Falamu: Difference between revisions
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| sê || é ~ sê || éra || "to be" || When ''é'' is used as the present, the word order changes and no focus particle is used. <br /> E.g. ''la é mudhê'' ≈ ''é la mudhê sê'' ≈ ''kôs la sê mudhê'' "she is a woman" | | sê || é ~ sê || éra || "to be" || When ''é'' is used as the present, the word order changes and no focus particle is used. <br /> E.g. ''la é mudhê'' ≈ ''é la mudhê sê'' ≈ ''kôs la sê mudhê'' "she is a woman" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| tê || tên || tênha || "to have" | | tê || tên || tênha || "to have" || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| bî || bîn || bînha || "to come" | | bî || bîn || bînha || "to come" || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| bô || bôn || bônha || "to put" | | bô || bôn || bônha || "to put" || | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} |
Revision as of 17:26, 18 May 2022
Falamu (native: [fɑlɑ́ˑmʊ]) is a Portuguese creole language with a high degree of Somali influence.
Falamu | |
---|---|
Boka Falamu | |
Pronunciation | [bɔ́ˑkɑ fɑlɑ́ˑmʊ] |
Created by | Shariifka |
Portuguese Creole
|
Introduction
Etymology
From early Falamu (nu) falámu "we (incl.) speak" (= modern Falamu é nu fála) < Portuguese (nós) falamos "we speak".
Phonology
Orthography
Note: In this article, the regular phonetic script is used with accents added for clarity. These accents are normally omitted in writing.
Consonants
Letter | IPA | Remarks |
---|---|---|
' | ʔ | Not used word-initially since words written with an initial vowel always have a preceding glottal stop. |
b | b | May be pronounced /β/ between vowels. |
d | d ~ ð | /ð/ between vowels or after /h/. |
dh | ɖ | Somewhat implosive. |
f | f | |
g | ɡ | May be pronounced /ɣ/ between vowels. |
h | h | |
j | dʒ ~ tʃ | Free variation |
k | k | |
l | l | |
m | m | |
n | n ~ ŋ | /ŋ/ syllable finally, /n/ otherwise. |
nh | ɲ ~ j̃ | Free variation |
r | r | |
s | s | |
t | t | |
w | w | |
x | ʃ | |
y | j |
The consonants m, n, l, g, r, d, b can be geminated between vowels, which is indicated by doubling them.
The consonants dh and nh are always geminated when between vowels.
The voiceless stops t, k are always aspirated.
Vowels
Letter | IPA | Remarks | |
---|---|---|---|
"Front" | "Back" | ||
a | æ | ɑ | |
e | e | ɛ | |
i | i | ɪ | |
o | ɞ | ɔ | |
u | ʉ | ʊ |
Letter | IPA | Remarks | |
---|---|---|---|
"Front" | "Back" | ||
ay | æi | ɑɪ | |
aw | æʉ | ɑʊ | |
ey | ei | ɛɪ | |
oy | ɞi | — | No "back" variant. |
ow | ɞʉ | ɔʊ |
Accented vowels are often partially lengthened in the following situations:
- Monophthong vowels in open syllables;
- Monophthong vowels in word-final syllables;
- Word-final diphthong vowels.
There are also true long vowels indicated by doubling the vowel letter of a monophthong (e.g. aa) or the nucleus of a diphthong (e.g. aay). If a word contains a true long vowel, an other accented short vowel in the same word is not lengthened.
A word cannot begin in a vowel. Instead, a word written with an initial vowel is pronounced with a preceding glottal stop.
Each vowel has a "front" and "back" variety. This is the basis of vowel harmony.
Consonants
Vowels
Prosody
Accent
- Pitch accent
Intonation
Phonotactics
- Syllable structure: CV(C) - where V is a vowel or diphthong
- No consonant clusters except at syllable boundaries.
Morphophonology
Phonological history
Portuguese | Falamu | |
---|---|---|
Grapheme | Environment | |
ch | all | j |
j | initial | |
g | initial before e/i | |
di | unstressed before vowels | |
ti | ||
x | all as /ʃ/ | x |
j | non-initial | |
g | non-initial before e/i | |
v | all | b |
p | ||
b | ||
s | all | s |
ss | ||
z | ||
ç | ||
c | before e/i | |
sc | ||
lh | all | dh |
Morphology
Pronouns
Person, Number | Independent | Clitic | Possessive | Remarks | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Strong | Weak | Strong | Weak | |||
1S | amî | mî | mi | dimî | dimi | |
2S | abô | bô | bu | dibô | dibu | |
3SM | êli | êli | li | dêli | dili | |
3SF | êla | êla | la | dêla | dila | |
1PI | anô | nô | nu | dinô | dinu | |
1PE | nusôtu; anôs | nôs | nus | dinôs | dinus | |
2P | busôtu; abôs | bôs | bus | dibôs | dibus | |
3P | lisôtu; êlis | êlis | lis | dêlis | dilis | |
Reflexive | asî | sî | si | — | — | Reflexive when used as an object. |
Impersonal | — | — | si | — | — | Impersonal when used as a subject. |
Nouns
Plural
The plural of nouns is regularly formed by adding -s (after a vowel or diphthong) or -is (after a consonant). Word-final -n becomes -nh- when -is is added.
Examples:
- ódhu "eye" -> ódhus "eyes"
- dêd "finger, toe" -> dêdis "fingers, toes"
- món "hand, arm" -> mónhis "hands, arms"
Some nouns have irregular plurals.
Examples:
- beni'aâdan "human" -> aadâmi "humanity"
- This is a collective noun, meaning it takes singular agreement. Colloquially, it may instead take plural agreement.
- bisó "person" -> jênti "people"
- Collective (as aadâmi).
- mûslin "Muslim" -> muslimîn "Muslims"
Nouns are generally used in the singular when used with numerals.
Verbs
Verb stems
Form | Formation | Examples | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|
Infinitive | Base stem with final accent | falá "(to) speak" | |
Present | Base stem with penultimate accent | fála "speak(s)" | The accent is final in monosyllabic verbs. |
Past | Infinitive + -ba | falába "spoke" | |
Passive participle | Infinitive + -d | falád "spoken" |
Irregular verbs:
Infinitive | Present stem | Past stem | Meaning | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|
sê | é ~ sê | éra | "to be" | When é is used as the present, the word order changes and no focus particle is used. E.g. la é mudhê ≈ é la mudhê sê ≈ kôs la sê mudhê "she is a woman" |
tê | tên | tênha | "to have" | |
bî | bîn | bînha | "to come" | |
bô | bôn | bônha | "to put" |
Verb tenses
Form | Formation | Examples | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|
Simple present | Present stem | é li fála "he speaks"; fála! "speak!" | Also used for imperative affirmative. |
Present prospective/subjunctive | Infinitive | é mi falá "I'll speak"; ki mi falá "that I speak"; mi ná falá "I do not speak"; ná falá! "do not speak!" | Also used for present negative and imperative negative. |
Present progressive | tá + infinitive | é bu tá falá "you (sg.) are speaking" | |
Simple past | Past stem | é nus falába "we (excl.) spoke" | |
Past progressive | tá + past | é nu tá falába "we (incl.) were speaking" | |
Past remote | já + past | é mi já falába "I spoke (a long time ago)" | |
Future | kére + infinitive | é bu kére falá "you will speak" | kére is the present tense of keré "to want" |
Future subjunctive | keré + infinitive | ki bu keré falá "that you will speak" | |
Jussive | ád + Infinitive | mi ád falá "I should speak" |
Notes:
- As the table shows, keré "to want" + infinitive is used to form the future. In order to express a desire, a subjunctive phrase is used. For example:
- é mi kére falá "I will speak" (lit. "I want speak") , versus
- kôs mi kére ki mi falá or ki mi falá é mi kére "I want to speak" (lit. "I want that I speak")
Voice
Pseudopassive is formed with the impersonal subject pronoun si.
Derived verbs
- Middle: add -se to stem - e.g. labá "to wash" -> labasé "to wash oneself, to wash for oneself"
- Detransitive: add -du to stem - e.g. labá "to wash" -> labadú "to become washed"
- While this is technically a passive form, this is generally used when the action occurred without intent. If there is intent involved, use the impersonal pseudopassive instead.
- Trasitivized/Causative 1: add -fa to stem - e.g. durmî "to sleep" -> durmifâ "to put to sleep"
- Usually used with intransitive verbs.
- This can be combined with the middle to form -fase - e.g. kosê "to cook (intr.)" -> kosefâ "to cook (tr.)" -> kosefasê "to cook for oneself"
- Causitive 2: add -da to stem - e.g. komê "to eat" -> komedâ "to give to eat"
- Usually used with transitive verbs, and often when someone is being "caused" to do something.
- This can be combined with the middle to form -dase.
Particles
Verbal focus particles
- é: used to form main clauses.
- Used when there is no independent object or emphasized subject.
- Comes before subject pronoun - e.g. é mi kôme. "I eat."
- "Independent object" refers to a direct or indirect object that is not a clitic pronoun, while "emphasized subject" refers to a subject that has extra emphasis placed upon it.
- éki: used to form main clauses.
- Used when the independent object or emphasized subject is placed before the verb.
- Comes after the relevant object/subject - e.g. komîda éki mi kôme. "I eat food./Food [is what] I eat."; Úmar éki komîda kôme. "[It is] Omar [who] eats food."
- kôs: used to form main clauses.
- Used when the independent object is placed after the verb.
- Comes before subject pronoun - e.g. Úmar kôs li kôme komîda. "Omar eats food."
- kôski: used to form main clauses.
- Used when the emphasized subject is placed after the verb.
- Comes before verb and any clitic object pronouns - e.g. komîda kôski kôme Úmar. "[The one who] eats food [is] Omar."
Interrogative pronouns
- kôs: what
- ûndi: where
- mód: how
- kén: who
- kán: when
When used in a sentence, interrogative pronouns are followed by the focus particle éki.
Examples:
- Kôs éki bu tá komê? "What are you eating?"
- Kén éki li bêba? "Who did he see?"
- Kán éki lis bî? "When are they coming?"
- Ûndi éki lis nu bêba? "Where did they see us?"
Negation particles
- ná: negation.
- Comes immediately before negated verb.
Prepositions
- na: "in"
Postpositions
- kûli: "with"
Conjunctions
- i: "and" (within a clause)
- mas: "and" (connects clauses)
- o: "or"
- nón: "or" (in questions)
- kán: "while, when"
- borén: "but"
Syntax
Constituent order
Noun phrase
Verb phrase
Sentence phrase
Dependent clauses
Sample Texts
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)
Regular: Aadami tod dili kos li nase kan li se hor i nibrad na orra i deretus. Kos si daba rason i damir, mas e ki biso otu biso kuli li axi mod irmon.
Phonetic: Aadâmi tôd dili kôs li náse kán li sê hór i nibrád na órra i derêtus. Kôs si dába rasón i damír, mas é ki bisó ôtu bisó kûli li âxi mód irmón.
Portuguese-based: Aadâmi tôd dili côs li násce cã li sê hór i nibrád na órra i derêtus. Côs si dába razõ i damír, mas é qui pissó ôtu pissó cûli li âji mód irmõ.
IPA: /æːðǽmi tɞ́d dili kɞ́s lɪ nɑ́sɛ kɑ́ŋ li sé hɔ́r i nɪbrɑ́d nɑ ʔɔ́rːɑ i derétʉs || kɞ́s si dɑ́bɑ rɑsɔ́ŋ ɪ dɑmɪ́r | mɑs ʔɛ́ kɪ bɪsɔ́ ɞ́tʉ bɪsɔ́ kʉ́li li ʔǽʃi mɔ́d ʔɪrmɔ́ŋ/
Gloss: humanity all 3S.POSS FOC 3S.SUBJ be_born while 3S.SUBJ be free and level in dignity and rights. FOC IMPRS give-PST reason and conscience, and FOC that person other person with 3S.SUBJ act way brother.
Translation: Humanity is born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are given reason and conscience, and a person must behave towards another person like a brother.