Af Mexee

Af Mexee is a Lowland East Cushitic language.

Introduction

Af Mexee dhehti (or Af Mexee for short) is a Somali condialect. The term Mexee dhehti means "What did you say?" and is used to differentiate Af Mexee from dialects such as Af Maxaa (tiri) (regular Somali) and Af Maay. However, since it is a Somali dialect, Af Mexee speakers refer to their language simply as Af Soomaali.

Phonology

Orthography

Consonants

' b p t j ch x kh d th r s sh dh c g gh f q k l m n ny w h y

Vowels

a e i o u

aa ee ii oo uu

Diphthongs

ay aw ey oy ow

aay aaw eey ooy oow

Consonants

Af Mexee consonant phonemes

		Labial	Dental/ Alveolar	Postalveolar	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Pharyngeal	Glottal
Nasal		m	n		ny /ɲ/
Stop consonant	voiceless	(p)	t /t̪/			k	q		' /ʔ/
	voiced	b	d /d̪/	dh /ɖ/		ɡ
Affricate	voiceless			ch /tʃ/
	voiced			j /dʒ/
Fricative	voiceless	f	s	sh /ʃ/			kh /x̠~χ/	x /ħ/	h
	voiced	p /β/	th /ð/			gh /ɣ/	(gh) /ɣ̠~ʁ/	c /ʕ/
Approximant			l		y /j/	w
Trill			r /r~ɾ/

Vowels

Af Mexee has five vowel articulations that all contrast frontness/backness and vowel length. There is little change in vowel quality when the vowel is lengthened.

There are five diphthongs that also occur in front and back, long and short versions.

Af Mexee monophthongs

	Front series		Back series		Orthography
	short	long	short	long	short	long
Close front unrounded / Near-close near-front unrounded	i	iː	ɪ	ɪː	i	ii
Close-mid front unrounded / Open-mid front unrounded	e	eː	ɛ	ɛː	e	ee
Near-open front unrounded / Open back unrounded	æ	æː	ɑ	ɑː	a	aa
Open-mid central rounded / Open-mid back rounded	ɞ	ɞː	ɔ	ɔː	o	oo
Close central rounded / Close back rounded	ʉ	ʉː	u	uː	u	uu

Af Mexee diphthongs

First element is front		First element is back		Orthography
short	long	short	long	short	long
æi	æːi	ɑɪ	ɑːɪ	ay	aay
æʉ	æːʉ	ɑu	ɑːu	aw	aaw
ei	eːi	ɛɪ	ɛːɪ	ey	eey
ɞi	ɞːi	ɔɪ	ɔːɪ	oy	ooy
ɞʉ	ɞːʉ	ɔu	ɔːu	ow	oow

Phonotactics

Syllable structure is (C)V(C), where V is any vowel or diphthong.

The consonants that can be geminated at syllable boundaries are: m, n, l, and r.

The consonants ', b, x, kh, d, r, s, sh, c, g, f, q, l, n, and h occur syllable-finally. The consonants p, ch, t, th, gh, k, m and ny cannot occur syllable-finally (although there are exceptions for t, k, and m). They undergo the following neutralizations:

p → b (or, in some cases, w)

t, th → d

k, gh → g

ny → yn, sometimes y

non-geminated m → n (m before b)

J and dh may occur in coda in a loanwords, although they are usually replaced with sh and r respectively. For example, xaj "Hajj", ogsaydh "oxide". T, k, and m may also occur in a few words, mostly of Arabic origin. In amany cases, variants with the expected d, g, or n exist. For example, xikmad "wisdom" (also xigmad), fitno "trial, temptation" (also fidno), muslim "Muslim" (also muslin), amni "safety, security" (NOT *anni).

The consonants p, th, gh, and ch do not occur word-initially in native words. They come from intervocalic -b-, -d/t-, -g/k-, and -lt- respectively (the modern intervocalic b, d/t, and g/k come from geminated consonants). When word-initial in loanwords, p and gh are pronounced /p/ and /ɣ̠~ʁ/ instead of the regular /β/ and /ɣ/.

Vowels cannot occur in hiatus. Instead, epithetic consonants such as ', y, and w are inserted in between.

Morphophonology

Sandhi

At morpheme boundaries, the following changes occur (for endings beginning in a consonant, these changes apply after syllable-final neutralizations):

t (2nd person/feminine endings, middle voice, definite article/modifiers):

• dropped after -d, dh – Exception: -d assimilates to -t- of the middle voice to form -t- (instead of the expected -d-)
• l + t → ch
• t → th after underlying -a, aa, e, ee, o, oo (note that -o and -e become a before th)
• t of the middle voice, if it occurs between vowels after any applicable reductions, is softened to -th-
• t (of middle voice) + t, n → t, nn

k (definite article/modifiers):

• dropped after -', x, kh, c, g, q, h
• k → h after final -a, e, o (which then assimilate to the following vowel)

s (middle causative)

• l + s → sh

Vowels

• An a, e, or final -o followed by one of the "guttural" consonants (', x, c, or h) assimilates to the following vowel. If the following vowel is o, they can either become a or o. e.g.ma dhoho or ma dhaho "he does not say"
• Unstressed vowels are often dropped before vowel-initial endings if it will not violate phonotactics.

e.g. gacan (stem: gacam-) + -ooyn → gacmooyn "hands" (not *gacamooyn)

Sometimes metathesis is involved.

e.g. culus "(he/she is) heavy" + -aan → cuslaan "(they are) heavy" (not *culsaan)

Morphology

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Af Mexee personal pronouns

	Independent		Clitic		Possessive3	With locative particles
	Stressed	Unstressed	Subject1	Object2		+ ún	+ ká	+ kú	+ lá
1S	aní	an(i)	an	i	key	íin	iká	ikú	ilá
2S	athí	ad/athi	ad	ku	kaa	kúun	kuká	kukú	kulá
3SM	usú	us(u)	us	(su)	kiis	súun	suká	sukú	sulá
3SF	ishí	ish(i)	ish	(shi)	kishi	shíin	shiká	shikú	shilá
1P	unú	un(u)	an/un	nu	keen	núun	nuká	nukú	nulá
2P	isín	isin	ad/isin	sin	kiin	síin	sinká	sinkú	sinlá
3P	ishó	isho	ish/isho	(sho)	kisho	shóon	shoká	shokú	sholá
IMP4	–	–	la	–	–	lóon	laká	lakú	lalá

¹ Clitic subject pronouns are optional and are often dropped unless needed for clarity or emphasis. For further emphasis, the independent forms may be used. In the plural, the clitic forms un, isin, and isho are formal; the more commonly used forms are an, ad, and ish respectively.

² Third person object pronouns are only used for humans and (anthropomorphized) animals.

³ Masculine forms are shown (the corresponding feminine forms begin in t-). Possessives may be used as modifiers, in which case they attach to the noun, or independently as possessive pronouns.

⁴ Used for impersonal passive. Although it is technically a subject pronoun, it behaves as an object pronoun (but always comes before any true object pronouns).

K/T Pronouns

The k/t determiners (including possessives and the definite article) can be used independently as pronouns. They pluralize by inserting the infix -uw- after the k of the masculine singular.

e.g. kan "this (one), m.", tan "this (one), f.", kuwan "these (ones)"

ki "the one, m.", ti "the one, f.", kuwi "the ones"

There is an additional k/t pronoun with no determiner equivalent:

• ko, to, kuwo: one/ones (indefinite) - e.g. ko kale "another one"

Nouns

Plural is formed with -ooyn (definite: -ooyki) or -yaal (definite: -yaalki). The ending -yaal is used for nouns (mostly masculine) ending in -e or -i, e.g. tuke "crow" → tukeyaal. All other nouns take the ending -ooyn. For feminine nouns ending in -o, the -o becomes a and an epithetic th is added before the ending. For example, maghaalo "city" + -ooyn → maghaalathooyn "cities". Masculine nouns assimilate the -o to the ending.

Some words (mostly body parts) have a "short" plural in -o (definite: -ihi) in addition to the "long" plural in -ooyn/yaal. In the case of body parts, the short plural is when they belong to one person.

e.g. Gacantisho taagheen. = They raised their hand (i.e. each person raised a hand; hand is in singular).

Gacmihisho taagheen. = They raised their hands (i.e. each person raised both hands; hand is in short plural).

Gacmihi la taaghi. = The hands (of a single person; hand is in short plural) were raised.

Gacmooyki la taaghi. = The hands (of multiple people; hand is in long plural) were raised.

For other words, the short plural is used as a pseudo-collective noun.

Particles

K/T Determiners

The definite article attaches to the noun and is subject to sandhi rules.

• Masculine/Plural: -ki
• Feminine: -ti

There is also a remote definite article.

• Masculine/Plural: -kíi
• Feminine: -tíi
  • Does not affect tonation of the word.

Other determiners that behave similarly to the definite article:

• Possessives (see Personal Pronouns)
• Demonstratives:
  • -kan/tan: this, these
  • -kaas/taas: that, those
• Interrogative:
  • -kée/tée: which
    • Causes any high tones in the word to be dropped.

Negation Particles

The negation particles are ma, an, ha, and ya. Each of these serves a different function.

• ma is the default negation particle in main clauses and is used with the indicative. e.g. ma qapi "I do not have".It can combine to clitic subject pronouns:
  • ma + an(an) → maan(an) (for (an), see the next point)
  • ma + ad/athan → maad/maathan
  • ma + us(an) → maws(an)
  • ma + ish(an) → maysh(an)
  • ma + un(an) → mawn(an)
  • ma + isin(an) → maysin(an)
  • ma + isho(n) → maysho(n)
• an has two functions:
  • It is used to form negative subject pronouns, which replace clitic subjects in negative clauses. e.g. ma anan qapin "I did not have", compare an qapi "I had". In this usage, an is optional and may be dropped - e.g. ma an qapin. It combines to clitic subjects:
    • ad + an → athan
    • isho + an → ishon
    • The rest simply add -an - i.e. anan, usan, ishan, unan, isinan
  • It is also used as the sole negation particle in subordinate clauses. Since negation is shown on the verb, it is also optional here. e.g. ninkii (an) af soomaali aqiin "the man who does not know Somali". Note that in this usage, an prefers clause-initial position (although something like ninkii af soomaali an aqiin would not be incorrect).
• ha is used in the negative imperative. e.g. ha bixin "don't leave".
• ya is used to negate the jussive. e.g. ya usan bixin "don't let him leave". Like ma, ya can combine with clitic subjects. e.g. yawsan bixin.

Focus Particles

Focus particles are used with main clause verbs. They are waa, waxa, aa, and their interrogative equivalents (more may be added later).

• waa optionally precedes a main affirmative verb. It is used to indicate that the verb is NOT being used as an adjectivally and puts emphasis on the verb.

e.g. ninki bixi "the man left" OR "the man who left"; ninki waa bixi "the man left" or "the man left"

minki cad "the house is white" OR "the white house"; minki waa cad "the house is white" or "the house is white"

• The interrogative equivalent of waa is maa.

e.g. ninki maa bixi? "did the man leave?"

• waa and maa can combine to clitic subjects as follows:

• waa + an → waan
• waa + ad → waad
• waa + us → woos
• waa + ish → weesh
• waa + un → woon
• waa + isin → weesin
• waa + isho → weesho

• waxa is used before a main verb when the object follows the verb, allowing for a SVO word order. It literally means the thing.

e.g. ninki waxa qaathi qalin "the man took a pen" (literally "the thing the man took (was) a pen")

• The interrogative equivalent of waxa is maxa.

e.g. ninki maxa qaathi qalin? "did the man take a pen?"

• waxa and maxa can combine to clitic subjects as follows:

• waxa + an → waxan
• waxa + ad → waxad
• waxa + us → wuxus
• waxa + ish → wixish
• waxa + un → wuxun
• waxa + isin → wixisin
• waxa + isho → wixisho

• aa put emphasis on a noun (either subject or object). It follows the noun being emphasized.

e.g. ninki aa qalinki qaathi/qalinki ninki aa qaathi "the man took the pen" (or "the pen took the man")

• The interrogative equivalent of aa is ma - aa (i.e. aa is kept and the noun is preceded by ma).

e.g. ma ninki aa qalinki qaathi? "did the man take the pen?" (or "did the pen take the man?)

• aa can combine to clitic subjects in the same way as waa.

Adjectives

Adjectives are not declined for gender. However, they may optionally be conjugated for time (following the stative conjugation).

e.g. min yar "a small house", min yaraay "a house that was small"

Adjectives can be reduplicated or take stative endings to show plurality, or the singular forms may be used.

e.g. minooyn yaryar/yaraan "small houses" (also minooyn yar)

Verbs

There are three main classes of verbs: the suffix, prefix, and stative conjugations.

Class I: Suffix Conjugation

The suffix conjugation is the most common and productive verb class. It can be divided into 5 conjugation groups:

1. Conjugation 1: Root verbs
2. Conjugation 2: -am- (passive) verbs
3. Conjugation 3 (A, B): -ish- (causative) verbs
4. Conjugation 4 (A, B, C): -at- (middle) verbs
5. Conjugation 5 (A, B): -w/p- verbs

Conjugation 1

Root verbs with no extra affixes. e.g. keeni "to bring" (stem: keen-)

(Note: –́ = penultimate high tone; ˊ– = initial high tone)

Class I Conjugation 1

Infinitive					-i				keeni
Verbal Noun (f.)					-íd (-íth-)				keeníd
	Present Affirmative		Present Subjunctive		Past Affirmative		Past Negative		Imperative Affirmative		Imperative Negative
1S	-a	keena	-í	keení	-i	keeni	-ín	keenín
2S	-ta	keenta	-tí	keentí	-ti	keenti			ˊ–	kéen	ˊ–in	kéenin
3SM	-a	keena	-ó	keenó	-i	keeni
3SF	-ta	keenta	-tó	keentó	-ti	keenti
1P	-na	keenna	-nó	keennó	-ni	keenni
2P	-tíin	keentíin	-tiín	keentiín	-téen	keentéen			–́ a	keéna	-ína	keenína
3P	-áan	keenáan	-aán	keenaán	-éen	keenéen

Conjugation 2

Passive verbs derived from lexically causative verbs with the passive affix -am-. When derived from a Conjugation 3 verb, the -sh- becomes a -s-, giving the combined affix -isam-. There are two competing paradigms for Conjugation 2 verbs: the first treats them as a Conjugation 1 verb, with the -am affix behaving as a part of the stem, while the second is a hybrid of Conjugations 1 and 4.

e.g. xirmi "to close (INTR), get closed" (stem: xir-am-)

Class I Conjugation 2 - Paradigm 1

Infinitive					-mi				xirmi
Verbal Noun (f.)					-míd (-míth-)				xirmíd
	Present Affirmative		Present Subjunctive		Past Affirmative		Past Negative		Imperative Affirmative		Imperative Negative
1S	-ma	xirma	-mí	xirmí	-mi	xirmi	-mín	xirmín
2S	-anta	xiranta	-antí	xirantí	-anti	xiranti			ˊ–an	xíran	ˊ–min	xírmin
3SM	-ma	xirma	-mó	xirmó	-mi	xirmi
3SF	-anta	xiranta	-antó	xirantó	-anti	xiranti
1P	-anna	xiranna	-annó	xirannó	-anni	xiranni
2P	-antíin	xirantíin	-antiín	xirantiín	-antéen	xirantéen			–́ ma	xírma	-mína	xirmína
3P	-máan	xirmáan	-maán	xirmaán	-méen	xirméen

Class I Conjugation 2 - Paradigm 2

Infinitive					-mi				xirmi
Verbal Noun (f.)					-míd (-míth-)				xirmíd
	Present Affirmative		Present Subjunctive		Past Affirmative		Past Negative		Imperative Affirmative		Imperative Negative
1S	-ma	xirma	-mí	xirmí	-mi	xirmi	-mín	xirmín
2S	-mata	xirmata	-matí	xirmatí	-mati	xirmati			–mó	xírmó	ˊ–min	xírmin
3SM	-ma	xirma	-mó	xirmó	-mi	xirmi
3SF	-mata	xirmata	-mató	xirmató	-mati	xirmati
1P	-manna	xirmanna	-mannó	xirmannó	-manni	xirmanni
2P	-matíin	xirmatíin	-matiín	xirmatiín	-matéen	xirmatéen			–́ ma	xírma	-mína	xirmína
3P	-matháan	xirmatháan	-mathaán	xirmathaán	-mathéen	xirmathéen

Conjugation 3A

Verbs derived from root verbs with the causative affix -ish-. The sh combines with t and n to form s and nn respectively.

Conjugation 3B

Verbs derived from nouns/adjectives with the causative affix -aash- (from -aa- + -(i)sh-).

Conjugation 4A

Verbs with the middle affix -o/at-. When derived from Conjugation 3 verbs, the -sh- becomes -s-, giving the combined affix -so/sat-. Depending on the stem, there may or may not be reductions. e.g. xirán "to put on" (stem: xir-at-), karsán "to cook for oneself" (stem: kar-s-at-).

Class I Conjugation 4 - With reductions

Infinitive					-án				xirán
Verbal Noun (f.)					-ashó (-ashá-)				xirashó
	Present Affirmative		Present Subjunctive		Past Affirmative		Past Negative		Imperative Affirmative		Imperative Negative
1S	-ta	xirta	-tí	xirtí	-ti	xirti	-anín	xiranín
2S	-ata	xirata	-atí	xiratí	-ati	xirati			–ó	xíró	–ánin	xiránin
3SM	-ta	xirta	-tó	xirtó	-ti	xirti
3SF	-ata	xirata	-ató	xirató	-ati	xirati
1P	-anna	xiranna	-annó	xirannó	-anni	xiranni
2P	-atíin	xiratíin	-atiín	xiratiín	-atéen	xiratéen			–́ ta	xírta	-anína	xiranína
3P	-táan	xirtáan	-taán	xirtaán	-téen	xirtéen

Class I Conjugation 4 - Without reductions

Infinitive					-án				karsán
Verbal Noun (f.)					-ashó (-ashá-)				karsashó
	Present Affirmative		Present Subjunctive		Past Affirmative		Past Negative		Imperative Affirmative		Imperative Negative
1S	-atha	karsatha	-athí	karsathí	-athi	karsathi	-anín	karsanín
2S	-ata	karsata	-atí	karsatí	-ati	karsati			–ó	karsó	–ánin	karsánin
3SM	-atha	karsatha	-athó	karsathó	-athi	karsathi
3SF	-ata	karsata	-ató	karsató	-ati	karsati
1P	-anna	karsanna	-annó	karsannó	-anni	karsanni
2P	-atíin	karsatíin	-atiín	karsatiín	-atéen	karsatéen			–́átha	karsátha	-anína	karsanína
3P	-atháan	karsatháan	-athaán	karsathaán	-athéen	karsathéen

Conjugation 4B

Verbs derived from nouns/adjectives (generally nouns) with the affix -oow/aath- (from -aa- + -at-). Class III verbs all have a Conjugation 4B counterpart, which is used inchoatively or continuatively. They share infinitive and imperative forms. e.g. ahaan "to be" (Class III) or "to become/remain" (Conjugation 4B).

Conjugation 4C

Verbs derived from nouns/adjectives (generally nouns ending in -o) with the affix -oow/ooth- (from -o + -aa- + -at-).

Conjugation 5A

Verbs derived from nouns/adjectives (generally nouns) with the affix -oow/oop-.

Conjugation 5B

Verbs derived from nouns/adjectives (generally nouns) with the affix -oow/aap-.

Syntax

Constituent order

The most common (and underlying) word-order is SOV.

Noun phrase

• Cardinal numbers come before the noun. If a cardinal number is present, the singular form of the noun is used.

nimooyn "men" BUT afar nin "four men" (afar nimooyn is also acceptable)

• Adjectives and determiners other than cardinal numbers come after the noun.
• The definite article and other suffixed determiners attach to the noun unless it is preceded by a cardinal number, in which case they attach to the number.

nimooyki "the men" BUT afarti nin "the four men"

• Possessive phrases can be formed in two ways:

a) Genitive construction

minki Shariif = Shariif's house (lit. the house (of) Shariif)

b) Possessive determiner

Shariif minkiis = Shariif's house (lit. Shariif his house)

Verb phrase

(Subject Pronoun) + Object Pronoun + Locative Particle + Negation (+ Clitic Subject Pronoun) + Relational Particle + Verb

Clitic subject pronouns come after the negation particle if present. Otherwise, they go at the beginning (in which case either the clitic or non-clitic forms may be used).