Qino: Difference between revisions

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|-
|-
!  voiced
!  voiced
| (''v''), [β]
| (''v''), [β ~ β̞]
| (''dz'' /ð/), [ð]
| (''dz'' /ð/), [ð ~ ð̞]
| (''z'')
| (''z'')
|  [ʝ ~ j]
|  [ʝ ~ j]
| (''gh'' /ɣ ~ ʁ/), [ɣ]
| (''gh'' /ɣ ~ ʁ/), [ɣ ~ ɣ̞]
| ''c'' /ʕ/
| ''c'' /ʕ/
|
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|-
! glottalized
! glottalized
| [ʔᵝ]
| [β̞ˀ]
| colspan="2" | ''lh'' /lˀ/
| colspan="2" | ''lh'' /lˀ/
| [ʔʲ]
| []
| [ʔˠ]
| [ɰˀ]
|  
|  
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<small><sup>2</sup></small> Phonemes in brackets are only found in loanwords.
<small><sup>2</sup></small> Phonemes in brackets are only found in loanwords.


<small><sup>3</sup></small> The glottalized phonemes [mˀ, nˀ, ɲˀ, ŋˀ] and [ʔᵝ, ɾˀ, ʔʲ, ʔˠ] are not considered separate phonemes but rather allophones of glottalized stops before/after nasals and between vowels respectively. Only ''rh'' [ɾˀ] is (optionally) distinguished orthographically.
<small><sup>3</sup></small> The implosives are heavily glottalized and may more accurately be represented [dˀ].
 
<small><sup>4</sup></small> The glottalized phonemes [mˀ, nˀ, ɲˀ, ŋˀ] and [β̞ˀ, ɾˀ, , ɰˀ] are not considered separate phonemes but rather allophones of glottalized stops before/after nasals and between vowels respectively. Only ''rh'' [ɾˀ] is (optionally) distinguished orthographically.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===

Revision as of 15:32, 6 May 2017

Qino (native: Qíno afka /ɠíno afka/, traditional Arabic script: ڧں أڢک, modernized Arabic script: قن أفك) is a Cushitic conlang.

Introduction

Qino is a Cushitic language. The phonology is largely inspired by Hadda. The syntax and verbal morphology are most similar to Saho-Afar.

Phonology

Orthography

Qino can be written in the Arabic or Latin scripts. In this article, the Latin script (with tone indicated) is used for ease of reading.

Consonants

Traditional Arabic "Modernized" Arabic Latin IPA Notes
ـأ أ أ ' ʔ Here hamzah is shown on alif, but it may occur on waw (ؤ), ya' (ئ), or without a "chair" (ء).
ببب ب ب b b Lenited to [β] between vowels. May be indicated in traditional Arabic script as ۋ.
پپپ پ ڀ bh ɓ Lenited to [ʔᵝ] between vowels.
تتت ت ت t t
ثثث ث ث th θ Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /t/.
ججج ج ج j d͡ʒ Lenited to [j ~ ʝ] between vowels (may be indicated orthographically as ى/y).
ڃڃڃ ڃ ݧ ny ɲ
چچچ چ ڇ jh ʄ Lenited to [ʔʲ] between vowels.
ححح ح ح x ħ
خخخ خ خ kh x Occurs in loanwords.
ـد د د d d Lenited to [ð] between vowels (may be indicated in Arabic script as ذ).
ـذ ذ ذ dz ð Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /d/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /d/.
ـر ر ر r r Becomes a tap (/ɾ/) between vowels.
ـز ز ز z z Occurs in loanwords.
سسس س س s s
ششش ش ش sh ʃ
صصص ص ص s s Occurs in Arabic loanwords. Educated pronunciation is /sˁ/.
ضضض ض ض lh In Arabic loanwords, may be pronounced as in Fusha (/dˁ/ or /d͡lˁ/ or whatever) or the "hybrid" pronunciations /ɗ͡l(ˁ)/ or /lˁ/.
ططط ط ط dh ɗ Lenited to [ɾˀ] between vowels, which may be indicated orthographically as ڟ/rh. In loanwords, may be pronounced /t̪ˁ/ or the hybrid pronunciation /ɗ̪(ˁ)/.
ظظظ ظ ظ dz ð Occurs in Arabic loanwords. Educated pronunciation is /ðˁ/. Nativized as /d/ or /ɗ/.
ڟڟڟ ڟ ڟ rh ɾˀ Allophone of /ɗ/ between vowels. May not be distinguished from ط/dh.
ععع ع ع c ʕ
غغغ غ غ gh ɣ Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /ɡ/ or /ɠ/.
ڢڢڡ ڡ ف f f
ڥڥڥ ڥ پ p p Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /b/ or /f/.
ڧڧٯ ٯ ق q ɠ Lenited to [ʔˠ] between vowels. In loanwords, may be pronounced /q/ or the hybrid pronunciation /ʛ/.
ققق ق ڹ ng ŋ
ڨڨڨ ڨ ڠ g ɡ Lenited to [ɣ] between vowels (may be indicated in Arabic script as غ).
ککک ک ك k k
ݣݣݣ ݣ چ ch t͡ʃ
للل ل ل l l
ممم م م m m
ننں ں ن n n
ـو و و w w
ـۋ ۋ ڤ v v Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /f/, /b/, or /w/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /b/.
ههه ه ه h h
ییی\ـے ی\ے ي y j In the traditional Arabic script, written as ے when representing a final /i(ː)/ or /-j/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /d͡ʒ/.


Vowels

Traditional Arabic "Modernized" Arabic Latin IPA Notes
ـَ ـَ a a
ـٜ ـٖ e e
ـِ ـِ i i
ـٗ ـٗ o o
ـُ ـُ u u
ـَا ـَا aa
ـٜیٰ، ـَےْ ـٖي٬ ـَيْ ee
ـِے ـِي ii
ـٗو٬ ـَوْ ـٗو، ـَوْ oo
ـُو ـُو uu
ـْ ـْ C C Used for a consonant not followed by a vowel.
ـّ ـّ CC Used for a geminate consonant.
ـهْ ـهْ -V́ (or -Vh) -V́ Used for word-final vowel with high tone.

Consonants

Qino consonant phonemes
Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal/
Postalveolar
Velar Pharyngeal Glottal
Nasal plain m n ny /ɲ/ ng /ŋ/
glottalized [mˀ] [nˀ] [ɲˀ] [ŋˀ]
Stop consonant voiceless (p) t ch /t͡ʃ/ k ' /ʔ/
voiced b d j /d͡ʒ/ ɡ
glottalized bh /ɓ/ dh /ɗ/ jh /ʄ/ q /ɠ/
Fricative voiceless f (th /θ/) s sh /ʃ/ (kh /x ~ χ/) x /ħ/ h
voiced (v), [β ~ β̞] (dz /ð/), [ð ~ ð̞] (z) [ʝ ~ j] (gh /ɣ ~ ʁ/), [ɣ ~ ɣ̞] c /ʕ/
Approximant plain w l y /j/
glottalized [β̞ˀ] lh /lˀ/ [jˀ] [ɰˀ]
Trill/Tap plain r
glottalized rh [ɾˀ]

Notes:

1 ch, ny, and ng are geminated between vowels.

2 Phonemes in brackets are only found in loanwords.

3 The implosives are heavily glottalized and may more accurately be represented [dˀ].

4 The glottalized phonemes [mˀ, nˀ, ɲˀ, ŋˀ] and [β̞ˀ, ɾˀ, jˀ, ɰˀ] are not considered separate phonemes but rather allophones of glottalized stops before/after nasals and between vowels respectively. Only rh [ɾˀ] is (optionally) distinguished orthographically.

Vowels

a e i o u aa ee ii oo uu

Prosody

Stress

Intonation

Phonotactics

Morphophonology

Sandhi and Allophony

  • Between vowels:
    • /b, d, d͡ʒ, ɡ/ → [β, ð, ʝ ~ j, ɣ]
    • /ɓ, ɗ, ʄ, ɠ/ → [ʔᵝ, ɾˀ, ʔʲ, ʔˠ]
  • mbh, ndh, njh, nq → [mːˀ, nːˀ, ɲːˀ, ŋːˀ]
  • -n- of 1st person plural:
    • bh, dh, lh, jh, q + n → [mnˀ, nːˀ, nːˀ, ɲːˀ, ŋnˀ] (written bhn, dhn, etc)
    • b, d, j, g + nmn, nn, jn [ɲː], gn [ŋn]
    • sh + nny [ɲː]
  • -t- of 2nd person and 3rd person feminine, singulative:
    • bh, dh, lh, jh, q: t becomes dh (lh, dh + dhldh, ddh)
    • b, d, g: t becomes d
    • j + tjj
    • sh + tch /t͡ʃː/

Morphology

Nouns

Case

Nouns (and pronouns) are declined by case. Case markers (which can be analyzed as postpositions) go at the end of a nominal phrase. Verbs (including infinitives) are nominalized with the suffix -n before adding any case suffixes (these nominalized verbs are feminine). Subordinate verbs can alternatively be preceded by the particle in "that (relativizer)".

  • Primary cases:
    • Absolutive: Citation form, used for the direct object of a verb, the object of most adpositions, and predicative nouns. Personal pronouns have a distinct accusative form that is used for direct objects.
    • Nominative: Used for the subject of a verb. Formed as follows:
      • Masculine with absolutive ending in consonant, -a, -o, or -u: - e.g. nama "person" → namú
      • Feminine with absolutive ending in -o or -u: - e.g. qínoqinú
      • Feminine with absolutive ending in consonant or -a: - e.g. náfa "soul" → nafí
      • Absolutive ending in -e or -i: - e.g. shimmírti "bird (sing.)" → shimmirtí
      • Absolutive ending in a long or high-tone vowel: -n - e.g. Faadhumá "Fatima" → Faadhumán
    • Genitive: Used for possession ("of") and the object of some adpositions.
      • Absolutive ending in consonant or short, non-high-tone vowel: -í - e.g. namanamí
      • Absolutive ending in long or high-tone vowel: -t - e.g. FaadhumáFaadhumát
  • Secondary cases:
    • Dative: Used for recipient, benefactor, purpose, obligation ("to" or "for").
      • Absolutive ending in consonant or -a: -oó - e.g. namanamoó
      • Absolutive ending in other short non-high-tone vowel: lengthen final vowel + final high tone - e.g. shimmírtishimmirtií
      • Absolutive ending in long or high-tone vowel: -s - e.g. FaadhumáFaadhumás
      • Independent form:
    • Ablative: Used for source ("from"), comparison ("than").
      • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ák
      • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́k - e.g. namanamák
      • Independent form: ák - e.g. MaxammadMaxammadák
    • Instrumental: Used for instrument, means, agent, cause, time.
      • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ás - e.g. namanamás
      • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́s
      • Independent form: ás - e.g. MaxammadMaxammadás
    • Comitative: Used for accompaniment ("in company with").
      • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ál - e.g. namanamál
      • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́l - e.g. MaxammadMaxammadál
      • Independent form: ál
    • Locative: Used for location. For more specific location, postpositions are used.
      • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ád - e.g. namanamád
      • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́d - e.g. MaxammadMaxammadád
      • Independent form: ád
  • Pseudo-cases:
    • Predicative: Used for predicative nouns. This is not a true case but rather the absolutive fused to the copula. This fusing is optional and in the present indicative, the copula can be dropped entirely.
      • Absolutive ending in consonant or short, non-high-tone vowel: -e (declines as adjective), -dha (invariant; present only) - e.g. MaxammadMaxammade, Maxammaddha
      • Absolutive ending in long or high-tone vowel: -dhe (declines as adjective), -dha (invariant; present only) - e.g. FaadhumáFaadhumárhe, Faadhumárha
      • Independent forms of the copula: dha (invariant; present only), e (adjective declension), dhe (= dha + e; adjective declension)
e.g. Maxammadú nama / nama e / nama dha / nama dhe / name / namarha. "Muhammad is a person."

Number

The citation form is unmarked for number. The singulative is formed with suffixes such as -sha, -ha, -ka, -icha, -ta, -eesha, -ocha, (masculine) or -ti, -itti, -eeti, -otti (feminine). The plural is formed with suffixes such as -oota, -ani, -aani, -eeni, -ooni, -eeCi, -ooCi, -eeya, -ooya, etc.

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Qino independent personal pronouns
Absolutive Nominative Accusative Genitive Dative Ablative Instrumental Comitative Locative
1S ana anú kiisha kiíshi kiishoó kiishák kiishás kiishál kiishád
2SM ata atú kaaha kaáhi kaahoó kaahák kaahás kaahál kaahád
2SF ati atí taati taáti taatií taatík taatís taatíl taatíd
3SM usa usú keesha keéshi keeshoó keeshák keeshás keeshál keeshád
3SF ishi ishí teeti teéti teetií teetík teetís teetíl teetíd
1Ex una unú keena keéni keennoó keenák keenás keenál keenád
1Inc anáni ananí kiina kiíni kiinoó kiinák kiinás kiinál kiinád
2P atáni ataní siina siíni siinoó siinák siinás siinál siinád
3P isáni isaní koota koóti kootií kootík kootís kootíl kootíd
Qino clitic personal pronouns
Subject Accusative 1 Accusative 2 Dative Ablative Instrumental Comitative Locative
1S an yi kii yoó yák yás yál yád
2SM at ku kaa kuú kúk kús kúl kúd
2SF at tu taa tuú túk tús túl túd
3SM us ka keesh koó kák kás kál kád
3SF ish ta teet toó ták tás tál tád
1Ex un na keen noó nák nás nál nád
1Inc anan yin kiin yinoó yinák yinás yinál yinád
2P atan sin siin sinoó sinák sinás sinál sinád
3P isan tin koot tinoó tinák tinás tinál tinád
REF is isoó isák isás isál isád
REC ol oloó olák olás olál olád

Notes:

  • When there is one accusative object pronoun, either the "accusative 1" or "accusative 2" forms can be used. When there are multiple clitic objects, the final one takes the "accusative 2" form and the rest the "accusative 1" form.
  • Third person clitic pronouns are often omitted. When the this occurs in oblique cases, the corresponding free postposition forms are used (, ák, ás, ál, and ád respectively).

Verbs

Class I

Suffix Conjugation

Most consonant-initial verbs fall into this category. Example: sheéni "to bring".

Suffix conjugation
Infinitive -́i sheéni
Active Participle -áa sheenáa
Passive Participle1 -án- sheenán-
Present Affirmative2 Present Subordinate2 Pres. Subord. Neg. Past Affirmative2 Past Negative Jussive/Imperative Aff. Jussive/Imperative Neg.
1S sheená sheenó -íno sheeníno sheené -íne sheeníne -́u sheénu -ínu sheenínu
2S -tá sheen -tó sheen -ínto sheenínto -té sheen -ínte sheenínte -́u sheénu -ínu sheenínu
3SM sheená sheenó -íno sheeníno sheené -íne sheeníne -́u sheénu -ínu sheenínu
3SF -tá sheen -tó sheen -ínto sheenínto -té sheen -ínte sheenínte -́tu sheéntu -íntu sheeníntu
1P -ná sheen -nó sheen -ínno sheenínno -né sheen -ínne sheenínne -́nu sheénnu -ínnu sheenínnu
2P -taána sheentaána -toóna sheentoóna -intoóna sheenintoóna -teéni sheenteéni -inteéni sheeninteéni -́aa sheénaa -ínaa sheenínaa
3P -aána sheenaána -oóna sheenoóna -inoóna sheeninoóna -eéni sheeneéni -ineéni sheenineéni -́aa sheénaa -ínaa sheenínaa

Notes:

1 Conjugates as an adjective.

2 The final vowel in the singular and 1P forms (i.e. -á/ó/é) lose their high tone when non-final and lengthen (with falling tone) in questions.

Prefix Conjugation

Vowel-initial verbs. Example verb: árki "to see".

Prefix conjugation
Infinitive -́i árki
Active Participle -áa arkáa
Passive Participle -án- arkán-
Present Affirmative Present Subordinate Pre. Subord. Neg. Past Affirmative Past Negative Jussive/Imperative Aff. Jussive/Imperative Neg.
1S arká arkó -íno arkíno arké -íne arkíne -́u árku -ínu arkínu
2S t-á tarká t-ó tarkó t-íno tarkíno t-é tarké t-íne tarkíne -́u árku -ínu arkínu
3SM y-á yarká y-ó yarkó y-íno yarkíno y-é yarké y-íne yarkíne y-́u yárku y-ínu yarkínu
3SF t-á tarká t-ó tarkó t-íno tarkíno t-é tarké t-íne tarkíne t-́u tárku t-ínu tarkínu
1P n-á narká n-ó narkó n-íno narkíno n-é narké n-íne narkíne n-́u nárku n-ínu narkínu
2P t-aána tarkaána t-oóna tarkoóna t-inoóna tarkinoóna t-eéni tarkeéni t-ineéni tarkineéni -́aa árkaa -ínaa arkínaa
3P y-aána yarkaána y-oóna yarkoóna y-inoóna yarkinoóna y-eéni yarkeéni y-ineéni yarkineéni y-́aa yárkaa y-ínaa yarkínaa

Class II: Adjectival Conjugation

This used for adjectives and a few stative verbs. The citation form is the 3SM present affirmative. They each have a Class I counterpart that is used inchoatively. Example: cáse "red" (inchoative: casoówi "to become red"). For the infinitive, passive participle, and imperatives/jussives, use the Class I forms.

Adjectival conjugation
Active Participle -íi casíi
Present Affirmative Present Subordinate Past Affirmative Past Negative
1S -íye casíye -iyé casiyé -iíshe casiíshe -iishé casiishé
2S -íte casíte -ité casité -iíche casiíche -iiché casiiché
3SM -́e cáse casé -iíshe casiíshe -iishé casiishé
3SF -́e cáse casé -iíche casiíche -iiché casiiché
1P -íne casíne -iné casiné -iínye casiínye -iinyé casiinyé
2P -́itiíni casitiíni -itiíni casitiíni -iichiíni casiichiíni -iichiíni casiichiíni
3P -́iini casiíni -iíni casiíni -iishiíni casiishiíni -iishiíni casiishiíni

Note: The present subordinate negative form is identical to the present subordinate affirmative.

Tense, Aspect, Mood

Notes:

  • The Class I forms ending in a high-tone vowel lose the high tone when non-final and lengthen the final vowel when used interrogatively - e.g. yarká "he sees", yarka nama "person who sees", yarkáa? "does he see?"
Simple Present
  • Used for an action in the present or future, or that started in the past but continue into the present (i.e. English past perfect continuous).
  • Main clause:
    • Affirmative: "Present indicative" - e.g. yarká "he sees"
    • Negative: ma + "Present subordinate" - e.g. ma yarkó "he does not see"
  • Subordinate clause:
    • Affirmative: "Present subordinate" - e.g. yarkonoó "so that he sees"
    • Negative: ma + "Present subordinate negative" - e.g. ma yarkínonoó "so that he does not see"
Simple Past
  • Used for an action in the past.
  • Main clause:
    • Affirmative: "Past affirmative" - e.g. yarké "he saw"
    • Negative: ma + "Past negative" - e.g. ma yarkíne "he did not see"
  • Subordinate clause:
    • Affirmative: "Past affirmative" - e.g. yarkenás "because he saw"
    • Negative: ma + "Past negative" - e.g. ma yarkínenás "because he did not see"
Imperative
  • Used for a command in the second person.
  • Affirmative: "Imperative affirmative" - e.g. árku "see!"
  • Negative: hin + "Imperative negative" - e.g. hin arkínu "do not see!"
Jussive
  • Used for a wish, command, etc in the first and third person.
  • Affirmative: haa "Jussive affirmative" - e.g. haa yárku "let him see!"
  • Negative: ma + "Jussive negative" - e.g. ma yarkínu "let him not see!"

Syntax

Constituent order

SOV

Noun phrase

  • Modifiers come before the noun being modified.
  • Case endings and postpositions come at the end of a noun phrase, which often ends in a noun but may not. If it does not end in a noun, independent forms are used.

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Example texts

Other resources