User:Waahlis/Vrka

Ris
रिस
Pronunciation	[/ɹɪs/]
Created by	–
Native to	Iran
Native speakers	Enough. (2013)
Language family	Attamian Neumatic Central Ris Ris
Early form	Namic
Dialects	Ris Proper Rayan Parsa
Language codes
ISO 639-1	na
ISO 639-2	nam
ISO 639-3	nam
Map picturing the Namastan region in Iran, south of the Caspian Sea

Ris, /ɹɪs/, (Devanagari: रिस, Latin: Ris /ɹɪs/) is an Rana language, a constructed a priori language related to Kiwi. It draws inspiration from mainly the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages, with inspiration from the nonconcatenative morphology of the Semitic languages.

The language is a language isolate, and is thus not known to be related to any extant language. Ris has a normal-sized inventory of consonants and a fair amount of allophony. It is a fusional language and is morphosyntactically active-stative and with a fluid subject. The morphology is evenly split between nominal and verbal inflections.

Background

The Ris language is a Rana language with a number of speakers totalling over 245,000. Maybe. It is designed to be closely related to the Sanskrit language with clear influence from the Old Avestan language. Ris is spoken in Central Asia, not far from the Rana Urheimat in Caucasia. It is not the official language of any region.

The language has remained extant especially in the Namastan and Maharaya regions in Iran and Afghanistan despite the lack of official status. There is an exclave of speakers of the Parsa dialect of the Ris language in Iran, sometimes classified as a proper language. The dialect is heavily influenced by the Farsi language.

Phonology

Consonants

This is the Ris inventory of consonants.

Gemination is not phonemic. The letter /h/ represents aspiration when following consonants.

Phonology and Orthography

		Bilabial		Dental		Retroflex		Palatal	Velar
		aspirated	unaspirated	aspirated	unaspirated	aspirated	unaspirated		aspirated	unaspirated
Nasal		m /m/		n /n̪/		ṇ /ɳ/		[ɲ]	[ŋ]
Plosives	voiced	bh /bʱ/	b /b/	dh /d̪ʱ/	d /d̪/	ḍh /ɖʱ/	ḍ /ɖ/	j /ɟ/	gh /gʱ/	g /g/
	voiceless	ph /pʰ/	p /p/	th /t̪ʰ/	t /t̪/	ṭh /ʈʰ/	ṭ /ʈ/	c /c/	kh /kʰ/	k /k/
Affricates	voiced
	voiceless			ć /c͡ç ~ t͡ʃ/
Fricatives	voiced	v /β/				y /ʐ/
	voiceless	[ɸ]		s /s̪/		ṣ /ʂ/		ś /ɕ/		h /x/
Trills
Approximant				r /ɹ/		ṛ /ɻ/
Lat. Approximant				l /l/		ḷ /ɭ/

Consonant allophony

Sandhi

The Ris phonology utilises a variety of sandhi procedures, collectively called saṃdhi in Ris. Sandhi refers to alteration of sounds at morpheme boundaries, that assimilate due to adjacent sounds.

Retroflex sandhi

Retroflex sandhi, raṛisaṃdhi, occurs at the morpheme boundaries or clusters containing a retroflex consonant.

• वृत
  vṛta
  /ˈβɚtɑ/ → /ˈβɚʈɑ/
  vṛta-∅
  land.INAN.SG-PAT
  land

• इणदर
  iṇdra
  /ˈɪɳdɹɑ/ → /ˈɪɳɖɹɑ/
  iṇdra-∅
  earth.INAN.SG-PAT
  Earth

• हरनटि
  hranṭi
  /ˈxɹanʈɪ/ → /ˈxɹaɳʈɪ/
  hranṭi-∅
  to_run.VN.INAN.SG-PAT
  running

Nasal sandhi

The nasal sandhi, or anaśisaṃdhi, works in a similar way to the retroflex one. The nasal stops assimilate to the place of articulation of the adjacent sound, including to retroflex consonants.

• अमभिल
  ambhiḷa
  /anˈbʱɪɭɑ/ → /amˈbʱɪɭɑ/
  an-bhiḷa-∅
  re-to_word.VN.INAN.SG-PAT
  rewording

• हरनटि
  hranṭi
  /ˈxɹanʈɪ/ → /ˈxɹaɳʈɪ/
  hranṭi-∅
  to_run.VN.INAN.SG-PAT
  running

• अनखूति
  ankhūti
  /anˈkʰʊːtɪ/ → /aŋˈkʰʊːtɪ/
  am-khūti-∅
  down-to_fall.VN.INAN.SG-PAT
  downfall

Voicedness sandhi

Sandhi due to voicedness, known as ūkasaṃdhi in Ris, causes some consonants to change their phonation in morpheme boundaries.

Lenition

Ris also suffers from severe lenition, or caused when:

• Consonants lie in medial position between two vowels.
• Consonants lie in final position in words, but not in syllables.

The aspirated consonants become completely spirantisised, whilst the unaspirated phonemes become affricates. The exceptions are the velars, which all become fricatives. The nasal consonants, affricates, trills and approximants remain unaffected.

Please note that the phonemes without brackets are the non-lenited consonants.

Lenition

		Bilabial		Labiodent.	Dental		Retroflex		Palatal	Velar
		aspirated	unaspirated		aspirated	unaspirated	aspirated	unaspirated		aspirated	unaspirated
Plosives	voiced	bʱ	b		d̪ʱ	d̪	ɖʱ	ɖ	ɟ	gʱ	g
	voiceless	pʰ	p		t̪ʰ	t̪	ʈʰ	ʈ	c	kʰ	k
Affricatives	voiced	b > [b͡β]			d̪ > [d̪͡ð]		ɖ > [ɖ͡ʐ]		ɟ >[ ɟ͡ʝ]
	voiceless	p > [p͡ɸ]			t̪ > [t̪͡θ]		ʈ > [ʈ͡ʂ]		c >[c͡ç]
Fricatives	voiced	bʱ > [β]		v	d̪ʱ, > [ð]		ɖʱ > [ʐ]			gʱ, g > [ɣ]
	voiceless	pʰ > [ɸ]			t̪ʰ, s̪ > [θ]		ʈʰ > [ʂ]			h ,kʰ, k > [x]
Approxim.	voiced			v > [w]
	voiceless

Consonant Assimilation

Nāmic possesses a progressive consonant assimilation word-internally, based upon phonation, or voicedness.

Assimilation

Example		Translation		Sthānta		Austikā
hkantrā		moon		[s̪an̪.ˈt̪raː]		[s̪an̪.ˈd̪ra]
dāntha		tooth		[ˈd̪ãːða]		[ˈd̪aːn̪.t̪ʰa]
āsvyaṭ		he has		[ˈaːs̪.fʂas̪]		[ˈaːs̪.vʐas̪]
nāmastıkā		naming		[naː.mas̪.t̪ɪ.ˈkaː]		[naː.mas̪.t̪ɪ.ˈkaː]

Vowels

The representation of Nāmic's vowels. There are are 12 vowel phonemes, yet only 6 graphemes, thus, it may be assumed some are allophones during certain circumstances. It is obvious that many of the vowel graphemes are recycled, since many phonemes are allophones. The background is covered in the Metaphony section.

	Front	Near-front	Central	Near-back	Back
Close					ı [ɯ] · u [u]
Near-close		ı [ɪ] ·		ә [ʊ]
Close-mid			· u [ɵ]
Mid			ә/e/o [ə]
Open-mid	e [ɛ] · o [œ]				· o [ɔ]
Near-open	e [æ]
Open	a [a]				a [ɑ]

Diphthongs

There are a limited number of diphthongs in Nāmic, with the same amount rising as falling diphthongs. [ɪ̯] is most often equivalent to [j], and [u̯] is often just [w]. The left diphthong is its front value, and the right one is the back value. All other vowel clusters are diaeresis. The main phoneme in all diphthongs may be geminated.

Diphthongs

Rising						Falling
		Front		Back				Front		Back
ıa		[ɪ̯a]		[ɪ̯ɑ]		aı		[aɪ̯]		[ɑɪ̯]
ıe		[ɪ̯ɛ]		[ɪ̯ə]		eı		[ɛɪ̯]		[əɪ̯]
ıu		[ɪ̯ɵ]		[ɪ̯u]		uı		[ɵɪ̯]		[uɪ̯]
ıo		[ɪ̯œ]		[ɪ̯ɔ]		oı		[œɪ̯]		[ɔɪ̯]
ua		[u̯a]		[u̯ɑ]		au		[au̯]		[ɑu̯]
ue		[u̯ɛ]		[u̯ə]		eu		[ɛu̯]		[əu̯]
uo		[u̯œ]		[u̯ɔ]		ou		[œu̯]		[ɔu̯]

Synaeresis

Similarly to Sanskrit and Modern Greek, the Nāmic language is affected by synaeresis, which causes diphthongs to collapse into monophthongs.

No falling diphthongs occur in between consonants, as a nucleus, nor do the falling diphthongs appear geminated in open coda position. They are transformed into geminated or short monophthongs , depending on the length of the diphthong. The arisen monophthongs are inconsistently written as their monophthong equivalents., however it isn't compulsory. The allophony adheres to this schedule:

Front diphthongs on the left, back ones at the right.

Diphthong Allophony

Falling
		Front				Back
		Diphthong		Monophthong		Diphthong		Monophthong
aı		[aɪ̯]		[ɛ]		[ɑɪ̯]		[ə]
eı		[ɛɪ̯]		[ɪ]		[əɪ̯]		[ɯ]
uı		[ɵɪ̯]		[ɵ]		[uɪ̯]		[u]
oı		[œɪ̯]		[œ]		[ɔɪ̯]		[ə]
au		[au̯]		[œ]		[ɑːu̯]		[ɔ]
eu		[ɛu̯]		[æ]		[əːu̯]		[ə]
ou		[œu̯]		[ɵ]		[ɔːu̯]		[u]

Vowel Metaphony

The Naṃkrthāvāka suffers from a certain kind of vowel harmony, called progressive vowel metaphony. This urges all vowel phonemes in a lexeme to be of the same kind of the preceding one. That is: V_a = type-a vowel, V_b = type-b vowel, C = consonant: V_aV_bV_b > V_aV_aV_a

There are tqo exception, causing the metaphony to be regressive instead; when a word is initialised by an [ɛ], or an [ә]. The [ɛ] and [ә] the gets assimilated by the succeeding consonant: V_bV_aV_b > V_aV_aV_a

These modified [ɛ-ә] -sounds will occurr later in text, and will be referred to as "affected" [ɛ-ә].

Nāmic's metaphony is based upon backness, with exceptions being when /ә/, /e/ and /o/ are followed by an [r], which ignores the harmony, and modifies the phoneme.

Metaphony

Grapheme		Aa		Ee		Әә		Iı		Uu		Oo
Front Phoneme		[a]		[ɛ]		Unchanged		[ɪ]		[ɵ]		[œ]
Back Phoneme		[ɑ]		[ə]		Unchanged		[ɯ]		[u]		[ɔ]
[r] Phoneme		-		[æ]		[ʊ]		-		-		[ə]

Vowel Quality

There are four different vowel qualities:

• Short and geminated Oral
• Short and geminated Nasal

The vowels will be represented by a default /a/. Please note that any nasal can nasalise the preceding vowel, however in non-voiced environments, only the letter ⟨ṃ⟩ may.

Quality

	Oral				Nasal
Phoneme	/a/		/aː/		/ã/		/ãː/
Grapheme	a		ā		aṃ		āṃ

Phonotactics

• Any consonant - C
• Sonorant - S
• Fricative - F
• Nasal - N
• Vowel, also diphthong when final - V

A Nāmic syllable have two different maximal syllabic structures, the by far most common structure is (F)(C)(C)V(C)(F/N) initially, and (F)(C)CV(C)(F/N) medially and finally. The conclusion is that a syllable's maximal consonant cluster is FCC, that a medial and final syllable minimally must look like CV, and that all syllables must terminate in either a F, fricative, a nasal- N, or a vowel - V. Since most lexemes in Nāmaς are disyllabic, a common lexeme might look like this: FCVN.CV, like stānta - "state" [ˈstaːn.ta]. It should herefore be noted that ēkva - either, is pronounced [ˈɛː.kʍa], and not [ˈɛːk.ʍa].

The second structure is very uncommon, but does occur: (C)CS(C), and sometimes (C)CVS(C), where a sonorant occupy the syllable nucleus. Most of the syllables are free, that is, without the coda. Examples include vṙkas - wolf [ˈfr̩ˑ.kas], and ēktrva - any of them [ˈɛː.ktr̩ˑ.ʍa]. Interestingly, all syllabic sonorants are half-geminated.

Other

Some phonemes develop new pronunciations when adjacent to eachother:

• [h] + [r] = [xr]
• [s] + [r] = [ʂr]
• [s] + [u] + [vowel] = [sfV]

Grammar

The grammar of the Nāmic language is that of a constructed language, that is, fairly regular.

Stress

Lexical Stress

The lexical stress of the Nāmic language is completely irregular in the lemma forms. Declension, conjugation and prosodic stress may manipulate the stress however. All stressed polysyllables in Nāmic are geminated, but note that all geminated syllables are not stressed. That is, a lexeme may contain several geminated syllables. If so, the second one is stressed.

Stress must always be marked in all polysyllabic words - except verbs in the infinitive, or rather lemma, to avoid confusion in the vocabulary.

Diacritics

	Lexically		Phonetically
Standard	Naṃkrthāvāka		[nã.kr̩ˑ.tʰaː.ˈfaː.xa]
Alternative	Naṃkrthàváka

The alternative set of diacritics, the acute (´) and grave (`) accents, are not commonly used, but provide information which syllable to stress - both being geminated, but with the acute accent signifying stress in polysyllabic lexemes.

Stress Apophony

A pecurious detail of Nāmic is that it is possible to manipulate the stress to convey different meanings. In Nāmic linguistics called stress apophony.

The manipulation of stress in conjugations and declensions change the meaning of the word radically. The most common usage of changing the stress, is in the conjugations; the stress may be pressed forward to the ultimate syllable, to change the tense from present to preterite. See the Verbs section.

Stress Apophony

	Radical		Manipulated
Example	nākyәm āha		nakyə̄m āha
Phonetically	[ˈn̪aː.c͡çəm ˈaː.ha]		[n̪aˈ.c͡çəːm ˈaː.ha]
Grammatically	"I" pro.1.sg.abs "dance"intrans.pre.pfv.1.sg		"I"pro.1.sg.abs "danced" intrans.ppfv.1.sg

In the first nominal declension, nouns terminating in an unstressed open syllable, may be stressed on the ultimate syllable in the genitive case.

Stress Apophony

	Radical		Manipulated
Example	ma nāma		ma namā1
Phonetically	[ˈma ˈn̪aː.ma]		[ˈma n̪a.ˈmaː]
Grammatically	"the" def.art "name" abs.sg.neuter		"the"def.art "name's"gen.sg.neuter

¹ This form possesses an irregular form present in the language's name: Naṃkrthāvāka, pronounced: [nã]. The genitive is quite often used in compound words.

Prosody

Intonation

The intonation of the Namic language is phonemic, and is primarily used to distinguish grammatical moods. There are three common pitches used in Nāmic, and one for further emphasis. The intonation is not phonemic, but should be used to keep a native pronunciation.

• Rising [↗] Intonation.
• Falling [↘] Intonation.
• Rising-Falling or Peaking [↗↘] Intonation.
  • Falling-Rising or Dipping [↘↗] Intonation.

The intonation is used to emphasise certain words - that is, if you want to stress a certain action, location or noun in the sentence. It is very similar to the case in English. If not necessarily sad, the pitch is normaly rising [↗].

Lexical

English		Nāmic
I want to go home! - Not somewhere else.		kāṇam gaȷyāram gṛhan
[aɪ̯ wɒnt tuː gəʊ̯ ↗həʊ̯m]		[ˈkaːɳam gaˈɟ͡ʝaːrã ↗gr̩ˈɣã]
I want to go home! - That is, walk. Not bike.		kāṇam gaȷyāram gṛhārә
[aɪ̯ wɒnt tuː ↗gəʊ̯ həʊ̯m]		[ˈkaːɳam ↗gaˈɟ͡ʝaːrã gr̩ˈɣaːrә]
It is on top of the table. - Not below the table.		Āhta mīsau ūpar.
[ɪt ɪz ɒn ↗tɒp ɔf ðə teɪ̯bɫ̩]		[ˈaːxt̪a ˈmɪːs̪au̯ ↗ˈuːpɑr]

For the grammatical intonation, certain moods are associated with certain intonation, which may vary by dialect and accent. The standard however dictates a rising pitch [↗] during interrogative moods and the interrogative words, followed by a dipping intonation in the end [↘↗].

Interrogative Mood

	English		Nāmic
Example	Why are you here?		Kātva tāhar āssә?
Phonetically		[↗waɪ̯ ɑː juː ↗heːə̯]	[↗ˈkaːt̪fa ↘ˈtaːxar ↗ˈaːsːә]

The conditional mood however - the subjunctive mood when used in main clauses - is characterised by a peaking [↗↘] intonation. The English language doesn't really distinguish the intonation in the conditional mood, but a rising pitch is fairly common.

Conditional Mood

	English		Nāmic
Example	If so, I would sing.		Yātva, hangābhran.
Phonetically		[ɪf soʊ̯ aɪ̯ wʊd ↗sɪŋ]	[ˈʐaːd̪va xa↗ˈnkaː↘pʰran]

Prosodic Stress

Another use of the stress manipulation, other than grammatically, is prosodically. The interrogative mood is not expressed phonemically in the Naṃkrthāvāka, other than by intonation - see above. It is therefore possible to manpulate the stress on certain non-interrogative pronouns and pro-adverbs. This is equivalent to the English rise in pitch on interrogative nouns:

• Here. →
• Here? ↗

Prosodic stress in pro-adverbs

	Radical		Interrogative
Example	Tāhar.		Tāhar?
Phonetically	[ˈˈt̯aːxar ]		[t̯aˈxaːr ]
Translation		Here.	Here?

Syntactics

Considering the fusional nature of the Naṃkrthāvāka, the word order's rather free. It does possess tendencies towards SOV and SVO. It sould however be noted that the word order may alter depending on transitivity. Only SOV, VSO and SVO orders will be presented here.

Transitive Orders

SVO with ergative verbs is rather common, similarly to English.

Transitive SVO

Inflectional phrase
(noun phrase)	verb phrase	noun phrase
"I" pro.1.sg.erg	"killed" trans.ppfv.1.sg	"the man" sg.acc.def

Since focus lies on the patient, the verb phrase often moves further back.

Transitive SOV

Inflectional phrase
(noun phrase)	noun phrase	verb phrase
"I" pro.1.sg.erg	"the man" sg.acc.def	"killed" trans.ppfv.1.sg

Intransitive Orders

The intransitive order SV(O) is not very common, but it does occur.

Intransitive SVO

Inflectional Phrase
noun phrase	verb phrase
āha	kaskrbhām
"I" pro.1.sg.abs	"wrote" intrans.ppfv.1.sg

Since focus lies on the verb in the Nāmic languages intransitive orders, the VS(O) is much more common. Please note that the pronoun may be dropped, but it is not custom regarding intransitive verbs.

Intransitive SVO

Inflectional Phrase
verb phrase	noun phrase
kaskrbhām	āha
"wrote" I.ppfv.1.sg	"I" pro.1.sg.abs

Phrases

Noun Phrase

The Naṃkrthāvāka does not possess particular positions for the adpositional phrase, thus it will be prepositional for the sake of simplicity. It is quite similar to English.

Noun Phrase
demonstrative	adjectival phrase	modifier	prepositional phrase	noun
"Those" pro.1.sg.erg	"very" u.adv."nice" adj.attr.fem.erg.pl	"university" mod.adj.fem.pl	"by" u.prep."house" loc.sg.neut	"students" nom.pl.fem
"Those very nice university students by the house"

Possessive noun phrases can be formed by the means of a possessive pronoun, or a dative construction. Nevertheless, they remain after the noun.

Possessive

Noun Phrase
noun	postpositional phrase	prepositional phrase
"chair" nom.sg.fem	"brown"adj.attr.fem.pl "mark" nom.pl.fem "with" u.prep.	"to" u.prep."me" 1.sg.dat
"My chair with brown marks"

Verb Phrase

In the Naṃkrthāvāka, adverbial phrases always precede the modified verb. The noun phrase may be freely positioned,or it may depend on transitivity - see further up.

Verb Phrase
adjverbial phrase	verb	noun phrase
mā
"very" u.adv."closely" adv.masc.sg	"looked" trans. pst.ipfv.1.sg	"that" u.dem."brown"attr.acc.sg.fem "chair" acc.sg.fem
"(He) looked closely at that brown chair"

Pro-forms

I have, out of simplicity, assembled a table of correlatives of corresponding pronouns and pro-adverbs. They are a mixture of irregular and regular structures, and are by no means the full collection. It is a selection.

Please note that the pronouns decline as common nouns, according to the phonological characteristics, except kō, keı, kā, and their respective relative pronouns. See the "Declensions" section.

Correlatives
		Interrogativ		Relative		Demonstrative				Quantifier
						Proximal		Distal		Existential		Elective1		Universal		Negative		Alternative
Pronouns
Masculine		kō		yō		tāha		ahmā		yahō		ēka		marnōu		nahōu		antrōu
		who/which				he/this		he/that		someone		anyone		everyone		no one		another
Feminine		keı		yeı		tāha		āya		yāheı		ēn		mārneı		nāheı		āntreı
		who/which				she/this		she/that		someone		anyone		everyone		no one		another
Neutral		kā		yā		tāṇ		әmā		yāha		mıā		mārna/hrāva		nāha		āntra
		what/which				this		it/that		something		anything		everything		nothing		another
Dual		kyātra		yātra		tāhabha		āhmabha		ēke		ēkatta		dnāra		nātta
		which out of the two				both		neither										-
Plural		kyā		dā		hrau		nāhrau
		which out of all				this one		that one		some		either/any		all		none		-
Pro-adverbs
Location		kyār		yār		tāhar		āhmar		sāṃr		ekayār		hrāvastha		nāstha		āntrastha
		where				here		there		somewhere		anywhere		everywhere		nowhere		elsewhere
Source		aukyār		auyār		autāhar		avāhmar		ausāṃr		avekayār		auhrauyār		nāyar		antrayār
		whence				hence		thence		9		anywhence		2		nowhence		elsewhence
Goal		akyār		ayār		atāhar		atāhmar		asāṃr		atekayār		ahrauyār		nayār		āntrayar
		whither				hither		thither		somewhither		anywhither		3		nowhither		elsewhither
Time		kuā		dū		nāva		tva		sāṃtva		ekatvā		hrāvar		nātva		āntar
		when				now		then		sometime		anytime		always		never		other time
Manner		kau		dau		tāhadau		āhmadau		sāṃr		ekadāu		hrāvavaha		nāvaha		āntravaha
		how				hereby		thereby		somehow		anyhow		everyway		nowise		otherwise
Reason		kāṇ		yāṇ		tāhayaṇ		āhmayaṇ		sāṃyaṇ		ekayāṇ		hrauyāṇ		nayāṇ		antrayāṇ
		why				herefore		therefore		4		5		6		7		8

1. The "elective" pro-forms, is quite obsolete. It always identified with the similar "existential". For example, for Nāmic native speakers the difference between "Do you have any peas?" and "Do you have some peas", translated as "a tvāya ēke phāpama hānṭ"? The difference ıs determined simply by context.
2. Many adverbs are simply hyperbolic, and "auhrauyār", is simply translated as from "from everywhere", which of course is not possible.
3. Likewise, the adverb "ahrauyār" - "to everywhere", or "going everywhere."

Nouns

The nouns of Nāmic decline according to case, gender, and number. There is no inflection for definiteness, however. There is a sparingly used article though.

Person

There are two proper persons in the Nāmic language, the first and second, known as addresser and addressee respectively. These are irregular and only present in the personal pronouns and verbs. Other than that, the language possesses a number of demonstratives, which serve as, and are called, the third person.

Impersonal Person

In addition, the Nāmic has an impersonal person. This is a substitution for the passive voice in the language, which melded with the subjunctive. It could be variously called a fourth person or autonomous person, and is equivalent to the English indefinite pronouns of "you","one" and "they".

Other corresponding pronouns are the German, Swedish, Danish and Norwegian "man", the French "on" and the Finnish "ei", with similar uses. The Irish Gaelic autonomous person is the closest correspondent.

Genders

There are three genders in the Nāmic language. They are the following:

• Masculine

• Feminine

• Neuter

They do not simply represent natural gender. The distinction between genders is irregular and difficult, though there is for example a tendency among feminine nouns to be abstract. The demonstratives, or third person, decline according to three genders, though the personal pronouns do not.

Cases

Nāmic possesses nine cases, and all nouns in a clause must be declined by one, and one only. The cases are often followed by a particle, for example the instrumental and locative cases that often are preceded or replaced by such particles as sām [saːm] "with" and ım [ɪm] "in, within". The links will display the usage of each case.

1. Absolutive
2. Ergative
3. Accusative
4. Dative
5. Instrumental
6. Locative
7. Genitive
8. Benefactive
9. Ablative

Please note that the ergative-absolutive distinction is not made in the third nominal declension, nor in the comparative, cercative nor the superlative degrees of comparison of adjectives, whence they form the Nominative case.

Case

Case		Usage		Example
Nominative		The independent form of nouns		The dog
		Marks a subject of actions without a patient		The dog bites
		Marks the subject of actions with a patient		The dog bites the man
Absolutive		Denotes subjects of verbs without a patient		The man runs
Ergative		Denotes the subjects of verbs with a patient		I killed him
Accusative		Denotes the object or patient of a verb		The dog bites the man
Dative1 3		Marks an indirect object of a verb		He gave the man a pen
Instrumental		Marks the means of the action		He writes with a pen
		The performer of actions		Opened by the mayor
		The aid of an action		Go by the short cut
		Marks the means of an action		He was caught by a net
Locative2		Denotes the position of objects		I'm in Moscow
		Marks vicinity to places		He's at your house
		Marks abstract positions		Between one and ten
		Marks abstract positions		The woman at work
Genitive		Symbolises ownership		The dog's bone
		Marks objects related to the subject in composition		The group member
		Symbolises lacking		Go without me
		Marks origin of nouns.		I moved from the house
Benefactive4		Indicates objects intentionally affected by actions.		Open the door for her
		Indicates movement towards, at, from nouns.		Get to the house
		Marks intention to nouns.		It is for adults
Ablative		Marks origin of nouns		It is from France
		Marks concerned, associated nouns		On the Origin of Species5
		Marks concerned, discussed nouns.		Talking about films
		Indicates cause		It's because of the snow
		Marks abstract cause		Thanks to/despite him

1. In Nāmic, should the focus lie on the patient, and not the object, the patient ought to be marked with the benefactive case.
2. In Nāmic, the following Adpositions correspond to the locative case.
3. The dative can also be used to construct different dative constructions.
4. Considering the use with movement, a better name ought to be benefactive-allative, or alike.
5. "Species" should be in the genitive case.

Number

There are two standard numbers and one other number in Nāmic. All nouns decline by the singular and plural numbers. In addition, the first and second person personal pronouns decline according to the archaic dual number.

Pronouns

Nāmic pronouns are no different to other languages' pronouns, with exception of the rather uncommon impersonal person. There are relative, interrogative, personal and demonstrative pronouns which decline similarly to other nouns. There are no reflexive pronouns, thus, you'll be forced to use the objective personal pronouns.

• It ought to be noted that the Impersonal has merged with the old reflexive pronouns in appearance.
• The declension is irregular.

Pronominal Declension

Personal Pronouns

Person →	First						Second						Impersonal
Case ↓	Singular		Dual		Plural		Singular		Dual		Plural		Singular
Absolutive	āha		ēbhәm		vәı		tә		ūbham		ȷūhma		suāyam
Ergative	āhәm		ēbhәm		āhma		tva		ūbham		ȷam		sua
Accusative	mā		ēbhma		vәm		daı		ūbhama		ȷāma		suām
Enclitic	maı		yan		yahm		taı		yan		ūhm		sua
Dative	mayā		ēbhya		āhmәbha		tvayā		ūbhaya		ȷūhmabha		sәyā
Enclitic	mya		bhya		yahm		tya		bhya		ūhm		saı
Instrumental	mābhәm		ēbhya		āhmәbha		tūbhya		ūbhaya		ȷūhmabha		sābhәm
Locative	mıā		ēbhәı		ahmıə̄		dıā		ūbhaı		ȷuhmıā		suā
Genitive	maı		ēbhәı		vāı		tū		ūbhaı		ȷāṃ		suaı
Enclitic	ma		ua		nau		tau		ua		yū		sa
Benefactive	mēnṭa		bhēnṭa		və̄nṭa		tūnṭa		ūbhenṭa		ȷānṭa		sāna
Ablative	māṭ		ēbhәṭ		āhmaṭ		tūṭ		ūbhaṭ		ȷūhmaṭ		suaṭ

Nota Bene:

• The first person singular pronouns, and the impersonal, possesses more formal alternatives to the accusative. In respective order: mēga, tēga and sāga.
• The dual number pronouns sort as plural in conjugations.

Word order

In transitive phrases with pronouns, the syntax is modified. The subject is most often omitted, however, if enclitic pronouns are used, the subjects become almost compulsory. The cause is the phonological change in the verb.

Transitive (S)OV

Inflectional phrase
noun phrase	verb phrase
ūbhama	kyāhroı
"you two" pro.2.du.acc.	"I hate" trans.pre.pfv.2.pl

Transitive SV(O)

Inflectional phrase
noun phrase	verb phrase
āhәm	kyāhrәyan
"I" pro.1.sg.erg	"I hate you two" trans.pre.pfv.2.du

Demonstratives

The demonstratives serve as determinatives. However, since Nāmic doesn't have a third person personal pronoun in the English sense, its demonstratives fulfil this function instead, by standing independently without a noun to be modified. The demonstratives decline by gender, number, and case. The declension is equivalent to English he, she and it, and will be called the third person in conjugations. Consider the following:

Demonstratives

Determiner
tāṇa kāntham	gāryәm
"this" det.prox.acc.neut.sg "book" n.acc.neut.sg	"I read" trans.pre.pfv.1.sg
Demonstrative Pronoun
tāṇa	gāryәm
"this" pro.prox.acc.neut.sg	"I read" trans.pre.pfv.1.sg
Third person Pronoun
tā	gārya
"this" pro.prox.acc.neut.3.sg	"It (this) reads" intrans.pre.pfv.3.sg

Nota Bene:

• The demonstratives only decline according to singular and plural, and not the dual number - unlike the personal pronouns.

• The declensions are irregular.

Distal Declension

The distal, or normal declension, corresponds either to he, she and it, or that. It is a cognate to the Sanskrit distal "ayám"-declension.

Distal Demonstratives

Person →	Masculine				Feminine				Neuter
Case ↓	Singular		Plural		Singular		Plural		Singular		Plural
Absolutive	ahmā		ahmāı		āya		āyaı		әmā		әmānı
Ergative	āyam		әmāı		yām		әmāı		ādam		әmāı
Accusative	әmām		āmau		yāma		āyau		ādam		әmāı
Enclitic	әṭām		әṭāma		әṭām		әṭāma		әṭēm		әṭēma
Dative	āhmaya		āhmayaı		āhmaya		āhmayaı		әdām		әdāma
Enclitic	ayā		ayāı		ayā		ayāı		ṭa		ṭaı
Instrumental	āṇan		āṇana		āṇan		āṇana		āṇaya		āṇaya
Locative	āhmau		āhmaṿa		yau		yāṿa		āsyau		āsyaṿa
Genitive	ahmīṇ		ahmīṇa		ayīṇ		ayīṇa		ādam		adām
Enclitic	aṇ		yīṇa		aṇ		yīṇa		yīṇ		īṇa
Benefactive	ahmāṇta		ahmāṇtaı		yāmaṃ		yāmama		әmāṇta		әmāṇtaı
Ablative	āhmaṭ		әbhāṭ		āsyaṭ		asyāṭ		āhmaṭ		әbhāṭ

Proximal Declension

The proximal declension, corresponds well to the English demonstrative this. It is a cognate to the Sanskrit distal "etát"-declension.

Proximal Demonstratives

Person →	Masculine				Feminine				Neuter
Case ↓	Singular		Plural		Singular		Plural		Singular		Plural
Absolutive	tāha		tāhaı		tāha		tāhaı		tāṇ		tāṇa
Ergative	әtā		teı		әṣā		taı		tā		tāṇ
Accusative	tām		tāma		tāṃ		tāva		tāṇa		tāṇaı
Enclitic	ātam		ātaı		ātam		ātaı		āta		ātaı
Dative	tyā		tāyaı		tāṣya		tāṣyaı		tyā		tyaı
Enclitic	ātaya		ātayaı		ātaya		ātayaı		ātya		ātyaı
Instrumental	tēṇa		tēṇaı		tāya		tāyaı		tāṇa		tāṇaı
Locative	tīu		tau		tīa		tau		tīṇ		tīṇa
Genitive	tēṇa		tēṇaı		tāṣva		tāṣvaı		tīṇ		tīṇa
Enclitic	әtēṇ		әtēṇa		әtēṇ		әtēṇa		ētıṇ		ētıṇa
Benefactive	әtānṭa		әtānṭa		ṣyānṭa		ṣyānṭaı		tīnṭa		tīnṭaı
Ablative	taṭ		tāṭ		ṣaṭ		ṣāṭ		taṭ		tāṭ

Interrogatives

There is but one interrogative pronoun, kyā, which declines. It congruates with gender, but does not distinguish the dual number. It is essentially similar to the First front declension, though it's somewhat irregular.

Interrogative Declension

Interrogative Declension

Gender →	Masculine				Feminine				Neuter
Case ↓	Singular		Plural		Singular		Plural		Singular		Plural
Absolutive	kō		koı		keı		kıā		kā		kaı
Ergative	kyō		kyoı		kyī		kyeı		kyā		kyaı
Accusative	kyōm		kyōmau		kyīm		kyīma		kyām		kyāma
Dative	kōya		kōyoı		kīya		kīyaı		kāya		kāyaı
Instrumental	kyōṇa		kyōṇoı		kīṇ		kīṇa		kāṇ		kāṇa
Locative	kyōu		kyōva		keu		kēva		kau		kāva
Genitive	kyōnә		kyōnoı		kīṇa		kīṇaı		kāṇa		kāṇaı
Benefactive	kyōṃ		kyōma		kīnṭa		kīnṭaı		kānṭa		kānṭaı
Ablative	kyoṭ		kyōṭ		kәṭ		kēṭ		kaṭ		kāṭ

Relative Declension

The relative declension is indeed identical to the interrogative one, with exception for three enclitics. In case they are suffixed postvocally, they receive an initial ⟨a⟩.

Relative Enclitics

Gender →	Masculine				Feminine				Neuter
Case ↓	Singular		Plural		Singular		Plural		Singular		Plural
Accusative	yām		yāma		yәm		yēma		yām		yāma
Dative-Instrumental	yā		yaı		yә		yei		yā		yaı
Genitive	yōnә		yōnoı		yīn		yīna		yān		yāna

Nominal Declension

There are four nominal declensions in the Naṃkrthāvāka, each declined differently, based upon phonological differences in the terminating syllable.

Nota bene:

• Many case endings are determined by the vowel harmony.
• Many case endings are determined by diphthongisation, and monophthongisation.
• The stress of the lexemes is irregular in the radical, but changes regularly with case.

First Declension

The characteristic of the First declensions is the vowel stem. There is little difference between gender, however [...]. The pluralisation of the nouns is mainly due to diphthongisation of the ultimate vowel.

Front First Declension

The First declension is split into two suptypes, depending on the vowel metaphony of the word. The Front declension is recognised should the lexeme:

• Initiate with a front vowel.
• Initiate with an [ә] or [ɛ] and continue with front vowels.

• Contain only front vowels.

• Contain only [ɛ]'s.

Front Declension

	Sdē chair				Kēma fire				Nāra person
Gender →	Masculine				Feminine				Neuter
Case ↓	Singular		Plural		Singular		Plural		Singular		Plural
Absolutive	sdē		sdēı		kēma		kēmaı		nāra		nāraı
Ergative	sdēsya		sdēsyaı		kēmasya		kēmasyaı		nāraṭta		nāraṭtaı
Accusative	sdēm		sdēma		kēmam		kēmama		nāram		nārama
Dative	sdēya		sdēyaı		kēmaya		kēmayaı		nāraya		nārayaı
Instrumental	sdēṇ		sdēṇa		kēmaṣta		kēmaṣtaı		nāraṇ		nāraṇa
Locative	sdeu		sdēṿa		kēmau		kēmaṿa		nārau		nāraṿa
Genitive1	sdēṇa		sdēṇaı		kēmaṣua		kēmaṣuaı		nāreṇa		nāreṇa
Benefactive	sdēnṭa		sdēnṭaı		kēmanṭa		kēmanṭaı		nāranṭ		narānṭ
Ablative	sdēṭ				kēmaṭ				nāraṭ

1. For polysyllables which are not stressed on the first syllable, the genitive may be formed through postponing the stress of the absolutive to the ultimate vowel.

Back First Declension

There are, as mentioned, two separate subtypes of the first vowel stem declension. These are distinguished through whether the word has a back or front vowel harmony. The back declension is used should the word have a single back vowel, have an initial one, or a second one succeding an "affected" [ɛ/ә].

Please note,

• that ⟨ṃ⟩ is pronounced /n/ intervocally.
• the ⟨ṿ⟩ indicates an intervocal ⟨u⟩, pronounced /w/.

Back Declension

	krṭō work				bhūva mud				dhēnu bull
Gender →	Masculine				Feminine				Neuter
Case ↓	Singular		Plural		Singular		Plural		Singular		Plural
Absolutive	krṭō		krṭoı		bhūva		bhūvuı		dhēnu		dhēnuı
Ergative	krṭōsya		krṭōsyoı		bhūvasua		bhūvasvuı		dhēnusya		dhēnusyuı
Accusative	krṭōm		krṭōmau		bhūvam		bhūvamau		dhēnum		dhēnumau
Dative	krṭoı		krṭoyau		bhūvoı		bhūvoyau		dhēnoı		dhēnoyau
Instrumental	krṭōṇa		krṭōṇoı		bhūvaga		bhūvagoı		dhēnuga		dhēnugoı
Locative	krṭou		krṭōṿa		bhūvou		bhūvaṿa		dhēnu		dhēnuı
Genitive	krṭon		krṭonau		bhūvan		bhūvanau		dhēnun		dhēnunau
Benefactive	krṭōṃ		krṭōṃu		bhūvaṃ		bhūvaṃu		dhēnuṃ		dhēnuṃu
Ablative	krṭ				bhūvaṭ				dhēnuṭ

Second Declension

The second declension declines nouns with a fricative coda. There is no distinction of number in the accusative, locative or ablative cases.

Please note that the ⟨ṭ⟩ is pronounced /ʂ/ intervocally and finally.

Second Declension

	kaṭ hair				ȷēnas knee				khōros chorus
Gender →	Masculine				Feminine				Neuter
Case ↓	Singular		Plural		Singular		Plural		Singular		Plural
Absolutive	kaṭ		kāṭ		ȷēnas		ȷenās		khōros		khorōs
Ergative	kātya		kātyaı		ȷēnasya		ȷēnasyaı		khōrosya		khōrosyoı
Accusative	kāṭ				ȷenās				khorōs
Dative	kāṭya		kāṭyaı		ȷēnahya		ȷēnahyaı		khōrhya		khōrohyaı
Instrumental	kāṭta		kāṭtaı		ȷēnasṭa		ȷēnasṭaı		khōrosṭa		khōrosṭoı
Locative	kāṭau				ȷēnau				khōrou
Genitive	kāṭna		kāṭnaı		ȷēnasṇa		ȷēnasṇaı		khōrosṇa		khōrosṇaı
Benefactive	kāṭta		kāṭtaı		ȷēnaṣsa		ȷēnaṣsaı		khōroṣsa		khōroṣsoı
Ablative	kāṭa				ȷēnasa				khōrosu

Third Declension

The third declension is based upon nasal stems, and have peculiar function, since it affects the other declensions, especially in the accusative. Third declension monosyllabic nouns always have an ungeminated vowel.

Please note that the neuter declines identically to the masculine, however, this does not apply to the so called "s-neuter". The s-neuter includes nouns which terminate with a nasal and an /s/.

Third Declension

	svan dog				ȷyum yoke				ktans hand
Gender →	Masculine				Feminine				s-Neuter
Case ↓	Singular		Plural		Singular		Plural		Singular		Plural
Absolutive	svan		svāna		ȷyum		ȷyūmo		ktans		ktāna
Ergative									ktans		ktānta
Accusative	svāna		svānaı		ȷyūmo		ȷyūmoı		ktānta		ktāntaı
Dative	svāna		svānaya		ȷyūmo		ȷyūmoya		ktānta		ktāntaya
Instrumental	svāṇna		svāṇnaı		ȷyūṇmo		ȷyūṇmoı		ktāntaṇa		ktāntaṇaı
Locative	svānau				ȷyūmou				ktāntau
Genitive	svānaṇ		svānaṇa		ȷyūmoṇo		ȷyūmoṇoı		ktānteṇa		ktānteṇaı
Benefactive	svānna		svānnaı		ȷyūmno		ȷyūmnoı		ktānna		ktānnaı
Ablative	svānaṭ				ȷyūmoṭ				ktāntaṭ

Fourth Declension

The fourth declension handles nouns ending in ⟨r⟩ or ⟨ar, ur⟩. These are exclusively agentive nouns and entails human agents only, thus you may only decline the neuter in the plural, because no neuter agents exist.

Examples include:

• suāstr, सउास्तर, (sister)
• pītr, पीतर, (father)
• pātur, पातर, (pedestrian)

Fourth Declension

	dātr giver, donor
Gender →	Masculine				Feminine				Neuter
Case ↓	Singular		Plural		Singular		Plural		Plural
Absolutive	dātr		dātar		dātr		dātrә		dātraḥ
Ergative	dāta		dātaı		dātә		dāteı		dātaı
Accusative	dātaram		dātaramā		dātrәm		dātrәmā		dātarma
Dative	dātraı		dātraya		dātreı		dātreya		dātaraı
Instrumental	dātrā		dātarbhaı		dātre		dātәrbheı		dātarabhāı
Locative	dātru		dātroı		dātrә		dātreı		dātrau
Genitive	dātrn		dātrma		dātrәna		dātrәnaı		dātarma
Benefactive	dātrnṭa		dātrnṭaı		dātrnṭә		dātrnṭeı		dātrnṭu
Ablative	dātar				dātәr				dātarbhaı

Adjectives

Forms

The Naṃkrthāvāka distinguishes five different adjectival forms, which are all perceived as functions of the corresponding noun in Nāmic:

Predicative

Predicative adjectives are conjuncted to the object with copulae or another verb, that is, a predicate. The adjectival predicative is indeclinable to case and number, but not gender. It can be compared.

āyam						sāma						ākyam
pro.prox.erg.masc.3.sg						cop.pres.pfv.3.sg						pred.adj.masc.sg
He appears nice
[a.ˈʐãː ˈsaː.ma ˈaː.c͡çam]
āhәm						hvā						hārәm
pro.erg.1.sg						cop.ppfv.1.sg						pred.adj.masc.sg
I was yellow
[ˈaː.həm xfaː ˈhaː.rəm]

Please note that the adjectival predicative above in reality is derived from the nominal predicative, declined to the accusative case.

Nominal

The nominal form stands independently or with a demonstrative, to represent the full object. In Nāmic, it's identical to the nominative attributive form.

grīgama						nāvaı						tāpranṭ
acc.neut.pl						nomi.adj.nom.masc.pl						vt.pres.pfv.3.sg
The young throw rocks
[ˈnaː.ʍaɪ̯ ˈtaː.praɳʈ ˈgrɪː.ɣam.a]
āhәm						āraȷya						rautām
pro.erg.1.sg						vt.pres.ımpfv.1.sg						nomi.adj.acc.masc.sg
I love (the) red (one)
[ˈaː.ʔə̤m a.ˈraː.ɟ͡ʝa rau̯.ˈt͡θām]

Attributive

Attributive adjectives differ in the sense that they congruate with the nouns regarding case, number and gender. They describe a feature of the object in a state.

nāraı						mādraı						dyēvanṭ
abs.neut.3.sg						attr.adj.nom.neut.pl						vit.pres.impfv.3.pl
Sweet people shine.
[ˈnaː.raɪ̯ maː.draɪ̯ ˈɖ͡ʐɛː.wãʐ]
nārama						mṙtama						sāham
acc.neut.3.sg						attr.adj.acc.neut.pl						vt.pres.impfv.1.sg
I see dead people
[ˈnaː.ra.ma ˈmr̩ˑ.ʈa.ma saː.ʔa̤m]

Adverbial

The last form describes a verb, in which manner it's conducted. Adverbs are not perceived as a lexical category in Neumatic linguistics, separate from adjectives. Please note that adverbs decline by gender and number of the verb's subject.

nāka						kāryakā						āya
vit.pres.impfv.3.sg						adv.fem.sg						pro.abs.fem.3.sg
She dances beautifully.
[ˈnaː.xa kaːr.ʂa.ˈxaː ˈa.ʐa]
magāı									aȷākou
vit.ppfv.2.sg									adv.masc.sg
You did well, man!
[ma.ˈɣɛː a.ˈɟaː.kœu̯]

Adjectival Comparison

Adjectival Root
Articles
			Comparative		Cercative		Superlative
Positive
Negative
Gender		Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
Number		Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Predicative
Comparative	Nominative
	Accusative
	Dative
	Instrumental
	Locative
	Genitive
	Benefactive
	Ablative
Adverb
	Cercative
Cercative	Nominative
	Accusative
	Dative
	Instrumental
	Locative
	Genitive
	Benefactive
	Ablative
Adverb
	Superlative
Superlative	Nominative
	Accusative
	Dative
	Instrumental
	Locative
	Genitive
	Benefactive
	Ablative
Adverb
Notes

Verbs

Voice

The Nāmic language only possess one voice, the active. In the Proto-Indo-European language, the passive and medio-passive voices merged, only to produce the Nāmic impersonal pronoun, instead of a voice.

However, a passive construction is possible using the instrumental case on the former subject, and the absolutive on the former patient, if you want to emphasize the subject.

• The English equivalent, for example: "The girl was killed by him", uses the past participle and an oblique argument.
• The Nāmic equivalent uses the instrumental case on the former subject, him, and the absolutive case on the former patient, the girl. In addition, the verb is intransivitised, similarly to the use of the past participle killed in English.

Please note that this is however only used in formal contexts.

htrīṇa									marәyā
acc.fem.sg									vt.ppfv.3.sg
He killed the girl.
[ˈxʈrɪː.ɳa ma.rə.ˈʐaː]
htrīṇ						āṇan						marәyāṭ
abs.fem.sg						pro.instr.masc.sg						vit.ppfv.3.sg
The girl was killed by (means of) him.
[ˈxʈrɪːɳ ˈaː.ɳan ma.rə.ˈʐaːʐ]

Mood

Nāmic possesses four moods, which all verbs conjugate by. The conditional is simply the subjunctive used in main clauses, and is therefore identical in form.

Indicative						Subjunctive						Conditional						Desiderative
ātam āha						āha ātam kānharan1						ātaran āha kānharan						ātasyam
I eat.						I eat if I am hungry.						I would eat, if I were hungry.						I want/wish/would like to eat.

1. The verbal root √kānha means "to hunger".

Tense

In Nāmic there are two simple tenses, which denote the temporal place. The difference between the past and the present, is simply a manipulated stress. All tenses are dependent on the aspects.

Present			Past
vākam			vakām
I talk.			I talked.

Aorist

There is however a more complicated tense, which intertwines with the perfect aspect, to form the aorist. This tense is similar to its Sanskrit and Ancient Greek counterparts but is on the whole quite facile. The aorist marks events akin to its name, "unlimited", "indefinite"; which means that the most simple statements go here, as long as the temporal place isn't important, equal to English colloquial speech. For example:

What did you do today? - I danced.

Which more colloquially would be:

What did you do today? - Dance.

Simple statements in the future also class into this category:

What did you want to do when you get older? - Be a pilot.

Aspect

There are three or two aspects in the Nāmic language, although not all aspects may be combined with other moods.

Aorist						Imperfective						Retrospective
ādatam kuā gamāṭ						ādatam kuā gamāṭ						ādatabham
I was eating when he came.						I was eating when he came.						I have eaten.

Transitivity

The transitivity distinction in Nāmic is derived from the Proto-Indo-European causative verb form, which it shares a lot of attributes, lost in most other Indo-European languages. The characteristic is known foremostly in Uralic languages and Siberian ones.

• Transitivity is, how many, and if, a verb accepts a direct object. If it doesn't, it is called an intransitive verb. This is Nāmic's basic verb form.

Confer the intransitive I see and the transitive I see the man.

• The transitivity is distinguished in all verbs, with a few exceptions, and may also signalise a stative versus dynamic distinction. Something the English language retains traces of.

Confer the stative and intransitive I sit versus the dynamic I set.

I chose not to write that I set is transitive, only because the Nāmic language would translate this clause intransitively because it has no object, that is, I am a person who set (things).

Differentiating between the transitivity is made through an old causative infix from the Proto-Indo-European language, initially /aja/. This infix did however go through mutation and formed firstly /ja/, then just /j/. Eventually it grew to form falling diphthongs from the preceding vowel. These diphthongs were exposed to synaeresis and formed the following table:

Development of the causative infix /aja/.

Falling
	Front		Back
	Diphthong	Monophthong	Diphthong	Monophthong
aı	[aɪ̯]	[ɛ]	[ɑɪ̯]	[ə]
eı	[ɛɪ̯]	[ɪ]	[əɪ̯]	[ɯ]
uı	[ɵɪ̯]	[ɵ]	[uɪ̯]	[u]
oı	[œɪ̯]	[œ]	[ɔɪ̯]	[ə]

This table is half the table found in the Synaeresis section.

The development can be seen in transition from Old Nāmic:

Development of the causative infix /aja/.

Language
Old Nāmic		Nāmic
Normal	Causative	Intransitive	Transitive
vētas	veyātas	vēta	vēıta	vīta
be able to	to make able to	to be able to; can; know	to know; know of
sthās	sthāyas	sthā	sthāı	sthē-
to stand	to make standing	to stand; arise	to put; raise

The transitive form is always considered a part of the intranistive complement, and is not recognised as a verb proper. In Nāmic linguistic notation the intransitive and transitive roots of verbs are marked as √ and t√ respectively. Confer the reduplicated root, r√. The lemma form of the verbs is almost exclusively the intransitive root √ + an "a".

Conjugation

Reduplication

The Nāmic language utilises reduplication. Perhaps it is no surprise considering the tight bonds with Proto-Indo-European and Sanskrit. Reduplication in the language serves the purpose of creating the imperfective and retrospective aspects of the verb in the subjunctive and indicative moods. The system of reduplication is quite regular but depends heavily on the initial letters, but can be mapped. First remember these:

C = Consonant

G = Voiced consonant.

S = Plosive consonant; stop

F = Fricative

R = Rhotic

V = Vowel

• The most basic reduplication occurs on onsets similar to the one below. It represents the second to maximum onset in the language, but the FC cluster is unaffected.

(FC)C₁V which creates S₁V.(FC)C₁V

sthā- → tāstha-

hkānt- → kāhkant-

nām- → nānam-

If the first vowel is an "e", the scheme becomes:

(FC)C₁e which creates S₁ı.(FC)C₁e

• If the onset possesses a rhotic consonant, like the absolute maximum onset:

(FC)CR₁V creates R₁V.(FC)CR₁V

trānya- → rātranya

• If the root starts with a vocalic syllable and the second syllable is a consonant:

V.C/N creates V.G/NVC/N

āt- → ādat-

• If the root starts with a vocalic syllable and the first consonant is a rhotic:

V.R creates RV.R

ārg- → rārg-

Other useful reduplication schemes are:

CRC → CeCRC

pV → pupV

The reduplicated form is in Nāmic linguistic notation always marked with the lemma form in conjugations and dictionaries, marked as r√. Confer the transitivity root markers √ and t√.

Intransitive Conjugation

This section is subject to change. Reduplication has received a new purpose, and paradigms shall now be derived from PIE.

Intransitive Verb
√sthā		r√testhāı		to stand, stay, remain, arise.
Supine
sthān
Participles
Non-Past			sthānta
Past			sthanta
Person		Singular			Plural			Impersonal
		1st	2nd	3rd	1st	2nd	3rd
Indicative	Aorist
	Perfective	stham	sthaı	sthaṭ	sthāma	sthāṭa	sthanṭ	sthau
	Present
	Imperfective	tāstham	tāsthaı	tāsthaṭ	tāsthama	tāsthaṭa	tāsthanṭ	tāsthau
	Retrospective	tāsthabham	tāsthabhaı	tāsthabaṭ	tāsthabhama	tāsthabhaṭa	tāsthabhanṭ	tāsthabhau
	Ag.Retrospective	ātastham	ātasthaı	ātasthaṭ	ātasthama	ātasthaṭa	ātasthanṭ	ātasthau
	Past
	Imperfective	tasthām	tasthāı	tasthāṭ	tasthamā	tasthaṭā	tasthānṭ	tasthāu
	Retrospective	tasthabhām	tasthabhāı	tasthabāṭ	tasthabhamā	tasthabhaṭā	tasthabhānṭ	tasthabhāu
Subjunctive	Person	1st	2nd	3rd	1st	2nd	3rd	Impersonal
	Aorist
	Perfective	sthāur	sthāṭaur	sthātar	sthāmasta	sthāṭau	sthāntar	sthaur
	Present
	Imperfective	tāsthar	tāsthatar	tāsthatr	tāsthamasta	tāsthaṭau	tāsthantar	tāsthaur
	Retrospective	tāsthabhar	tāsthabhatar	tāstabhatr	tāsthamabhasta	tāsthabhaṭau	tāsthabhantar	tāsthabhaur
	Past
	Imperfective	tasthar	tasthatar	tasthatr	tasthamasta	tastaṭau	tasthantar	tasthaur
	Retrospective	tasthabhar	tasthabhatar	tastabhatr	tasthamabhasta	tasthabhaṭau	tasthabhantar	tasthabhaur
Desiderative	Person	1st	2nd	3rd	1st	2nd	3rd	Impersonal
	Present
	Imperfective	sthāsyam	sthāsyaı	sthāsyaṭ	sthāsyama	sthāsyaṭa	sthāsyanṭ	sthāsyau
	Retrospective	tāsthasyam	tāsthasyaı	tāsthasyaṭ	tāsthasyama	tāsthasyaṭa	tāsthasyanṭ	tāsthasyau
	Past
	Imperfective	sthasyām	sthasyāı	sthasyāṭ	sthasyamā	sthasyaṭā	sthasyānṭ	sthasyāu
	Retrospective	tasthasyām	tasthasyāı	tasthasyāṭ	tasthasyamā	tasthasyaṭā	tasthasyānṭ	tasthasyāu
Notes
√sthāı is a monosyllabic root and reduplicated in the past.

Transitive Conjugations

This one, on the other hand, is finished. Descriptive texts will come.

Transitive Verb
√sthā		t√sthāı		r√testhāı		to put, set, keep, raise.
Supine
sthēna
Participles
Non-Past			sthāyata
Past			sthāyatā
Person		Singular			Plural			Impersonal
		1st	2nd	3rd	1st	2nd	3rd
Indicative	Aorist
	Perfective	sthә	sthaı	stheṭ	sthem	sthēṭa	sthēn	sthayu
	Present
	Imperfective	tēsthә	tēsthaı	tēstheṭ	tēsthem	tēstheṭa	tēsthen	tēsthayu
	Retrospective	testhēbhә	testhēbhaı	testhēbheṭ	testhēbhem	testhēbhәṭa	testhēbhen	testhēbhu
	Ag.Retrospective	āstebhә	āsthebhaı	āsthebheṭ	āsthebhem	āsthebhәṭa	āsthebhen	āstebhu
	Past
	Imperfective	testhṃ	testhāı	testhēṭ	testhēm	testhēṭa	testhēn	testhayū
	Retrospective	testhebhē	testhebhāı	testhebhēṭ	testhebhēm	testhebhәṭā	testhebhēn	testhebhū
Subjunctive	Person	1st	2nd	3rd	1st	2nd	3rd	Impersonal
	Aorist
	Perfective	sthaı	sthāṭaı	sthātaı	sthāmasta	sthāṭau	sthāntaı	sthāu
	Present
	Imperfective	tāsthava	tāsthaṭa	tāsthaṭ	tāsthamaṭ	tāsthathau	tāsthanta	tāsthu
	Retrospective	tāstabhava	tāsthabhaṭa	tāsthabhaṭ	tāsthabhamaṭ	tāsthabhatau	tāsthabhanta	tāsthabhu
	Past
	Imperfective	tasthavā	tasthaṭā	tasthāṭ	tasthamāṭ	tasthathāu	tasthantā	tasthū
	Retrospective	tastabhavā	tasthabhaṭā	tasthabhāṭ	tasthabhamāṭ	tasthabhatāu	tasthabhantā	tasthabhū
Desiderative	Person	1st	2nd	3rd	1st	2nd	3rd	Impersonal
	Present
	Imperfective	sthēsyә	sthēsyaı	sthēsyeṭ	sthēsyem	sthēsyeṭa	sthēsyen	sthēsyayu
	Retrospective	testhēsyә	testhēsyaı	testhēsyeṭ	testhēsyem	testhēsyeṭa	testhēsyen	testhesyayū
	Past
	Imperfective	sthesyē	sthesyāı	sthesyēṭ	sthesyēm	sthesyeṭā	sthesyēn	sthesyayū
	Retrospective	testhesyē	testhesyāı	testhesyēṭ	testhesyēm	testhesyeṭā	testhesyēn	testhesyayū
Notes
√sthāı is a monosyllabic root and reduplicated in the past. Please note that āı > ē.

Conjugation Classes

Nāmic possesses a few classes of conjugations, which conjugate slightly differently, because of their phonological attributes, or irregularity. They are named after the most prominent word conjugated in the class.