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A grammar sketch of the Haššûl, common language of the Yar-Beššel and The Riverlands.
A grammar sketch of the Haššûl, common language of the Yar-Beššel and The Riverlands.


INTRODUCTION
==INTRODUCTION==


The language known as the Haššûl [ħɐ.'ʃ:u:l] is the common language of The Yar-Beššel (name given to the Kingdom of Yar-Beššel proper and its neighboring vassal counties), as well as of the nearby region known as The Riverlands (organized in a --comparatively-- looser adjunction of fiefdoms and acting as a federation, with a politically and economically friendly relationship with the Kingdom). There are many different languages being spoken in The Riverlands, some more related to each other than others, but all riverlanders speak the Haššûl as well. On the contrary, being it the principal language of the Kingdom, most of its inhabitants are native speakers of the Haššûl while they know little, if anything, of the indigenous languages of the neighboring Riverlands. For outsiders, there is a certain impression of linguistic and cultural homogeneity in the region, since the Haššûl is the language they would expect everyone to be able to speak anywhere near the Yar-Beššel and The Riverlands, and to which they would refer to as the "local tongue".  
The language known as the Haššûl [ħɐ.'ʃ:u:l] is the common language of The Yar-Beššel (name given to the Kingdom of Yar-Beššel proper and its neighboring vassal counties), as well as of the nearby region known as The Riverlands (organized in a --comparatively-- looser adjunction of fiefdoms and acting as a federation, with a politically and economically friendly relationship with the Kingdom). There are many different languages being spoken in The Riverlands, some more related to each other than others, but all riverlanders speak the Haššûl as well. On the contrary, being it the principal language of the Kingdom, most of its inhabitants are native speakers of the Haššûl while they know little, if anything, of the indigenous languages of the neighboring Riverlands. For outsiders, there is a certain impression of linguistic and cultural homogeneity in the region, since the Haššûl is the language they would expect everyone to be able to speak anywhere near the Yar-Beššel and The Riverlands, and to which they would refer to as the "local tongue".  
PHONOLOGY
 
Inventories
=PHONOLOGY=
VOWEL INVENTORY
==Inventories==
===VOWEL INVENTORY===


Front Mid Back
Front Mid Back
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a â
a â


CONSONANT INVENTORY
===CONSONANT INVENTORY===


h [ħ] š [ʃ] l [l] b [b] r [r] y [j] n [n] x [X] m [m] p [p] k [k] z [z] w [w]
h [ħ] š [ʃ] l [l] b [b] r [r] y [j] n [n] x [X] m [m] p [p] k [k] z [z] w [w]


Phonotaxis
==Phonotaxis==


Syllable structure
===Syllable structure===


(C1)V(C2)
(C1)V(C2)
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C2: continuant (nasal, lateral, rhotic, fricative)
C2: continuant (nasal, lateral, rhotic, fricative)


Sandhi
===Sandhi===


%h > k/C_V [C=n,k] en-happ- > enkapp- | e=k-happ= > ekkapp- S>P/n_ ?
%h > k/C_V [C=n,k] en-happ- > enkapp- | e=k-happ= > ekkapp- S>P/n_ ?
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Prosody and accent
===Prosody and accent===


Pitch accent
====Pitch accent====


The accent is placed on the last syllable of disyllables and on the first syllable of a root. Monosyllables which are grammatical morphemes carry no accent and are, typically, attached prosodically to the following word.  
The accent is placed on the last syllable of disyllables and on the first syllable of a root. Monosyllables which are grammatical morphemes carry no accent and are, typically, attached prosodically to the following word.  


Intonation
====Intonation====


All sentences tend to have a rather monotone intonation by default, and emphasis can be used rhetorically. Questions are marked morphologically and can therefore be intonated for emphasis, just like any declarative sentence.
All sentences tend to have a rather monotone intonation by default, and emphasis can be used rhetorically. Questions are marked morphologically and can therefore be intonated for emphasis, just like any declarative sentence.


GRAMMAR
=GRAMMAR=
Morphology
==Morphology==


An existential statement is assumed of all nominal roots. Verbal roots can be nominalized by marking them with nominal morphology; this nominalization can be further modified, for instance by adverbials.
An existential statement is assumed of all nominal roots. Verbal roots can be nominalized by marking them with nominal morphology; this nominalization can be further modified, for instance by adverbials.
Some cases apply to a certain kind of noun or are related to a certain semantic field (e.g. the aversive case being linked to verbs of fear or of avoidance).
Some cases apply to a certain kind of noun or are related to a certain semantic field (e.g. the aversive case being linked to verbs of fear or of avoidance).


NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY
===NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY===
 
====Number marking====
Number marking
Nouns are marked for number through different strategies, which makes it possible to group nouns in five number making strategy categories (i-v).  Nevertheless, there are some irregularities.
Nouns are marked for number through different strategies, which makes it possible to group nouns in five number making strategy categories (i-v).  Nevertheless, there are some irregularities.
Indeterminate Determinate
Indeterminate Determinate
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Plural VCVC-
Plural VCVC-


Incorporation
====Incorporation====
Some nouns can be incorporated to some verbs, in which case they take on an incorporated form. For example, nouns for food items can be incorporated into verbs of cooking; for instance, bread (akku-, incorporated form -kkû-) can be incorporated into to.cook (haptu-) as follows:
Some nouns can be incorporated to some verbs, in which case they take on an incorporated form. For example, nouns for food items can be incorporated into verbs of cooking; for instance, bread (akku-, incorporated form -kkû-) can be incorporated into to.cook (haptu-) as follows:
{haptu-kkû-}
{haptu-kkû-}
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Other examples in this semantic field are meat & roasting and tea & brewing. Other examples in similar semantic fields are wall & to.erect and animal & to.track.
Other examples in this semantic field are meat & roasting and tea & brewing. Other examples in similar semantic fields are wall & to.erect and animal & to.track.
For the rendering of more specific situations, noun incorporation into verbs is regularly employed combining an incorporated hyperonym with a non-incorporated hyponym marked as direct object. For example, "to meat-roast a lamb", "to tea-brew oolong", "to wall-erect an enclosure", "to animal-tame a horse", etc.
For the rendering of more specific situations, noun incorporation into verbs is regularly employed combining an incorporated hyperonym with a non-incorporated hyponym marked as direct object. For example, "to meat-roast a lamb", "to tea-brew oolong", "to wall-erect an enclosure", "to animal-tame a horse", etc.
Stative forms
 
====Stative forms====
Some nouns need to be marked for a so called stative form, which allowes further nominal marking. Such nouns as water, wind or fire, for example, receive the nominal particle -na- (infixed after the first vowel if the word starts in a CV= syllable or after the first consonant in case of a VC= syllable). Nouns which don't usually receive a stative marker take it to make the noun a predicate in a nominal phrase (e.g. pešš-, tea plant, penašš- {pe<na>šš-eš} [tea.plant<STAT>-SG], "to be a teaplant"; {tea.plant<STAT>-SG DEM.SG.PROX.SP} 'penaššeš telêš', "this is a teaplant"; of which in turn the form {pe<na>šš-A-telê-eš} [tea.plant<STAT>-A-DEM.SG.PROX.SP-SG] 'penaššatelêš' is also valid).
Some nouns need to be marked for a so called stative form, which allowes further nominal marking. Such nouns as water, wind or fire, for example, receive the nominal particle -na- (infixed after the first vowel if the word starts in a CV= syllable or after the first consonant in case of a VC= syllable). Nouns which don't usually receive a stative marker take it to make the noun a predicate in a nominal phrase (e.g. pešš-, tea plant, penašš- {pe<na>šš-eš} [tea.plant<STAT>-SG], "to be a teaplant"; {tea.plant<STAT>-SG DEM.SG.PROX.SP} 'penaššeš telêš', "this is a teaplant"; of which in turn the form {pe<na>šš-A-telê-eš} [tea.plant<STAT>-A-DEM.SG.PROX.SP-SG] 'penaššatelêš' is also valid).


Pronouns
====Pronouns====


Pronouns form two groups: "free" pronouns, which can be marked for case, and genitive pronouns, which are a supletive paradigm, etymologically related to the root *wēr, " to belong".
Pronouns form two groups: "free" pronouns, which can be marked for case, and genitive pronouns, which are a supletive paradigm, etymologically related to the root *wēr, " to belong".
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Whenever a genitive pronoun in its long form is used in a clause, case marking is dropped from the arguments and the roles are marked by their syntactic relation with the pronoun (e.g. possessed-gen-possessor; see Possession below).
Whenever a genitive pronoun in its long form is used in a clause, case marking is dropped from the arguments and the roles are marked by their syntactic relation with the pronoun (e.g. possessed-gen-possessor; see Possession below).


Free pronouns:
- Free pronouns:
SINGULAR PAUCAL PLURAL
SINGULAR PAUCAL PLURAL
Long Short Encl. Long Short Encl. Long Short Encl.
Long Short Encl. Long Short Encl. Long Short Encl.
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3 mubâl mub- mû[B]- namîli nam(i)- nîma- namâl mul- mâb-
3 mubâl mub- mû[B]- namîli nam(i)- nîma- namâl mul- mâb-


Reflexive pronouns:
- Reflexive pronouns:
Reflexive pronouns are formed by prefixal and infixal reduplication of the long form of the free pronouns and have only a long form. The prefixal element V- applies to CV1C- forms, which become V1CV1C-. The infixal element -CC- applies to both CVC- and VCV- forms, which geminate the first and second consonant, respectively, of the free form of the pronoun. This lengthening of the consonant compensatorily shortens any subsequent long vowels and drives the elision of  final vowels. Regular phonological processes also apply.
Reflexive pronouns are formed by prefixal and infixal reduplication of the long form of the free pronouns and have only a long form. The prefixal element V- applies to CV1C- forms, which become V1CV1C-. The infixal element -CC- applies to both CVC- and VCV- forms, which geminate the first and second consonant, respectively, of the free form of the pronoun. This lengthening of the consonant compensatorily shortens any subsequent long vowels and drives the elision of  final vowels. Regular phonological processes also apply.
SINGULAR DUAL PLURAL
SINGULAR DUAL PLURAL
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3 muppal anammil anammal
3 muppal anammil anammal


Genitive pronouns:
- Genitive pronouns:
These pronouns are etymologically related to the root *wēr, to belong", being reconstructed as an adpositional compound of *PREP+wer. E.g. :
These pronouns are etymologically related to the root *wēr, to belong", being reconstructed as an adpositional compound of *PREP+wer. E.g. :


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3 eyer ey- e=y- nammer nâm- na=m-
3 eyer ey- e=y- nammer nâm- na=m-


Negative pronouns:
- Negative pronouns:
SINGULAR PAUCAL/PLURAL
SINGULAR PAUCAL/PLURAL
Long Short Encl. Long Short Encl.
Long Short Encl. Long Short Encl.
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VERBAL MORPHOLOGY
===VERBAL MORPHOLOGY===
 
====Slot population====


Slot population
Slot -2: Pronominal marking on the verb
Slot -2: Pronominal marking on the verb


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~Unergative
~Unergative


Hortatives and imperativity
====Hortatives and imperativity====


negative voice + hortative = abhortative
negative voice + hortative = abhortative


Noun incorporation
====Noun incorporation====


Some nouns can be incorporated to some verbs depending on certain established parameters based on certain semantic fields (see Nominal morphology:Incorporation).
Some nouns can be incorporated to some verbs depending on certain established parameters based on certain semantic fields (see Nominal morphology:Incorporation).


MARKING HIERARCHY
===MARKING HIERARCHY===


Nominal marking
====Nominal marking====


Verbal marking
====Verbal marking====


DEICTICS
==DEICTICS==


Demonstrative pronouns
===Demonstrative pronouns===


Haššûl spatial deictics correlate in proximity with first exclusive (proximal), second (medial), and third person (distal) pronouns. The short form of the genitive pronouns is affixed wih the following locative markers (LOC) depending on relative positions: -le 'speaker', -nê 'addressee' and -la 'both'. This gives us the following combinations:
Haššûl spatial deictics correlate in proximity with first exclusive (proximal), second (medial), and third person (distal) pronouns. The short form of the genitive pronouns is affixed wih the following locative markers (LOC) depending on relative positions: -le 'speaker', -nê 'addressee' and -la 'both'. This gives us the following combinations:
Singular:
Singular:
Personal pronoun and correlative proximity
Personal pronoun and correlative proximity
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Verbal forms of the demonstrative pronouns can be derived with the verbalizer =š- for intransitive verbs, with the meaning to.be/stay/remain/be.present-LOC, e.g. {ašša=š-} 'aššaš' "they just stay there"
Verbal forms of the demonstrative pronouns can be derived with the verbalizer =š- for intransitive verbs, with the meaning to.be/stay/remain/be.present-LOC, e.g. {ašša=š-} 'aššaš' "they just stay there"


POSSESSION
==POSSESSION==


Posession can be marked with the enclitic form of either a genitive or a negative pronoun, indicating respectively posession or non-posession by the marked-for person.
Posession can be marked with the enclitic form of either a genitive or a negative pronoun, indicating respectively posession or non-posession by the marked-for person.
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The enclitic form of the negative pronouns is used in the same way as that of the genitive pronouns, likewise  bearing the same person and number (1S.NEG = 1S.NEG.POS, "not.my", etc, to indicate a non-belonging relationship. E.g. "rexlanneš", {re=x-lann-eš} 1S.NEG.POS-house-SG 'not.my.house'.
The enclitic form of the negative pronouns is used in the same way as that of the genitive pronouns, likewise  bearing the same person and number (1S.NEG = 1S.NEG.POS, "not.my", etc, to indicate a non-belonging relationship. E.g. "rexlanneš", {re=x-lann-eš} 1S.NEG.POS-house-SG 'not.my.house'.


DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY
==DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY==


Derivation of adjectives
===Derivation of adjectives===


Every lexical root, be it nominal or verbal, can be turned into an adjective with the adjectivizer suffix ADJZ -(t)ilir.
Every lexical root, be it nominal or verbal, can be turned into an adjective with the adjectivizer suffix ADJZ -(t)ilir.
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.  
.  


Derivation from nouns
===Derivation from nouns===


Noun to verb
Noun to verb
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Derivation from verbs
===Derivation from verbs===


Verb to noun
Verb to noun
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SYNTAX
=SYNTAX=


Word order
===Word order===


DECLARATIVE Transitive Monotransitive
DECLARATIVE Transitive Monotransitive
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LEXICON
=LEXICON=


Nouns (n): animate (an), inanimate (in), derivated from verbs (dev).
Nouns (n): animate (an), inanimate (in), derivated from verbs (dev).
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Particles (p): verbal (ver), nominal (nom), suprasegmental (sup)
Particles (p): verbal (ver), nominal (nom), suprasegmental (sup)
Numerals (nu)
Numerals (nu)
<> // Nr.
<> // Nr.
hanapp- n an ii fire -na- (infix); stative (nominal form)
hanapp- n an ii fire -na- (infix); stative (nominal form)
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SAMPLES
=SAMPLES=


《》
《》
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.LOC.MED.BOTH=VLZ3-Q
.LOC.MED.BOTH=VLZ3-Q
"to.be.there-?", "do they just stay there?"
"to.be.there-?", "do they just stay there?"
HISTORICAL NOTES
 
=HISTORICAL NOTES=


The accent shifted from first to last syllable over time, which garnered some of the most distinctive sound changes in the evolution of the language.
The accent shifted from first to last syllable over time, which garnered some of the most distinctive sound changes in the evolution of the language.