ||||||||
Nom.Sg. | Gen.Sg. | Dat.Sg. | Acc.Sg. | Nom.Pl. | Gen.Pl. | Dat.Pl. | Acc.Pl. | |
Type IIIb: gja (“n.st.m.gja”) | ||||||||
sagjaz | sagjis | sagjai | sagją | sagjōz | sagjǫ̂ | sagjamaz | sagjanz | ‘messenger’ |
sagjis | sagjis | sagja | sagi | sagjōs | sagjē | sagjam | sagjans | |
seǧis | seǧis | seǧa | sage | seǧis | seǧa | seǧim | seǧins | |
Accusative changes to /g/… | ||||||||
Nom.Sg. | Gen.Sg. | Dat.Sg. | Acc.Sg. | Nom.Pl. | Gen.Pl. | Dat.Pl. | Acc.Pl. | |
Type IIIc: tja (“n.st.m.tja”) | ||||||||
tjaz | tjis | tjai | tją | tjōz | tjǫ̂ | tjamaz | tjanz | ‘army’ |
tjis | tjis | tja | ti | tjōs | tjē | tjam | tjans | |
čis | čis | ča | te | čis | ča | čim | čins | |
Accusative changes to /t/… | ||||||||
Nom.Sg. | Gen.Sg. | Dat.Sg. | Acc.Sg. | Nom.Pl. | Gen.Pl. | Dat.Pl. | Acc.Pl. | |
Type IIId: kja (“n.st.m.kja”) | ||||||||
kjaz | kjis | kjai | kją | kjōz | kjǫ̂ | kjamaz | kjanz | ‘army’ |
kjis | kjis | kja | ki | kjōs | kjē | kjam | kjans | |
čis | čis | ča | ke | čis | ča | čim | čins | |
Accusative changes to /k/… | ||||||||
Nom.Sg. | Gen.Sg. | Dat.Sg. | Acc.Sg. | Nom.Pl. | Gen.Pl. | Dat.Pl. | Acc.Pl. | |
Type IIIe: sja (“n.st.m.sja”) | ||||||||
sjaz | sjis | sjai | sją | sjōz | sjǫ̂ | sjamaz | sjanz | ‘army’ |
sjis | sjis | sja | si | sjōs | sjē | sjam | sjans | |
šis | šis | ša | se | šis | ša | šim | šins | |
Accusative changes to /s/… |
Strong ja-stem (neuter)
Nom.Sg. | Gen.Sg. | Dat.Sg. | Acc.Sg. | Nom.Pl. | Gen.Pl. | Dat.Pl. | Acc.Pl. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Type I: Default (“n.st.n.ja”) | ||||||||
fergunją | fergunjis | fergunjai | fergunją | fergunjō | fergunjǫ̂ | fergunjamaz | fergunjō | ‘mountain’ |
faírguni | faírgunjis | faírgunja | faírguni | faírgunja | faírgunjē | faírgunjam | faírgunja | |
fergúne | fergýnis | fergýnia | fergúne | fergýnia | fergýnia | fergýnim | fergýnia | |
Nom.Sg. | Gen.Sg. | Dat.Sg. | Acc.Sg. | Nom.Pl. | Gen.Pl. | Dat.Pl. | Acc.Pl. | |
Type II: bja (“n.st.n.bja”) | ||||||||
lubją | lubjis | lubjai | lubją | lubjō | lubjǫ̂ | lubjamaz | lubjō | ‘drug, poison’ |
lubi | lubjis | lubja | lubi | lubja | lubjē | lubjam | lubja | |
luve | lybis | lybia | luve | lybia | lybia | lybim | lybia | |
Nom.Sg. | Gen.Sg. | Dat.Sg. | Acc.Sg. | Nom.Pl. | Gen.Pl. | Dat.Pl. | Acc.Pl. | |
Type II: dja (“n.st.n.dja”) | ||||||||
badją | badjis | badjai | badją | badjō | badjǫ̂ | badjamaz | badjō | ‘bed’ |
badi | badjis | badja | badi | badja | badjē | badjam | badja | |
baðe | beǧis | beǧa | baðe | beǧa | beǧa | beǧim | beǧa | |
Nom.Sg. | Gen.Sg. | Dat.Sg. | Acc.Sg. | Nom.Pl. | Gen.Pl. | Dat.Pl. | Acc.Pl. | |
Type II: ddja (“n.st.n.ddja”) | ||||||||
aiją | aijis | aijai | aiją | aijō | aijǫ̂ | aijamaz | aijō | ‘egg’ |
addi | addjis | addja | addi | addja | addjē | addjam | addja | |
āde | ǣǧis | ǣǧa | āde | ǣǧa | ǣǧa | ǣǧim | ǣǧa | |
Nom.Sg. | Gen.Sg. | Dat.Sg. | Acc.Sg. | Nom.Pl. | Gen.Pl. | Dat.Pl. | Acc.Pl. | |
Type II: gja (“n.st.n.gja”) | ||||||||
hawją | hawjis | hawjai | hawją | hawjō | hawjǫ̂ | hawjamaz | hawjō | ‘hay’ |
hawi | hawjis | hawja | hawi | hawja | hawjē | hawjam | hawja | |
hauge | heuǧis | heuǧa | hauge | heuǧa | heuǧa | heuǧim | heuǧa | |
Nom.Sg. | Gen.Sg. | Dat.Sg. | Acc.Sg. | Nom.Pl. | Gen.Pl. | Dat.Pl. | Acc.Pl. | |
Type II: tja (“n.st.n.tja”) | ||||||||
witją | witjis | witjai | witją | witjō | witjǫ̂ | witjamaz | witjō | ‘knowledge’ |
witi | witjis | witja | witi | witja | witjē | witjam | witja | |
wite | wičis | wiča | wite | wiča | wiča | wičim | wiča | |
ija- and ijō-stems
Strong ija-stem (masculine)
Nom.Sg. | Gen.Sg. | Dat.Sg. | Acc.Sg. | Nom.Pl. | Gen.Pl. | Dat.Pl. | Acc.Pl. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Type I: Default (“n.st.m.ija”) | ||||||||
blōstrijaz | blōstrijis | blōstrijai | blōstriją | blōstrijōz | blōstrijǫ̂ | blōstrijamaz | blōstrijanz | ‘worshipper’ |
blōstrjis | blōstrjis | blōstrja | blōstri | blōstrjōs | blōstrjē | blōstrjam | blōstrjans | |
blœ̄stris | blœ̄stris | blœ̄stria | blōstre | blœ̄stris | blœ̄stria | blœ̄strim | blœ̄strins | |
Nom.Sg. | Gen.Sg. | Dat.Sg. | Acc.Sg. | Nom.Pl. | Gen.Pl. | Dat.Pl. | Acc.Pl. | |
Type II: bija (“n.st.m.bija”) | ||||||||
drōbijaz | drōbijis | drōbijai | drōbiją | drōbijōz | drōbijǫ̂ | drōbijamaz | drōbijanz | ‘mud, muck’ |
drōbeis | drōbeis | drōbja | drōbi | drōbjōs | drōbjē | drōbjam | drōbjans | |
drœ̄vis | drœ̄vis | drœ̄bia | drōve | drœ̄bis | drœ̄bia | drœ̄bim | drœ̄bins | |
Accusative changes to /v/… | ||||||||
Nom.Sg. | Gen.Sg. | Dat.Sg. | Acc.Sg. | Nom.Pl. | Gen.Pl. | Dat.Pl. | Acc.Pl. | |
Type IIIa: dija (“n.st.m.dija”) | ||||||||
herdijaz | herdijis | herdijai | herdiją | herdijōz | herdijǫ̂ | herdijamaz | herdijanz | ‘herder’ |
haírdeis | haírdeis | haírdja | haírdi | haírdjōs | haírdjē | haírdjam | haírdjans | |
herðis | herðis | herǧa | herðe | herǧis | herǧa | herǧim | herǧins | |
Accusative changes to /ð/… | ||||||||
Nom.Sg. | Gen.Sg. | Dat.Sg. | Acc.Sg. | Nom.Pl. | Gen.Pl. | Dat.Pl. | Acc.Pl. | |
Type IIIb: gija (“n.st.m.gija”) | ||||||||
drangijaz | drangijis | drangijai | drangiją | drangijōz | drangijǫ̂ | drangijamaz | drangijanz | ‘servant’ |
*draggeis | *draggeis | *draggja | *draggi | *draggjōs | *draggjē | *draggjam | *draggjans | |
drengis | drengis | drenǧa | drange | drenǧis | drenǧa | drenǧim | drenǧins | |
Accusative changes to /g/… | ||||||||
Nom.Sg. | Gen.Sg. | Dat.Sg. | Acc.Sg. | Nom.Pl. | Gen.Pl. | Dat.Pl. | Acc.Pl. | |
Type IIIc: tija (“n.st.m.tija”) | ||||||||
fastijaz | fastijis | fastijai | fastiją | fastijōz | fastijǫ̂ | fastijamaz | fastijanz | ‘restraint’ |
fasteis | fasteis | fastja | fasti | fastjōs | fastjē | fastjam | fastjans | |
festis | festis | fesča | faste | fesčis | fesča | fesčim | fesčins | |
Accusative changes to /t/… | ||||||||
Nom.Sg. | Gen.Sg. | Dat.Sg. | Acc.Sg. | Nom.Pl. | Gen.Pl. | Dat.Pl. | Acc.Pl. | |
Type IIId: kija (“n.st.m.kija”) | ||||||||
lǣkjaz | lǣkjis | lǣkjai | lǣkją | lǣkjōz | lǣkjǫ̂ | lǣkjamaz | lǣkjanz | ‘medicine’ |
lēkeis | lēkeis | lēkja | lēki | lēkjōs | lēkjē | lēkjam | lēkjans | |
lēkis | lēkis | lēča | lēke | lēčis | lēča | lēčim | lēčins | |
Accusative changes to /k/… | ||||||||
Nom.Sg. | Gen.Sg. | Dat.Sg. | Acc.Sg. | Nom.Pl. | Gen.Pl. | Dat.Pl. | Acc.Pl. | |
Type IIIe: sija (“n.st.m.sija”) | ||||||||
bǣrusijaz | bǣrusijis | bǣrusijai | bǣrusiją | bǣrusijōz | bǣrusijǫ̂ | bǣrusijamaz | bǣrusijanz | ‘parent’ |
bēruseis | bēruseis | bērusja | bērusi | bērusjōs | bērusjē | bērusjam | bērusjans | |
bērusis | bērusis | bēruša | bēruse | bērušis | bēruša | bērušim | bērušins | |
Accusative changes to /s/… |
Verbs
I haven't got quite as far as describing the verbs on this page yet, but everyone likes a good conjugation of their favorite irregular verbs, right? So here you go:
wisna ‘to be’
Preterit | Present | Imperative | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Infinitive: | Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||
wisna | ik | was | wēša | im | sīja | |
Present Participle: | þū | wast | wēsis | is | sījas | sī, ī |
wisnaǧ | sist | was | wēse | ist | sīja | imda |
Past Participle: | wīs | wēsum | wēsim | sīm, sījum | sījam | sīm |
wisnas | jūs | wēsuþ | wēsiþ | sīþ, sījuþ | sījaþ | sīþ |
īs | wēsun | wēsin | sinþ | sījan | sinda |
gēn, gangna ‘to be’
Preterit | Present | Imperative | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Infinitive: | Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||
gēn, gangna | ik | īǧa | īǧa | gēm, ganga | ganga | |
Present Participle: | þū | īǧis | īǧis | gēs, gangis | gangas | gē, gang |
gangnaǧ | sist | īǧa | īǧa | gēþ, gangiþ | ganga | gangaða |
Past Participle: | wīs | īǧim | īǧim | gēm, gangma | gangam | gēm, gangma |
gēns | jūs | īǧiþ | īǧiþ | gēþ, gangiþ | gangaþ | gēþ, gangiþ |
īs | īǧin | īǧin | gēnþ, gangnaþ | gangan | gangnaða |
dōn ‘to do’
Preterit | Present | Imperative | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Infinitive: | Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||
dōn | ik | dedéða | dedēða | dōm | dōwa | |
Present Participle: | þū | dedéðis | dedēðis | dōs | dōwas | dō |
dōnǧ | sist | dedéða | dedēðe | dōþ | dōwa | dōða |
Past Participle: | wīs | dedēðum | dedēðim | dōm | dōwam | dōm |
dēns | jūs | dedēðuþ | dedēðiþ | dōþ | dōwaþ | dōþ |
īs | dedēðun | dedēðin | dōnþ | dōwan | dōnaða |
stēn, standna ‘to stand, to stay’
Preterit | Present | Imperative | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Infinitive: | Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||
stēn, standna | ik | stōþ | stœ̄þia | stēm, standa | standa | |
Present Participle: | þū | stōst | stœ̄ðis | stēs, standis | standas | stē, stand |
standnaǧ | sist | stōþ | stœ̄ðe | stēþ, standiþ | standa | standaða |
Past Participle: | wīs | stōðum | stœ̄ðim | stēm, standma | standam | stēm, standma |
standnas | jūs | stōðuþ | stœ̄ðiþ | stēþ, standiþ | standaþ | stēþ, standiþ |
īs | stōðun | stœ̄ðin | stēnþ, standnaþ | standan | standnaða |
wilin ‘to want’
Preterit | Present | Imperative | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Infinitive: | Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||
wilin | ik | wilða | wilǧa | wilia | wilia | |
Present Participle: | þū | wilðas | wilðis | wilis | wilis | wili |
wilinǧ | sist | wilða | wilðe | wilia | wilia | wiliða |
Past Participle: | wīs | wilðum | wilðim | wilim | wilim | wilim |
wiliþs | jūs | wilðuþ | wilðiþ | wiliþ | wiliþ | wiliþ |
īs | wilðun | wilðin | wilin | wilin | wilinaða |