Af Mexee
Af Mexee is a Lowland East Cushitic language.
Introduction
Af Mexee dhehti (or Af Mexee for short) is a Somali condialect. The term Mexee dhehti means "What did you say?" and is used to differentiate Af Mexee from dialects such as Af Maxaa (tiri) (regular Somali) and Af Maay. However, since it is a Somali dialect, Af Mexee speakers refer to their language simply as Af Soomaali.
Phonology
Orthography
Consonants
' b p t j ch x kh d th r s sh dh c g gh f q k l m n ny w h y
Vowels
a e i o u
aa ee ii oo uu
Diphthongs
ay aw ey oy ow
aay aaw eey ooy oow
Consonants
| Labial | Dental/ Alveolar |
Postalveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Pharyngeal | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ny /ɲ/ | ||||||
| Stop consonant | voiceless | (p) | t /t̪/ | k | q | ' /ʔ/ | |||
| voiced | b | d /d̪/ | dh /ɖ/ | ɡ | |||||
| Affricate | voiceless | ch /tʃ/ | |||||||
| voiced | j /dʒ/ | ||||||||
| Fricative | voiceless | f | s | sh /ʃ/ | kh /x̠~χ/ | x /ħ/ | h | ||
| voiced | p /β/ | th /ð/ | gh /ɣ/ | (gh) /ɣ̠~ʁ/ | c /ʕ/ | ||||
| Approximant | l | y /j/ | w | ||||||
| Trill | r /r~ɾ/ | ||||||||
Vowels
Af Mexee has five vowel articulations that all contrast frontness/backness and vowel length. There is little change in vowel quality when the vowel is lengthened.
There are five diphthongs that also occur in front and back, long and short versions.
| Front series | Back series | Orthography | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| short | long | short | long | short | long | |
| Close front unrounded / Near-close near-front unrounded |
i | iː | ɪ | ɪː | i | ii |
| Close-mid front unrounded / Open-mid front unrounded |
e | eː | ɛ | ɛː | e | ee |
| Near-open front unrounded / Open back unrounded |
æ | æː | ɑ | ɑː | a | aa |
| Open-mid central rounded / Open-mid back rounded |
ɞ | ɞː | ɔ | ɔː | o | oo |
| Close central rounded / Close back rounded |
ʉ | ʉː | u | uː | u | uu |
| First element is front | First element is back | Orthography | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| short | long | short | long | short | long |
| æi | æːi | ɑɪ | ɑːɪ | ay | aay |
| æʉ | æːʉ | ɑu | ɑːu | aw | aaw |
| ei | eːi | ɛɪ | ɛːɪ | ey | eey |
| ɞi | ɞːi | ɔɪ | ɔːɪ | oy | ooy |
| ɞʉ | ɞːʉ | ɔu | ɔːu | ow | oow |
Prosody
Stress
Intonation
Phonotactics
Syllable structure is (C)V(C), where V is any vowel or diphthong.
The consonants that can be geminated at syllable boundaries are: m, n, l, and r.
The consonants ', b, x, kh, d, r, s, sh, c, g, f, q, l, n, and h occur syllable-finally. The consonants p, ch, t, th, gh, k, m and ny cannot occur syllable-finally (although there are exceptions for t, k, and m). They undergo the following neutralizations:
p → b (or, in some cases, w)
t, th → d
k, gh → g
ny → yn, sometimes y
non-geminated m → n (m before b)
J and dh may occur in coda in a loanwords, although they are usually replaced with sh and r respectively. For example, xaj "Hajj", ogsaydh "oxide". T, k, and m may also occur in a few words, mostly of Arabic origin. In amany cases, variants with the expected d, g, or n exist. For example, xikmad "wisdom" (also xigmad), fitno "trial, temptation" (also fidno), muslim "Muslim" (also muslin), amni "safety, security" (NOT *anni).
The consonants p, th, gh, and ch do not occur word-initially in native words. They come from intervocalic -b-, -d/t-, -g/k-, and -lt- respectively (the modern intervocalic b, d/t, and g/k come from geminated consonants). When word-initial in loanwords, p and gh are pronounced /p/ and /ɣ̠~ʁ/ instead of the regular /β/ and /ɣ/.
Vowels cannot occur in hiatus. Instead, epithetic consonants such as ', y, and w are inserted in between.
Morphophonology
Sandhi
At morpheme boundaries, the following changes occur (for endings beginning in a consonant, these changes apply after syllable-final neutralizations):
t (2nd person/feminine endings, middle voice, definite article/modifiers):
- dropped after -d, dh – Exception: -d assimilates to -t- of the middle voice to form -t- (instead of the expected -d-)
- l + t → ch
- t → th after underlying -a, aa, e, ee, o, oo (note that -o and -e become a before th)
- t of the middle voice, if it occurs between vowels after any applicable reductions, is softened to -th-
- t (of middle voice) + t, n → t, nn
k (definite article/modifiers):
- dropped after -', x, kh, c, g, q, h
- k → h after final -a, e, o (which then assimilate to the following vowel)
s (middle causative)
- l + s → sh
Vowels
- An a, e, or final -o followed by one of the "guttural" consonants (', x, c, or h) assimilates to the following vowel. If the following vowel is o, they can either become a or o. e.g.ma dhoho or ma dhaho "he does not say"
- Unstressed vowels are often dropped before vowel-initial endings if it will not violate phonotactics.
- e.g. gacan (stem: gacam-) + -ooyn → gacmooyn "hands" (not *gacamooyn)
- Sometimes metathesis is involved.
- e.g. culus "(he/she is) heavy" + -aan → cuslaan "(they are) heavy" (not *culsaan)
Morphology
Pronouns
Personal Pronouns
| Independent | Clitic | Possessive3 | With locative particles | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Stressed | Unstressed | Subject1 | Object2 | + ún | + ká | + kú | + lá | ||
1 Clitic subject pronouns are optional and are often dropped unless needed for clarity or emphasis. For further emphasis, the independent forms may be used. In the plural, the clitic forms un, isin, and isho are formal; the more commonly used forms are an, ad, and ish respectively.
2 Third person object pronouns are only used for humans and (anthropomorphized) animals.
3 Masculine forms are shown (the corresponding feminine forms begin in t-). Possessives may be used as modifiers, in which case they attach to the noun, or independently as possessive pronouns.
4 Used for impersonal passive. Although it is technically a subject pronoun, it behaves as an object pronoun (but always comes before any true object pronouns).
K/T Pronouns
The k/t determiners (including possessives and the definite article) can be used independently as pronouns. They pluralize by inserting the infix -uw- after the k of the masculine singular.
- e.g. kan "this (one), m.", tan "this (one), f.", kuwan "these (ones)"
- ki "the one, m.", ti "the one, f.", kuwi "the ones"
There is an additional k/t pronoun with no determiner equivalent:
- ko, to, kuwo: one/ones (indefinite) - e.g. ko kale "another one"
Nouns
Plural is formed with -ooyn (definite: -ooyki) or -yaal (definite: -yaalki). The ending -yaal is used for nouns (mostly masculine) ending in -e or -i, e.g. tuke "crow" → tukeyaal. All other nouns take the ending -ooyn. For feminine nouns ending in -o, the -o becomes a and an epithetic th is added before the ending. For example, maghaalo "city" + -ooyn → maghaalathooyn "cities". Masculine nouns assimilate the -o to the ending.
Some words (mostly body parts) have a "short" plural in -o (definite: -ihi) in addition to the "long" plural in -ooyn/yaal. In the case of body parts, the short plural is when they belong to one person.
e.g. Gacantisho taagheen. = They raised their hand (i.e. each person raised a hand; hand is in singular).
- Gacmihisho taagheen. = They raised their hands (i.e. each person raised both hands; hand is in short plural).
- Gacmihi la taaghi. = The hands (of a single person; hand is in short plural) were raised.
- Gacmooyki la taaghi. = The hands (of multiple people; hand is in long plural) were raised.
For other words, the short plural is used as a pseudo-collective noun.
Particles
K/T Determiners
The definite article attaches to the noun and is subject to sandhi rules.
- Masculine/Plural: -ki
- Feminine: -ti
There is also a remote definite article.
- Masculine/Plural: -kíi
- Feminine: -tíi
- Does not affect tonation of the word.
Other determiners that behave similarly to the definite article:
- Possessives (see Personal Pronouns)
- Demonstratives:
- -kan/tan: this, these
- -kaas/taas: that, those
- Interrogative:
- -kée/tée: which
- Causes any high tones in the word to be dropped.
- -kée/tée: which
Negation Particles
The negation particles are ma, an, ha, and ya. Each of these serves a different function.
- ma is the default negation particle in main clauses and is used with the indicative. e.g. ma qapi "I do not have".It can combine to clitic subject pronouns:
- ma + an(an) → maan(an) (for (an), see the next point)
- ma + ad/athan → maad/maathan
- ma + us(an) → maws(an)
- ma + ish(an) → maysh(an)
- ma + un(an) → mawn(an)
- ma + isin(an) → maysin(an)
- ma + isho(n) → maysho(n)
- an has two functions:
- It is used to form negative subject pronouns, which replace clitic subjects in negative clauses. e.g. ma anan qapin "I did not have", compare an qapi "I had". In this usage, an is optional and may be dropped - e.g. ma an qapin. It combines to clitic subjects:
- ad + an → athan
- isho + an → ishon
- The rest simply add -an - i.e. anan, usan, ishan, unan, isinan
- It is also used as the sole negation particle in subordinate clauses. Since negation is shown on the verb, it is also optional here. e.g. ninkii (an) af soomaali aqiin "the man who does not know Somali". Note that in this usage, an prefers clause-initial position (although something like ninkii af soomaali an aqiin would not be incorrect).
- It is used to form negative subject pronouns, which replace clitic subjects in negative clauses. e.g. ma anan qapin "I did not have", compare an qapi "I had". In this usage, an is optional and may be dropped - e.g. ma an qapin. It combines to clitic subjects:
- ha is used in the negative imperative. e.g. ha bixin "don't leave".
- ya is used to negate the jussive. e.g. ya usan bixin "don't let him leave". Like ma, ya can combine with clitic subjects. e.g. yawsan bixin.
Focus Particles
Focus particles are used with main clause verbs. They are wáa, waxa, aa, and their interrogative equivalents (more may be added later).
- waa optionally precedes a main affirmative verb. It is used to indicate that the verb is NOT being used adjectivally and puts emphasis on the verb.
- e.g. ninki bixi "the man left" OR "the man who left"; ninki wáa bixi "the man left" or "the man left"
- minki cad "the house is white" OR "the white house"; minki wáa cad "the house is white" or "the house is white"
- The interrogative equivalent of waa is maa.
- e.g. ninki maa bixi? "did the man leave?"
- waa and maa can combine to clitic subjects as follows:
- waa + an → waan
- waa + ad → waad
- waa + us → woos
- waa + ish → weesh
- waa + un → woon
- waa + isin → weesin
- waa + isho → weesho
- waxa is used before a main verb when the object follows the verb, allowing for a SVO word order. It literally means the thing. It places emphasis on the object.
- e.g. ninki waxa qaathi qalin "the man took a pen" (literally: "the thing the man took (was) a pen")
- The interrogative equivalent of waxa is maxa.
- e.g. ninki maxa qaathi qalin? "did the man take a pen?"
- waxa and maxa can combine to clitic subjects as follows:
- waxa + an → waxan
- waxa + ad → waxad
- waxa + us → wuxus
- waxa + ish → wixish
- waxa + un → wuxun
- waxa + isin → wixisin
- waxa + isho → wixisho
- aa put emphasis on a noun (either subject or object). It follows the noun being emphasized.
- e.g. ninki aa qalinki qaathi/qalinki ninki aa qaathi "the man took the pen" (or "the pen took the man")
- The interrogative equivalent of aa is ma - aa (i.e. aa is kept and the noun is preceded by ma).
- e.g. ma ninki aa qalinki qaathi? "did the man take the pen?" (or "did the pen take the man?)
- aa can combine to clitic subjects in the same way as waa.
- waxa can be combined with aa to form waxaa, which is used when the subject follows the verb. It places emphasis on the subject.
- e.g. qalinki waxaa qaathi ninki "the man took the pen" (literally: what took the pen (was) the man")
- The interrogative equivalent of waxaa is maxaa.
- e.g. qalinki maxaa qaathi ninki? "did the man take the pen?"
Adjectives
Adjectives are not declined for gender. However, they may optionally be conjugated for time (following the stative conjugation).
e.g. min yar "a small house", min yaraay "a house that was small"
Adjectives can be reduplicated or take stative endings to show plurality, or the singular forms may be used.
e.g. minooyn yaryar/yaraan "small houses" (also minooyn yar)
Verbs
There are three main classes of verbs: the suffix, prefix, and stative conjugations.
Class I: Suffix Conjugation
The suffix conjugation is the most common and productive verb class. It can be divided into 5 conjugation groups:
- Conjugation 1: Root verbs
- Conjugation 2: -am- (passive) verbs
- Conjugation 3 (A, B): -ish- (causative) verbs
- Conjugation 4 (A, B, C): -at- (middle) verbs
- Conjugation 5 (A, B): -w/p- verbs
Conjugation 1
Root verbs with no extra affixes. e.g. keeni "to bring" (stem: keen-)
(Note: –́ = penultimate high tone; ˊ– = initial high tone)
| Infinitive | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Verbal Noun (f.) | ||||||||||||
| Present Affirmative | Present Subjunctive | Past Affirmative | Past Negative | Imperative Affirmative | Imperative Negative | |||||||
Conjugation 2
Passive verbs derived from lexically causative verbs with the passive affix -am-. When derived from a Conjugation 3 verb, the -sh- becomes a -s-, giving the combined affix -isam-. There are two competing paradigms for Conjugation 2 verbs: the first treats them as a Conjugation 1 verb, with the -am affix behaving as a part of the stem, while the second is a hybrid of Conjugations 1 and 4.
e.g. xirmi "to close (INTR), get closed" (stem: xir-am-)
| Infinitive | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Verbal Noun (f.) | ||||||||||||
| Present Affirmative | Present Subjunctive | Past Affirmative | Past Negative | Imperative Affirmative | Imperative Negative | |||||||
| Infinitive | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Verbal Noun (f.) | ||||||||||||
| Present Affirmative | Present Subjunctive | Past Affirmative | Past Negative | Imperative Affirmative | Imperative Negative | |||||||
Conjugision 3A
Verbs derived from root verbs with the causisive affix -ish-. The sh combines with t and n to form s and nn respectively. e.g. karín "to cook" (stem: kar-ish-).
| Infinitive | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Verbal Noun (f.) | ||||||||||||
| Present Affirmative | Present Subjunctive | Past Affirmative | Past Negative | Imperative Affirmative | Imperative Negative | |||||||
Conjugation 3B
Verbs derived from nouns/adjectives with the causative affix -aash- (from -aa- + -(i)sh-).
Conjugation 4A
Verbs with the middle affix -o/at-. When derived from Conjugation 3 verbs, the -sh- becomes -s-, giving the combined affix -so/sat-. Depending on the stem, there may or may not be reductions. e.g. xirán "to put on" (stem: xir-at-), karsán "to cook for oneself" (stem: kar-s-at-).
| Infinitive | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Verbal Noun (f.) | ||||||||||||
| Present Affirmative | Present Subjunctive | Past Affirmative | Past Negative | Imperative Affirmative | Imperative Negative | |||||||
| Infinitive | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Verbal Noun (f.) | ||||||||||||
| Present Affirmative | Present Subjunctive | Past Affirmative | Past Negative | Imperative Affirmative | Imperative Negative | |||||||
Conjugation 4B
Verbs derived from nouns/adjectives (generally adjectives) with the affix -oow/aaath- (from -aa- + -aat-). Class III verbs all have a Conjugaation 4B counterpart, which is used inchoaatively or continuaatively. They share infinitive and imperaative forms. e.g. ahaan "to be" (Class III) or "to become/remain" (Conjugaation 4B).
| Infinitive | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Verbal Noun (f.) | ||||||||||||
| Present Affirmaative | Present Subjunctive | Past Affirmaative | Past Negaative | Imperaative Affirmaative | Imperaative Negaative | |||||||
Conjugation 4C
Verbs derived from nouns/adjectives (generally nouns ending in -o) with the affix -oow/ooth- (from -o + -aa- + -at-).
Conjugation 5A
Verbs derived from nouns/adjectives (generally nouns) with the affix -oow/oop-.
Conjugation 5B
Verbs derived from nouns/adjectives (generally nouns) with the affix -oow/aap-.
Class II: Prefix Conjugation
Class III: Stative Conjugation
Tense, Aspect, Mood, and Voice
Syntax
Constituent order
The most common (and underlying) word-order is SOV.
Noun phrase
- Cardinal numbers come before the noun. If a cardinal number is present, the singular form of the noun is used.
- nimooyn "men" BUT afar nin "four men" (afar nimooyn is also acceptable)
- Adjectives and determiners other than cardinal numbers come after the noun.
- The definite article and other suffixed determiners attach to the noun unless it is preceded by a cardinal number, in which case they attach to the number.
- nimooyki "the men" BUT afarti nin "the four men"
- Possessive phrases can be formed in two ways:
- a) Genitive construction
- minki Shariif = Shariif's house (lit. the house (of) Shariif)
- b) Possessive determiner
- Shariif minkiis = Shariif's house (lit. Shariif his house)
- a) Genitive construction
Verb phrase
(Subject Pronoun) + Object Pronoun + Locative Particle + Negation (+ Clitic Subject Pronoun) + Relational Particle + Verb
Clitic subject pronouns come after the negation particle if present. Otherwise, they go at the beginning (in which case either the clitic or non-clitic forms may be used).