Chlouvānem/Morphology: Difference between revisions

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==Particles (''remīn'')==
==Particles (''remīn'')==
Traditional Chlouvānem grammar only recognizes a single part of speech called "particles" (''remīn'', literally "helper(s)") which includes conjunctions, postpositions, and interjections. However, these three are recognized as subsets of particles - here translated as "conjunctive particles" (''natemālāhai remīn''), "accompanying particles", i.e. postpositions (''ūtimāhai remīn''), and "exclamatory particles" (''pigdilanah nali remīn''), as is also a further fourth subgroup called "adverbial particles" (''khladaradhausirāhe remīn'').
Traditional Chlouvānem grammar only recognizes a single part of speech called "particles" (''remīn'', literally "helper(s)") which includes conjunctions, postpositions, and interjections. However, these three are recognized as subsets of particles - here translated as "conjunctive particles" (''natemālāhai remīn''), "accompanying particles", i.e. postpositions (''ūtimāhai remīn''), and "exclamatory particles" (''pigdilanah nali remīn'').


===Conjunctive particles===
===Conjunctive particles===
Conjunctive particles typically may not stand alone and do not modify (i.e. require a particular case) nouns they're attached to - with the exception of ''væse''. They are:
Conjunctive particles may not stand syntactically alone and, with a few exceptions, don't require any particular case of a noun. Most of them function, or are also used, as conjunctions between sentences.
* '''golat''' — on the other hand, whereas (less common than ''maip'')
 
* '''āk''' — on the other hand, whereas
* '''jahān''' — anyway (conjunction or second position adverb)
* '''lai''' — inclusive or
* '''lai''' — inclusive or
* '''las''' — and (incomplete listings, i.e. "X and Y and Z and so on"; <small>see ''no'' below for the use.</small>)
* '''las''' — and (in incomplete listings, cf. ''no'' and ''sama''); it follows the noun it refers to, and in listings with more than two nouns it follows every noun except for the first. Not used to conjoin sentences.
* '''mailiven''' — so, thus, therefore (a grammaticalized use of <small>go_forward.UNIDIR.PRES.IND.3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR.</small>).
* '''lenta''' — "together (with)", adverbial or postpositive, requiring genitive case in the latter usage. When pospositive, it is more emphatic than ''lā''. Adverbially, ''gimmālęe'' is more common.
* '''maip''' — on the other hand, whereas (more common than both ''golat'' and ''vādvyeṣi'')
* '''mailiven''' — so, thus, therefore (grammaticalized use of <small>go_forward.UNIDIR.PRES.IND.3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR.</small>)
* '''mbu''' — exclusive or
* '''mbu''' — exclusive or
* '''menni''' — because, for, as
* '''najelai''' — maybe. Originally the archaic potential form of ''najalle'' (to happen). Sentence-final, requires a verb in the subjunctive mood, e.g. ''yahatite najelai'' "maybe I'll read it".
:: If there is a following main clause, then it's the last word in the subordinate of reason (this use is usually synonymous to the consequential secondary verbal mood of cause, e.g. ''aganą lā įstyāk menni yųlakepañcekte'' "as (s)he was hungry, (s)he started eating" = ''aganą lā įstyānairek yųlakepañcekte''); if it's just a lone sentence (an answer), then it is usually at the ''second'' place in the sentence, after the verbal trigger (e.g. ''tami menni yuyųlsegde'' "because (s)he wants to eat").
* '''nānim''' — almost; if used with nouns, requires essive case.
* '''najelai''' — maybe. Originally the archaic potential form of ''najalle'' (to happen). Requires a verb in the subjunctive mood.
* '''nanū''' — also, too (only between sentences, cf. ''tora''). A different use of the adverb meaning "more".
* '''nanū''' — also, too (only between sentences; <small>see ''tora'' below</small>). Actually a different use of the adverb meaning "more" (comparative of ''taili'' "many, much").
* '''ni''' — but (in second position)
* '''ni''' — but
* '''no''' — and (in complete listings, cf. ''las''); same placement as ''las''. Also used to conjoin sentences, but ''sama'' is preferred, especially when there are different subjects (triggered arguments).
* '''no''' — and (between nouns and denoting a complete listing; use ''las'' for incomplete listings). It follows the noun it refers to, and in listings with more than two nouns it follows every noun except the first. It (and ''lasь'') can also translate "and" between verbs, but ''sama'' is preferred between sentences, especially with different subjects (e.g. ''yąlute molute no'' "I eat and drink", either ''mēlitu yąlute kolecañu molute no'' or ''mēlitu yąlute sama kolecañu molute'' "I eat curry and drink kvas", but most often ''mēlitu yąlute sama lilyā ñæltah kolecañu molegde'' "I eat curry and my sister drinks kvas". Note that ''mēlitu yąlute lilyā ñæltah kolecañu molegde no'' is still correct, but mostly found in literary or very formal language).
* '''nyąu''' — because, for, as (cf. ''tī''); ''amyąu'' in the Classical era, i.e. the ablative of the former demonstrative ''ami''.
* '''sama''' —  and (between sentences). Shortened to '''sam''' before vowel-initial words.
:: Used sentence-finally: ''aganą lā įstyāk nyąu yųlake pañcekte'' "as (s)he was hungry, (s)he started eating." In lone sentences, e.g. answers, ''tī'' is preferred: ''aganą lā tī įstyāk'' "because (s)he was hungry."
* '''tī''' — because, for, as
* '''paṣe''' — furthermore
:: Unlike ''menni'' (which it is an exact synonym of), ''tī'' is always in second place, cf. ''aganą lā tī įstiāk yųlakepañcekte'' (in this case, note that no other word can intervene between the "accompanying particle" ''lā'' and the noun it is attached to).
* '''pū''' — if (and '''pūmbu''' "whether") - see [[Chlouvānem/Syntax#Conditional_sentences|Chlouvānem syntax § Conditional sentences]]
* '''tora''' — also, too; used both as a conjunctive particle (even if ''nanū'' is more common) and as an adverbial one, in the latter case always before the verb (and any non-subject pronoun). (e.g. ''tora nanau uyųlaṃte'' "I've eaten that too").
* '''sama''' ('''sam''' before vowels) — and (between sentences only, cf. ''las'' and ''no'')
* '''vādvyeṣi''' — on the other hand, whereas (more formal than both ''golat'' and ''maip'')
* '''tadye''' — despite that (between sentences), cf. ''tatta''.
* '''væse''' — while, in the meantime. Requires a subjunctive mood verb or a noun in essive (or, depending on the meaning, exessive or translative) case.
* '''tatta''' — despite, even though; requires a noun in the essive case or a subjunctive verb (e.g. ''gu talunīs ša tatta dadrā'' "even though you didn't come, it has been done."). Colloquially, it is also used anaphorically, instead of ''tadye''; however, it is considered bad style in formal language.
* '''tora''' — also, too; used adverbially and between sentences (where, however, ''nanū'' is more common).
* '''vivāmi''' — "too much", adverbial or postpositive, requiring genitive case in the latter usage.
* '''væse''' — while, in the meantime; "during (the)" with nouns. Requires a verb in the subjunctive mood or a noun in the essive (or, meaning-dependant, exessive or translative) case.


===Accompanying particles (i.e. postpositions)===
===Accompanying particles (i.e. postpositions)===
Postpositions, known as "accompanying particles" (''ūtimāhai remīn'') in native Chlouvānem grammars, usually cannot stand alone (unlike "adverbial" particles) and require a particular noun case.
These particles can never stand alone, do not conjoin sentences, and nearly always require a particular noun case.
* '''dam''' — interrogative particle, put after the verb (e.g. ''daltah væl dam?'' "is it a fish?").
* '''e''' — like. Requires essive case with nouns (in formal speech; while bare essive most properly has the meaning "as X" instead of "like X", colloquially it is used both ways) and subjunctive mood with realis verbs (other moods are used for their meaning).
* '''ga''' — adpositive particle, used to join nouns in noun phrases (usually titles; the only exceptions being honorifics), such as ''Līlasuṃghāṇa ga marta'' (Līlasuṃghāṇa city, or "city of Līlasuṃghāṇa") or ''Tāllahāria ga maita'' (Tāllahāria river).
* '''gu(n) — ša''' — circumposition only used around verbs used to negate them, e.g. ''gu yuyųlsegde ša'' "(s)he doesn't want to eat"). Note that the ''ša'' element is omitted if the verb is attributive.
* '''lā''' (arch. ''lapi'') — with (comitative); requires essive case (e.g. ''lilyąa ñæltęs lā'' "with my sister").
* '''mboda''' — except for - requires a subjunctive or an essive case (e.g. ''nītedarāhai lailąs mboda nalunya upulsma'' "entrance is forbidden, except for involved people" → "authorized personnel only").
* '''mei''' and '''go''' — the Chlouvānem words for "yes" and "no" respectively; their use is however different from English, as they are used according to the polarity of the question: ''mei'' answers "yes" to affirmative questions and "no" to negative questions; ''go'' answers "no" to affirmative questions and "yes" to negative questions.
* '''mūji''' — almost, more or less
* '''mæn''' — [[Chlouvānem#Use of the topic|topic marker]]. Used for a topic which otherwise has no role in the sentence (often used inside larger conversations, e.g. ''lili mæn yultire jṛṣṇe'' (mine/as for me (echoing a previous sentence), [it is] in the bright yellow backpack; <small>OR</small>: as for me, [I keep it] in...)).
* '''nali''' — benefactive marker (used with a noun in direct case in a non-benefactive-trigger voice); in order to (with a subjunctive verb; note that the bare subjunctive already carries that meaning, but using ''nali'' gives a nuance of hope).
* '''nānim''' — almost. Requires a noun in essive case or a verb in the semantically correct mood.
* '''pa''' — on, of, concerning, on the subject of. Requires a noun in the direct case or a subjunctive verb.
* '''ras''' — antibenefactive marker (used with a noun in direct case in a non-antibenefactive-trigger voice); to avoid X (with a subjunctive verb).
* '''sām''' — until. Requires a noun in translative case (or dative case for places, meaning "as far as")<ref>Compare ''ājvan sām'' "until dawn" and ''līlasuṃghāṇa kahērimaila ga keikom sām'' "as far as Līlasuṃghāṇa Kahērimaila Station".</ref> or a verb in the subjunctive.
* '''tatta''' — despite; even though. Requires a noun in the essive case or a subjunctive verb.


===Adverbial particles===
* '''bīs''' — between; from ... until, in expressions of time. Comes after both nouns in essive case: ''šurājęs nyūramyęs bīs'' "between [[Contionary:šurājah|Šurājah]] and [[Contionary:nyūramyah|Nyūramyah]]
Adverbial particles (''khladaradhausirāhe remīn'') are distinguished from "accompanying particles" because they, like adverbs, can also stand alone.
* '''dam''' — interrogative particle in polar questions, put after the verb (e.g. ''daltah vi dam?'' "is it a fish?")
* '''dǣ''' — again (quite archaic)
* '''e''' — like. Requires essive case with nouns and subjunctive mood with verbs.
** '''dīdān''' — again and again (< ''dǣ dǣ no'', attested in Archaic Chlouvānem)
* '''ga''' — adpositive particle, used to join nouns in noun phrases (usually titles or proper names, but not honorifics), e.g. ''Līlasuṃghāṇa ga marta'' "Līlasuṃghāṇa city" or ''Tāllahārya ga maita'' "Tāllahārya river".
* '''enibu''' — still
* '''gu(n) ~ ša''' — negative circumposition used around verbs, e.g. ''gu yuyųlsegde ša'' "(s)he does not want to eat". The first element is ''gun'' before vowels; the ''ša'' element is omitted if the verb is attributive.
* '''govyāṣa''' — not yet
* '''lā''' — with (comitative); requires essive case (e.g. ''lilyąa ñæltęs lā'' "with my sister"). The Archaic Chlouvānem form was ''lapi''.
* '''gudēya''' — anymore, no more
* '''lut''' — used with expressions of time: means "ago" if used with ablative case (''nęlcų heirų lut'' "four years ago"), "for/since" if with essive case (''nęlcą heiręs lut'' "for four years").
* '''lenta''' — together (with). When used as a particle, it requires a noun in genitive case - e.g. ''lili buneyi lenta'' "I, together with my older sister".
* '''mboda''' — except for; requires subjunctive mood or essive case (e.g. ''nītedarāhai lailąs mboda nalunya upulsma'' "entrance is forbidden, except for involved people" → "authorized personnel only")
* '''lǣh''' — already
* '''mei''' and '''go''' — "yes" and "no", used according to the polarity of the question; i.e. ''mei'' denotes the statement is true ("yes" to affirmative questions, "no" to negative questions), while ''go'' denotes the statement is false ("no" to affirmative questions, "yes" to negative questions).
* '''maibu''' — enough. Requires a noun in genitive case or a verb in the indicative mood.
* '''mæn''' — [[Chlouvānem#Use of the topic|marks a topic which otherwise has no role in the sentence]].
* '''nāṭ''' — already
* '''nali''' — benefactive marker, used with a noun in direct case; marks the benefited argument when the verb is not in benefactive-trigger voice. If used with a subjunctive verb, means "in order to", with a nuance of hope (the bare subjunctive already carries the "in order to" meaning).
* '''samelīsa''' — again
* '''nin''' — after, with ablative or subjunctive (''nęlcų heirų nin'' "after four years")
* '''vādį''' — without; requires essive case (e.g. ''lilyąa ñæltęs vādį'' "without my sister").
* '''pa''' — on, of, concerning, on the subject of, about. Requires a direct case noun (e.g. ''vāṇatarlā pa naviṣya'' "book about botany") or a subjunctive mood verb (e.g. ''šūñjulā drētte pa nīdhāḍirdya'' "the two of us are talking about what (s)he did down there").
* '''vivāmi''' — too much. Requires a noun in genitive case or a verb in the indicative mood.
* '''ras''' — antibenefactive marker, used with a noun in direct case; marks the anti-benefited argument when the verb is not in antibenefactive-trigger voice. If used with a subjunctive verb, means "to avoid X".
* '''sām''' — different meanings depending on case:
:: ablative, in expressions of time: "in ... time" (at the end of a certain period), or "by": ''nęlcų heirų sām'' "in four years' time, four years for now"; ''šurājų sām'' "by [[Contionary:šurājah|Šurājah]]";
:: translative (rarely essive), in expressions of time: "in/for/until" (within, during a certain period): ''nęltin heiran sām'' "for the coming four years" (or ''nęlcą heiręs sām''); ''ājvan sām'' "until dawn";
:: dative case, with places: "until, as far as": ''līlasuṃghāṇa kahērimaila ga keikom sām'' "as far as Līlasuṃghāṇa Kahērimaila Station")
:: subjunctive verb: "until": ''primęlirī sām'' "until he/she/it comes back".
* '''šut''' — before, with ablative or subjunctive (''nęlcų heirų šut'' "four years before").
* '''vādį''' — without, with essive or subjunctive. Unlike English, it cannot be used anaphorically.


==="Paired" particles===
==="Paired" particles===
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* "both... and..." is translated by the adverb '''peimęe''' (the same), either in the form "X Y no peimęe" or in "X ..., Y peimęe":
* "both... and..." is translated by the adverb '''peimęe''' (the same), either in the form "X Y no peimęe" or in "X ..., Y peimęe":
:: ''jādāh lañekaica no peimęe nanau draikate'' – both Jādāh and Lañekaica did that.
:: ''jādāh lañekaica no peimęe nanau draikate'' – both Jādāh and Lañekaica did that.
:: ''nāniu uyųlaṃte : māru peimęe'' – I have eaten both the bread and the mango.
:: ''nānyu uyųlaṃte : māru peimęe'' – I have eaten both the bread and the mango.
* "neither... nor..." requires the sentence to be built in a different way, namely "not X, and also not Y", where "also not" is translated in two different ways: 1) by the particle '''gūta''' (more formal); or 2) with the adverb ''peimęe'' - therefore building a sentence that is exactly like the "both X and Y" but negative.
* "neither... nor..." requires the sentence to be built in a different way, namely "not X, and also not Y", where "also not" is translated in two different ways: 1) by the particle '''gūta''' (more formal); or 2) with the adverb ''peimęe'' - therefore building a sentence that is exactly like the "both X and Y" but negative.
:: ''jādāh nanau gu dṛkte ša : lañekaica gūta'' – neither Jādah nor Lañekaica did that. Literal translation: Jādāh didn't do it, and Lañekaica also [didn't].
:: ''jādāh nanau gu dṛkte ša : lañekaica gūta'' – neither Jādah nor Lañekaica did that. Literal translation: Jādāh didn't do it, and Lañekaica also [didn't].
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===Emphatic particles===
===Emphatic particles===
A few particles are used (usually sentence-finally) in order to convey particular feelings of the speaker about the statement:
A few particles are used (usually sentence-finally) in order to convey particular feelings of the speaker about the statement:
* '''anā''' introductory particle (e.g. "so")
* '''å''' expresses either surprise (at the beginning of a sentence) or that the fact is considered annoying (at the end), e.g. ''å viṣęe dadrāte'' "wow, (s)he's done it again!" / ''viṣęe dadrā å'' "oh no, (s)he's done it again!"
* '''å''' expresses either surprise (at the beginning of a sentence) or that the fact is considered annoying (at the end), e.g. ''å viṣęe dadrāte'' "wow, (s)he's done it again!" / ''viṣęe dadrā å'' "oh no, (s)he's done it again!"
* '''dā''' gives the sentence, especially a command or a proposition, an informal tone - cf. German "mal" or Italian "un po'", e.g. ''najire nanau mešute dā'' "I'll just see what happens"; ''peithos dā'' "just calm down and take a walk around here."
* '''dā''' gives the sentence, especially a command or a proposition, an informal tone - cf. German "mal" or Italian "un po'", e.g. ''najire nanau mešute dā'' "I'll just see what happens"; ''peithos dā'' "just calm down and take a walk around here."
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* '''nā''', a generic filler (cf. "I mean"), often combined with ''e''. e.g. ''nā (e) nenēt nāṭ tarliru!'' "I mean, I already know this!"
* '''nā''', a generic filler (cf. "I mean"), often combined with ''e''. e.g. ''nā (e) nenēt nāṭ tarliru!'' "I mean, I already know this!"
* '''nane''' is a tag question, e.g. ''camiyūs vali dam nane?'' "you're from Cami, aren't you?"
* '''nane''' is a tag question, e.g. ''camiyūs vali dam nane?'' "you're from Cami, aren't you?"
* '''nimā''' introductory particle, same as ''anā''.
* '''naihā''' is a tag question much like ''nane'', but is used when the speaker is in doubt and/or expects a contradictory answer, e.g. ''lære draute dam naihā?'' "did I do it yesterday, or...?"
* '''naihā''' is a tag question much like ''nane'', but is used when the speaker is in doubt and/or expects a contradictory answer, e.g. ''lære draute dam naihā?'' "did I do it yesterday, or...?"
* '''pos''' is a filler with a meaning similar to ''tau'', but it is more properly translated as emphasizing that the speaker considers the statement as a general truth or a widely accepted thing, e.g. ''ālīce jeldegde pos'' "yeah, everybody knows (s)he acts that way/does that kind of things."
* '''pos''' is a filler with a meaning similar to ''tau'', but it is more properly translated as emphasizing that the speaker considers the statement as a general truth or a widely accepted thing, e.g. ''ālīce jeldegde pos'' "yeah, everybody knows (s)he acts that way/does that kind of things."
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