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Carnian grammar: Difference between revisions

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Carnian grammar (view source)

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(Created page with "'''Carnian''' morphology is very similar to that of other Slavic languages. Its unique traits include: * Reduction of grammatical cases to four * Uninflected predicative form in adjectives and participles * The past tense formation continues Slavic perfect with L-participles with the auxiliary verb in preposition * Reduction in the -ovati conjugation class (*''milovati'' > ''milat''; ''milujem'' > ''miliem'') * Mix of Western and Southern forms == Articles == Carni...")
 
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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|-
!colspan=2|
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| Hard
!colspan=2| Hard
!colspan=2| Soft
!colspan=2| Soft
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'''Note''': *e is used when preceded by /j/
'''Note''': *e is used when preceded by /j/


The consonant-stem declension (covering r- and v-stems) does not usually append any suffixes in nominative singular (''creu'' 'blood'), however r-stems allow additional shortened form with -i (both ''mater'' and ''mati'' are used 'mother').
The consonant-stem declension (covering r- and v-stems) does not usually append any suffixes in nominative singular (''creu'' 'blood'; however, r-stems allow additional shortened form with -i (both ''mater'' and ''mati'' are used for 'mother').


=== Neuter Declension ===
=== Neuter Declension ===
The vast majority of neuter nouns follow the first neuter declension. Their nominative singular ending is -o (following hard o-stem declension), -e (following soft o-stem declension), or a null ending (following n- or nt-stem declensions). The s-stem declension is no longer present in Carnian, having merged with the first declension. In all neuter declensions, nominative and accusative forms are the same.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| Hard
!colspan=2| Soft
!colspan=2| n-stem
!colspan=2| nt-stem
|-
! {{small|singular}}
! {{small|plural}}
! {{small|singular}}
! {{small|plural}}
! {{small|singular}}
! {{small|plural}}
! {{small|singular}}
! {{small|plural}}
|-
!Nominative
|rowspan=2| o
|rowspan=2| a
|rowspan=2| e
|rowspan=2| a
|rowspan=2| è
|rowspan=2| ena
|rowspan=2| è
|rowspan=2| enta
|-
!Accusative
|-
! Genitive
| a
| -
| a
| -
| ena
| en
| enta
| ent
|-
! Dative
| o
| om
| o
| em
| eno
| enom
| ento
| entom
|}


=== Dialectal variation ===
=== Dialectal variation ===
Some Carniolan dialects experience '''masculinization''' of neuter nouns to varying extents, especially in the singular. A small subgroup of eastern Carinthian dialects experiences '''feminization''' of neuter nouns.
Littoral and some Kvarner dialects, on the other hand, tend to merge neuter and masculine genders into one, which is most prominent in the presence of the neuter -o or -e ending in the singular nominative of masculine nouns (cf. ''leabo'' 'bread', ''mangie'' 'man' vs. standard ''leab'', ''manġ'') and entirely masculine endings in plural. This phenomenon is most common in areas with the strongest influence of Romance languages, which usually finish their nouns with a vowel.


== Adjectives ==
== Adjectives ==


=== Declension ===
=== Declension ===
Modern Carnian preserves only definite adjectival declension, differing from Slovene and Serbo-Croatian, which distinguish between definite and indefinite. The loss of the indefinite declension was gradual, being used only in the predicative by the end of the Old Carnian period. It then evolved into a special, uninflected '''predicative adjective''', which basically follows the old indefinite masculine nominative form but is used for all genders, cases, and numbers. This form is treated as the base form of all adjectives (similarly to German). The same is true for adjectival participles. All predicative adjectives have ultimate accent, so the stressed syllable agrees with the non-predicative form (compare ''zelen'' /zɛˈlɛn/ vs. ''zeleny'' /zɛˈlɛnɛɪ̯/).
Adjectives in expressions other than predicative are placed before the nouns and agree with them in case, number, and gender. In contrast to nouns, the hard-soft distinction was lost in adjectives, with soft declension taking over the hard one. Thus all adjectives follow the standard declension pattern, which is the same for adjectival nouns.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!colspan=2 rowspan=2|
!colspan=3| Singular
!colspan=3| Plural
|-
! {{small|Masculine}}
! {{small|Feminine}}
! {{small|Neuter}}
! {{small|Masculine}}
! {{small|Feminine}}
! {{small|Neuter}}
|-
!colspan=2| Predicative
|colspan=6| -
|-
!colspan=2| Nominative
|rowspan=2| y
| a
|rowspan=3| e
| i
|rowspan=3| e
|rowspan=3| a
|-
!rowspan=2| Accusative
! {{small|inanimate}}
|rowspan=2| à
|rowspan=2| e
|-
! {{small|animate}}
| rowspan=2| ega
|-
! colspan=2| Genitive
| e
| ega
|colspan=3| ich
|-
! colspan=2| Dative
| emo
| i
| emo
|colspan=3| im
|}
Examples:
* ''Ta trava je '''zelen''''' - The grass is green (predicative expression)
* ''Vidim ta '''zelenà''' travà'' - I see the green grass (attributive expression)


=== Comparison ===
=== Comparison ===
Comparative and superlative formations follow analytical construction with the use of adverbs ''vent'' 'more' and ''nai'' (rarely also ''naivent'') 'most', respectively, followed by the adjective in positive form. A few irregular adjectives, especially old and basic ones, have fossilized the old affix formation, such as ''miens'' 'smaller', ''ventz'' 'bigger', ''gors'' 'worse', and ''bols'' 'better'. These irregular adjectives use the comparative forms to form the superlative.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!colspan=2 rowspan=2|
! Positive
! Comparative
! Superlative
|-
! {{small|''fast''}}
! {{small|''faster''}}
! {{small|''fastest''}}
|-
!rowspan=4| Regular
! Predicative
| barz
| vent barz
| nai barz
|-
! Masculine
| barzy
| vent barzy
| nai barzy
|-
! Feminine
| barza
| vent barza
| nai barza
|-
! Neuter
| barze
| vent barze
| nai barze
|-
!colspan=2|
! {{small|''good''}}
! {{small|''better''}}
! {{small|''best''}}
|-
!rowspan=4| Iregular
! Predicative
| dober
| bols
| nai bols
|-
! Masculine
| dobry
| bolsy
| nai bolsy
|-
! Feminine
| dobra
| bolsa
| nai bolsa
|-
! Neuter
| dobre
| bolse
| nai bolse
|-
|}
== Adverbs ==
Adverbs in Carnian are usually formed from adjectives with the -o suffix, thus continuing old hard neuter adjectival declension. Comparative is formed with the -ei suffix, while the superlative with the adverb nai in preposition. Similarly to adjectives, the superlative form is based on the positive, except for the irregular adverbs, which are based on the comparative.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!rowspan=2|
! Positive
! Comparative
! Superlative
|-
! {{small|''fast''}}
! {{small|''faster''}}
! {{small|''fastest''}}
|-
! Regular
| barzo
| barzei
| nai barzo
|-
!
! {{small|''well''}}
! {{small|''better''}}
! {{small|''best''}}
|-
! Iregular
| dobro
| bolsei
| nai bolsei
|-
|}


== Verbs ==
== Verbs ==
=== Grammatical categories ===
Carnian verbs distinguish:
* Two grammatical numbers: singular and plural
* Three persons
* Four tenses: present, past, pluperfect, and future
* Three moods: indicative, imperative, and conditional
* Two aspects: perfective and imperfective
=== Conjugation ===
==== Infinitive ====
Standard Carnian preserves only the short infinitive with the -''t'' suffix, preceded by a thematic vowel, if there is any. It thus differs from South Slavic languages, whose standard infinitive ends in -''ti''. The change -''ti'' > -''t'', that is the loss of the final vowel, is a relatively recent phenomenon which took place after the rise of penultimate accent; thus all infinitives are stressed on the final syllable. Some dialects, in particular the Lower and Kvarner, preserve the long infinitive -''ti'' and contrastive supine in -''t''. In addition, western coastal dialects experience rhotacization of the infinitive suffix, which then becomes variably -''r'', -''ri'', or -''re'', depending on the region (cf. Western Istrian ''ċitare'' vs. standard ''ċitat'' 'to read').
==== Present indicative ====
In the present indicative, verbs have mostly the same endings across all declensions. The extra -e- is added to the endings when the verb stem ends in a consonant.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=3| Singular
!colspan=3| Plural
|-
! {{small|1st}}
! {{small|2nd}}
! {{small|3rd}}
! {{small|1st}}
! {{small|2nd}}
! {{small|3rd}}
|-
! -a-
| -a-m
| -a-ṡ
| -a
| -a-me
| -a-te
| -a-jan
|-
! -i-
| -i-m
| -i-ṡ
| -i
| -i-me
| -i-te
| -i-jan
|-
! -e-
| -e-m
| -e-ṡ
| -e
| -e-me
| -e-te
| -e-jan / -an*
|-
! -je-
| -je-m
| -je-ṡ
| -je
| -je-me
| -je-te
| -ø-jan
|-
! -ø-
| -ø-m
| -ø-ṡ
| -ø
| -ø-me
| -ø-te
| -ø-jan
|-
|}
'''Note''': *The -e-jan ending occurs in verbs with infinitive in -''et'' (cf. ''vuemet'' 'to know how', ''vuemejan''), while the -an occurs in verbs with infinitive in -''t'' (cf. ''nest'' 'to carry', ''nesan'')
==== Imperative ====
==== Active participle ====
==== Passive participle ====
==== Past participle ====
==== Gerund ====
=== Analytical forms ===
==== Past indicative ====
==== Pluperfect indicative ====
==== Future indicative ====
==== Conditional mood ====
=== Negative forms ===
=== Full conjugation examples ===
==== Regular verbs ====
==== Irregular verbs ====


== Pronouns ==
== Pronouns ==
=== Personal pronouns ===
=== Demonstrative pronouns ===
=== Interrogative pronouns ===


== Numerals ==
== Numerals ==
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